The State as secular church,[1]morality as a political weapon[2]
Joxe Azurmendi Otaegi (19 March 1941 – 1 July 2025) was aBasque writer, philosopher, essayist and poet. He published numerous articles and books on ethics, politics, the philosophy oflanguage,technique,Basque literature and philosophy in general.[3]
Azurmendi was member ofJakin and the director ofJakin irakurgaiak, a publishing house which has published over 40 books under his management. He also collaborated with theKlasikoak[4] publishing firm in the Basque translations of various philosophical works and was one of the founders ofUdako Euskal Unibertsitatea (TheBasque Summer University).[5] He has been Professor of Modern Philosophy and a lecturer atEuskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (The University of the Basque Country).[6] In 2010 he was awarded the title "honorary academic" byEuskaltzaindia (The Basque Language Academy).[7]
He was an intellectual who studied the problem more than the solution. Azurmendi's essays cover modern European topics in great depth and knowledge. He has incorporated the philosophy and thinking of European thinkers, especially German ones. He often adopted a polemic tone.[8]
Azurmendi was, in the opinion of many, one of the most prolific and erudite thinkers in theBasque Country.[9][10]
At the beginning of the 1960s, he joined the cultural movement which grew up around the magazineJakin, and was in fact the director of the publication when it was prohibited for the first time byFranco's regime. He has collaborated closely and uninterruptedly with the magazine since its restoration. In that publication, he has raised the problems of Basque society in the context of European thinkers.[12][13] During the early 1970s, he focused his attention on disseminating basic literature in theBasque language on subjects which were being hotly debated at the time in the Basque Country:nationhood,socialism,internationalism,[14] etc. In the 1980s, he began teaching atThe University of the Basque Country, and in 1984 he submitted his thesis onJose Maria Arizmendiarrieta, the founder of theMondragon cooperative movement, in which he argued that Arizmendiarrieta's project aimed to uniteindividuals and society under an organisation which combined bothsocialism and Frenchpersonalism.[15]
In 1992, he published what was to become his best-known work:Espainolak eta euskaldunak (The Spanish and the Basques). The work, published by Elkar, was written in response to a text bySánchez-Albornoz which claimed that "The Basques are the last people to be civilised in Spain; they have a thousand years less civilisation than any other people ... They are rough, simple people who nevertheless consider themselves to be the children of God and the heirs to his glory. But they are really nothing more than un-Romanised Spaniards."[16] Azurmendi's essay refuted and dismantled the stereotypes maintained about the Basques by certain Spanish intellectuals.[17]
It was on the threshold of the new millennium, however, that Azurmendi's work reached its height. During the early years of the 21st century, he published the trilogy formed byEspainiaren arimaz (About the soul of Spain) (2006, Elkar),Humboldt. Hizkuntza eta pentsamendua (Humboldt. Language and Thought) (2007, UEU) andVolksgeist. Herri gogoa (Volksgeist. National Character) (2008, Elkar). In this trilogy, Joxe Azurmendi reveals some of his most significant thinking.
In 2009, Azurmendi published his most personal work,Azken egunak Gandiagarekin (The last days with Gandiaga), where he reflected on different forms of rationality withinphilosophy of science,philosophy of religion andphilosophical anthropology. The main thesis he defended was that scientific rationality has left us without the necessary language to deal with the meaning of life.[18]
Azurmendi died inSan Sebastián on 1 July 2025, at the age of 84.[19][20] According to his wishes, there was no wake or public funeral.[21]
Video highlighting the philosophical contributions made by Azurmendi (English subtitles)
All of Azurmendi's philosophical work was a defense of freedom of thought and conscience. The Human-Animal is one of the basic categories developed to carry out his work. This concept unified his thought, which was not a closed system.[22] His work emerged and developed during a period marked by a crisis of culture, politics andvalues.[23] But it was a crisis that he understood not as something negative, but rather something that opened up a whole new range of possibilities. Consequently, all his thinking was centred around the defence offreedom in every field, but especially in relation toconscience andthinking.
Far from fleeing the crisis, then, his work tries to outline how we can live in this situation. To this end, he adopts arelativist perspective, and given thatmodernity has left us with no solid base, he fights against the last vestiges of thedogmatism towards which our society tends to lean when in crisis:
"The proclamation of relativism is provocative. ... I am not particularly interested in being an apostle of relativism. But as I come from a dogmatic culture [Franco's regime], I'm allergic to some things. Truth, Reason and absolute correction were Catholic in that culture. Now I hear that postmodern relativism is the cause of the moral misery and the loss of values. It is seen that there is a nostalgia of dogmatic culture, disguised with some democratic and enlightened discourse. That dogmatic culture has relativism as its enemy, for that reason I claim this convicted relativism. But it is not an absolute relativism."[24]
In this sense, for example, he is critical of the modernstate, which he accuses of being the newchurch seeking to control our consciences.[1] He also criticises the exploitation ofmorality, or in other words, how politicians, instead of solving the problems facing them in their various areas or fields, flee instead to moral ground to hide their responsibilities under the cloak of supposedly absolute moral principles:
"In the mean time, what is the point of repeating the old tale as to what the state is becoming? Once the sour critical analysis of sometime ago (Herbert Marcuse:One-Dimensional Man), the dark negative utopias (Aldous Huxley,George Orwell[25]) and the protest cries (May 68) are forgotten, and with a near lack of the slightest sense of resistance in civil society, the cobweb of power spins peacefully over our heads, all over the place. Even the dressing room."[2]
He also made an important contribution in questioning the canonical interpretations which have been constructed regarding different issues. Of particular interest, due to his erudition and training in Germany, is his interpretation of theGerman Enlightenment. In this context he deconstructed the apparent opposition between theFrench Enlightenment and GermanRomanticism and proposed a new way of thinking about the different aspects which stem from this opposition.[26] In this way, he defies certain Spanish and French intellectuals (Alain Finkielkraut[27]) and argued thatnationalism in fact arose in France (Montesquieu,Voltaire,Rousseau,Ernest Renan) and was later reinterpreted by the German thinkers and romantics. By doing this, he questioned the way in which authors such asGoethe,Schiller,Herder orHumboldt are viewed as the fathers ofmetaphysical nationalism. In this field, the opposition betweencivic nationalism andethnic nationalism was deconstructed.[28] Thus, Azurmendi criticizes theessentialist basis of Spanish nationalism[29] and French nationalism[30] that operates under thesenation states.
Some of the topics Azurmendi deeply developed in his essays first appeared in his poetry of youth. Azurmendi was within the Basque poetry of the 1960s which shows the fight against the tradition, the old faith and the dogmatic certainties:[31][32][33]
But we wish to be free is that my fault? They tried to give us a tree fromGernika, a false blank check, as if the desire to be free were a sin, as if we needed an excuse for it, but despite that, we, quite simply, wish to be free. That is what we want, that is all. This is the latest deception: they have led us to believe before from outside and now from within that it is our responsibility to justify our wish to be free.
He also dedicated a large part of his work to recovering and reinterpreting Basque thinkers, breaking through and dismantling numerous stereotypes. Of particular interest is his research intoJon Mirande,Orixe,[35]Unamuno[36][37][38] and others. He was an author who worked from within and for Basque culture. He claimed to have been influenced by Basque authors[39] from the post-war period, for example, in questions of language. In this field, he researched other authors also, includingHeidegger,Wittgenstein,George Steiner andHumboldt. The fact that his vast oeuvre is all written in theBasque language is clearly consistent with his thinking.
In his language, Joxe Azurmendi combined an educated register with colloquial expressions, and his prose is fast, incisive, and ironic. Azurmendi'sBasque is modern and standard and he demonstrated great knowledge of the language, and richness and variety of expression.[40]
In later years, important steps were taken to make Azurmendi's work known.[41] In the last decade, for example, all of his work was digitized; several articles were written, many of them by his former students; courses on his thought were organized and several magazines published monographs.
Later, more systematic lines of research were initiated. For example, at the University of the Basque Country (EHU) three doctoral theses which take Azurmendi as a reference have already been presented and didactic proposals have also been made to incorporate his thought into the curriculum of the Basque teaching system.[42]
Lately, several Basque authors have opened a line of research to put Azurmendi's thought in dialogue withfeminism. In this sense, the researcher Mikel Urdangarin has compared in his doctoral thesis the model of the subject developed by Azurmendi in his work and the model that has been developed by several feminist authors such asSimone de Beauvoir,Silvia Federici,Monique Wittig,Maria Mies,Judith Butler orVandana Shiva.[43]
2014: Digitization of the entire work of Joxe Azurmendi by The Council of Gipuzkoa[50]
2015:Euskadi Literatura Saria Award, in the essay category, for the work:Historia, arraza, nazioa (History, race, nation).[51]
2019:Joxe Azurmendi Congress hosted by Joxe Azurmendi Katedra and University of the Basque Country[52]
2025: Nearly a hundred people from Basque culture took part in a collective tribute to Azurmendi’s life, work and thought, published in the journalJakin issue 269/270. That issue was rounded off by a piece which gathers together anonymous messages of condolence received byJakin in the days following his passing.[53]
Mirande eta kristautasuna (Mirande and Christianity) (1978, GAK)
Arana Goiriren pentsamendu politikoa (The political thinking ofArana Goiri) (1979, Hordago Lur)
Nazionalismo Internazionalismo Euskadin (Nationalism Internationalism in the Basque Country) (1979, Hordago Lur)
PSOE eta euskal abertzaletasuna (The Spanish Socialist Party and Basque Nationalism) (1979, Hordago Lur)
El hombre cooperativo. Pensamiento de Arizmendiarrieta (Cooperative Man.Arizmendiarrieta's thinking) (1984, Lan Kide Aurrezkia)
Translated into Japanese as ホセ・アスルメンディ:アリスメンディアリエタの協同組合哲学 ( 東大和 : みんけん出版 , 1990)ISBN4-905845-73-4
Filosofía personalista y cooperación. Filosofía de Arizmendiarrieta (Personalist philosophy and cooperation. Arizmendiarrieta's philosophy) (1984, EHU)
Gizaberearen bakeak eta gerrak (War and Peace according to the Human Animal) (1991, Elkar)
Espainolak eta euskaldunak (The Spanish and the Basques) (1992, Elkar)
Translated into Spanish as Azurmendi, Joxe:Los españoles y los euskaldunes, Hondarribia: Hiru, 1995.ISBN978-84-87524-83-7
Karlos Santamaria. Ideiak eta ekintzak (Karlos Santamaria. Ideas and Action) (1994, The Gipuzkoa Provincial Council (unpublished))
La idea cooperativa: del servicio a la comunidad a su nueva creación (The cooperative idea: from the community service toward its new creation) (1996, Gizabidea Fundazioa)
Demokratak eta biolentoak (The Democrats and the Violent) (1997, Elkar)
Teknikaren meditazioa (Meditations on Technique) (1998, Kutxa Fundazioa)
Oraingo gazte eroak (The Mad Youth of Today) (1998,Enbolike)
El hecho catalán. El hecho portugués (The Catalan fact. The Portuguese fact) (1999, Hiru)
Euskal Herria krisian (The Basque Country in Crisis) (1999, Elkar)
La violencia y la búsqueda de nuevos valores (The violence and the search for new values) (2001, Hiru)
La presencia de Nietzsche en los pensadores vascos Ramiro de Maeztu y Jon Mirande (TheNietzsche's presence in the Basque thinkersRamiro de Maeztu andJon Mirande) (2002, Euskalerriaren Adiskideen Elkartea)
Etienne Salaberry. Bere pentsamenduaz (1903–2003) (Etienne Salaberry. About his Thinking (1903–2003)) (2003, Egan)
Espainiaren arimaz (About the soul of Spain) (2006, Elkar)
Volksgeist. Herri gogoa (Volksgeist. National Character) (2007, Elkar)
Humboldt. Hizkuntza eta pentsamendua (Humboldt. Language and Thought) (2007, UEU)
Azken egunak Gandiagarekin (The last days with Gandiaga) (2009, Elkar)
^KlasikoakArchived 14 June 2013 at theWayback Machine, Collection of translations into the Basque language of the classics of universal thought (website of EHU)
^Andoni Olariaga: "Joxe Azurmendi. Askatasunaren pentsalaria" in Alaitz Aizpuru,Eukal Herriko pentsamenduaren gida, Bilbo: UEU, 2012. p. 147
^Joxe Azurmendi at The University of the Basque Country (EHU)
^Altzibar, Xabier. "The Essay in Basque" in Mari Jose Olaziregi (ed.),Basque Literary History, Reno, Center for Basque Studies/University of Nevada, pp. 283–84
^Altzibar, Xabier. "The Essay in Basque" in Mari Jose Olaziregi (ed.),Basque Literary History, Reno: Center for Basque Studies/University of Nevada, 2012
^Iturriotz, Ander (2010). "Zergatik Azurmendi?",Hegats, 45: 9–15.
^Preface of Gandiaga in Joxe Azurmendi:Hitz berdeak, Oñati: EFA, 1971
^Sudupe, Pako:50eko hamarkadako euskal literatura II, Donostia: Utriusque Vasconiae, 2011. p. 283.
^Many editorials, new journals, and even a summer university were established with the aim of creating strategic institutions to modernise Basque culture. Azurmendi, Haritz & Garmendia, Alba (2019): Basque ‘68 in Light of Cultural Nationalism and Critical Utopia,Studies in Arts and Humanities, 5 (1), p. 90
^Andoni Olariaga: "Joxe Azurmendi. Askatasunaren pentsalaria" in Alaitz Aizpuru,Euskal Herriko pentsamenduaren gida, Bilbo: UEU, 2012. p. 149
^Joxe Azurmendi:Espainolak eta euskaldunak, Donostia: Elkar, 1992. p. 17.
^Azurmendi, Haritz & Garmendia, Alba (2019): Basque ‘68 in Light of Cultural Nationalism and Critical Utopia,Studies in Arts and Humanities, 5 (1), pp. 88- 90.
^Arrieta, Agustin (2013): "Eranskina: Joxe Azurmendiren Azken egunak Gandiagarekin" inArimak eta balioak, Donostia: Jakin. p. 100
^Zapiain, Markos (2025): Ez dakizun tren baten zain,Jakin, (269/270). ISSN O211/495X
^Urdangarin, Mikel (2024):Gizaberetxo komunitario burujabea: Joxe Azurmendi eta feminismoak subjektuaren inguruko elkarrizketan, Doctoral thesis, EHU. pp. 76-94.
^Azurmendi, Haritz & Garmendia, Alba (2019): Basque ‘68 in Light of Cultural Nationalism and Critical Utopia,Studies in Arts and Humanities, 5 (1), p. 79
^Joxe Azurmendi: "The Basques are Argonauts with very fragile ships", Interview inHegats (45), p. 209.
^Azurmendi asserts how Nineteen Eighty-Four is the history of the rationality of Europe – how the absolute rational and scientific State-control identifies society and State, with no other place for the individual. The individual is a mere gear inside the State. The State knows the truth; the individual wanders in subjectivity. Azurmendi, Haritz & Garmendia, Alba (2019): Basque ‘68 in Light of Cultural Nationalism and Critical Utopia,Studies in Arts and Humanities, 5 (1), p. 83.
^Joxe Azurmendi:Volksgeist. Herri gogoa, Donostia: Elkar, 2008. p. 129.
^Joxe Azurmendi:Euskal Herria krisian, Donostia: Elkar, 1999. p.119
^Joxe Azurmendi:Historia, arraza, nazioa, Donostia: Elkar, 2014. p. 27.
^Orixe was revisited critically by Azurmendi, who praised his talent but condemned his anti-modern response to an endangered culture. Azurmendi, Haritz & Garmendia, Alba (2019): Basque ‘68 in Light of Cultural Nationalism and Critical Utopia,Studies in Arts and Humanities, 5 (1), p. 92
^Joxe Azurmendi: "Unamunoren atarian" inEuskal Herriko pentsamenduaren gida, Bilbo: UEU, 2012. p. 29.
^Joxe Azurmendi:Bakea Gudan. Unamuno, historia eta karlismoa, Tafalla: Txalaparta, 2012. Azurmendi delves into the thinking of Unamuno, under the pretext of the novelPaz en la guerra by Unamuno, which deals with the last Carlist War and especially with the site of Bilbo. It therefore turned out in an interpretive essay on the conflictCarlism vs. liberalism, or in other words, in an interpretive essay on Basque Country and Modernity. According to Azurmendi Unamuno analyzed and rejected the Basque problem from a 19th-century point of view
^Joxe Azurmendi: "Kierkegaard-en 'egunkari ezkutua'", in J.L. Ormaetxea,Txillardegi lagun giroan, Bilbo: UEU, 2000
^Altzibar, Xabier 2012. "The Essay in Basque", in Mari Jose Olaziregi,Basque Literary History, Reno: Center for Basque Studies/University of Nevada. p. 284
^Urdangarin, Mikel 2024:Gizaberetxo komunitario burujabea: Joxe Azurmendi eta feminismoak subjektuaren inguruko elkarrizketan, Doctoral thesis, EHU. pp. 50-52
^Azurmendi, Haritz 2024: “Sarbide bat Joxe Azurmendiren pentsamendura Bigarren Hezkuntzari begira” in Haritz Azurmendi, Alba Garmendia and Jon Mentxakatorre (eds.):Euskal pentsamenduaren garabideak, Bilbo, UEU. pp. 43-66.
^Urdangarin, Mikel 2024:Gizaberetxo komunitario burujabea: Joxe Azurmendi eta feminismoak subjektuaren inguruko elkarrizketan, Doctoral thesis, EHU
Altzibar, Xabier (2011): "XX. mendeko euskal literatura: saiakera" in Mari Jose Olaziregi,Euskal literaturaren historia, Donostia: EIZEIISBN978-84-615-0546-3. English edition: Olaziregi, Mari Jose (2012).Basque Literary History, Reno: Center for Basque Studies/University of Nevada.ISBN978-1-935709-19-0 (pbk.).
Azurmendi, Haritz (2019):Joxe Azurmendiren nazioa Nazionalismo Ikerketen argitan. Abertzaletasun kulturalaren defentsa Euskal Herri garaikidean, Doctoral thesis, EHU.
Azurmendi, Haritz & Garmendia, Alba (2019): Basque ‘68 in Light of Cultural Nationalism and Critical Utopia,Studies in Arts and Humanities, 5 (1): pp. 77-97. ISSN 2009-8278
Azurmendi, Haritz; Garmendia, Alba and Mentxakatorre, Jon (eds.) (2024):Euskal pentsamenduaren garabideak, Bilbo, UEU.ISBN978-84-8438-906-4
del Olmo, Karlos (2013): "Joxe Azurmendi: Espainolak eta euskaldunak (1992)" inEgungo euskal saiakeraren historia, Bilbo: EHU.ISBN978-84-9860-829-8.
Eizagirre, Xabier & Zabaleta, Iñaki (2021):Pentsamendu bat gure munduari. Joxe Azurmendi Kongresua, Andoain, Jakin.ISBN978-84-949759-2-9
Gandiaga, Bitoriano (1971): “Autoreaz eta liburuaz” in Azurmendi, Joxe:Hitz Berdeak, EFA.
