John Sullivan
Judge of theUnited States District Court for the District of New Hampshire
In office September 26, 1789 – January 23, 1795
Appointed by	George Washington
Preceded by	Seat established by 1 Stat. 73
Succeeded by	John Pickering
3rd Governor of New Hampshire
In office January 22, 1789 – June 5, 1790
Preceded by	John Langdon
Succeeded by	Josiah Bartlett
In office June 7, 1786 – June 4, 1788
Preceded by	John Langdon
Succeeded by	John Langdon
Personal details
Born	John Sullivan (1740-02-17)February 17, 1740 Somersworth,Province of New Hampshire,British America
Died	January 23, 1795(1795-01-23) (aged 54) Durham, New Hampshire, U.S.
Resting place	Durham, New Hampshire, U.S.
Political party	Federalist
Children	George Sullivan
Relatives	James Sullivan
Education	read law
Signature
Military service
Allegiance	United States
Branch/service	Continental Army
Years of service	1775-1779
Rank	Major general
Battles/wars	American Revolutionary War Siege of Boston Invasion of Quebec Battle of Long Island  (POW) Battle of Trenton Battle of Princeton Battle of Staten Island Battle of Germantown Battle of Brandywine Battle of Rhode Island Sullivan Expedition

Major GeneralJohn Sullivan (February 17, 1740 – January 23, 1795) was aContinental Army officer, politician and judge who served in theAmerican Revolutionary War and participated in several key events of the conflict, most notablyGeorge Washington's crossing of the Delaware River.^[1] He was also adelegate to theContinental Congress, where Sullivan signed theContinental Association. After the war, he served as the thirdgovernor of New Hampshire and was appointed as aUnited States district judge of theDistrict Court for the District of New Hampshire.

Sullivan, the third son of American settlers, led theSullivan Expedition in 1779, ascorched earth campaign by the Continental Army which destroyed 40Iroquois villages, killed 200 Iroquois andforcibly displaced 5,000 Iroquois as refugees to British-controlledFort Niagara.^[2][3] There is a historiographical debate over whether or not the actions of Sullivan and his troops during the expedition constitutegenocide. As a member of Congress, Sullivan worked closely with the French ambassador to the United States, theChevalier de la Luzerne.

Born inSomersworth in theProvince of New Hampshire,British America,^[4] Sullivan was the third son of Irish settlers from theBeara Peninsula inCounty Cork, Ireland. His father was a schoolmaster.^[5] One of his brothers,James Sullivan, becamegovernor of Massachusetts.^[6] Another brother, Benjamin, served in theRoyal Navy and died before the American Revolution.^[7] A landing party fromHMS Allegiance captured another brother, Captain David Sullivan, on February 14, 1781, with David later dying of disease.^[8]

The father, John Owen ("Eoghan") O'Sullivan was the son of Philip O'Sullivan of Beare of Ardea,Tuosist, minor gentry inpenal Ireland and a scion of the O'Sullivan Beare Clan, Ardea Castle line.^[9] ThePenal Laws reduced them (as Catholics) to the legal status of peasants, although they retained their wealth and social standing. After emigrating toYork in the area theProvince of Massachusetts Bay that would eventually become the State ofMaine, in 1723, the elder John became a Protestant.^[10]

In 1760, Sullivan married Lydia Remick Worster ofKittery, now in Maine.^[7] John and Lydia Sullivan had six children, Margery, who died in infancy, Lydia, John, James,George (who served as aUnited States Representative from New Hampshire) and another Margery, who lived only two years.^[11]

Sullivanread law withSamuel Livermore ofPortsmouth, New Hampshire, between 1758 and 1760.^[7] He began the practice of law in 1763 atBerwick, now in Maine, and continued in the practice when he moved toDurham, New Hampshire, in 1764.^[7] He annoyed many neighbors in his early career, when he was the only lawyer in town, with numerous suits over foreclosures and was threatened with violence at least twice in 1766.^[12] But by 1772, he was firmly established and began work to improve his relations with the community.^[13] He also expanded his interests into milling from which he made a substantial income.^[11] In 1773,Alexander Scammell joined Sullivan's law practice.

Sullivan built a friendship with the royal governor of New Hampshire,John Wentworth, who had assumed the office in 1767.^[14][15] In November 1772, Wentworth appointed Sullivan a major in the militia.^[11] As the American Revolution grew nearer, Sullivan turned away from Wentworth and began to side more with thePatriots.^[16] On May 28, 1773, at the urging of the VirginiaHouse of Burgesses, the New Hampshire Assembly established acommittee of correspondence.^[17] Hoping to thwart the committee, Wentworth adjourned the Assembly the next day.^[17]

On December 16, 1773, colonists in Massachusetts destroyed tea worth 15,000 pounds at theBoston Tea Party to protest taxes under theTea Act.^[18] The British Parliament responded with theBoston Port Act, effective March 21, 1774, which closed the Port of Boston until restitution for the destroyed tea was made to theEast India Company.^[19] Parliament went on to pass the Massachusetts Government Act, which removed many functions of government from local control, theQuartering Act, which permitted quartering of troops in towns where there was disorder, and theQuebec Act, which established the Catholic religion and French civil law in that province.^[20]

Wentworth called a new Assembly, which began meeting on April 7, 1774.^[21] On May 13, news of the Boston Port Act reached the Assembly.^[21] On May 27, the Assembly provided for only five men and an officer to guardFort William and Mary at Portsmouth harbor.^[22] A new committee of correspondence was selected the next day.^[22] By the time Wentworth dissolved the Assembly on June 8, in an unsuccessful effort to prevent the Assembly from sending delegates to a Continental Congress, Sullivan was firmly in favor of supporting the Massachusetts Patriots.^[22][23]

In response to Wentworth's action dismissing the Assembly and the call for a Continental Congress to support Boston after the British sanctions against it, on July 21, 1774, the first Provincial Congress of New Hampshire met atExeter, with Sullivan as Durham's delegate.^[22][23] The assembly sent him andNathaniel Folsom as delegates to theFirst Continental Congress.^[23] The assembly adopted aDeclaration of Rights and Grievances on October 14, 1774.^[24] By November 8, Sullivan and Folsom were back in New Hampshire to work for acceptance of the Declaration and the Association of the colonies to support economic measures to achieve their objectives.^[24]

On October 19, 1774, a royal order in council prohibited the export of powder and arms to America, andLord Dartmouth secretly wrote to the colonial governors to secure gunpowder, arms and ammunition in the provinces.^[25] AfterPaul Revere was sent by the Massachusetts committee to warn the Portsmouth militia of a rumored British movement toward Fort William and Mary, the militiaraided the fort and seized gunpowder on December 14.^[25][26] Sullivan led another militia force on a second raid on December 15, taking 16 cannon, about 60 muskets and other stores.^[27][28] They were prevented from returning for other cannon and supplies by the arrival of the man-of-warCanceaux, followed two days later by the frigateScarborough.^[28] Wentworth refrained from seeking to arrest Sullivan and others because he thought he had little popular support and the militia would not act.^[29][30]

In January 1775, a second Provincial Congress at Exeter voted to send Sullivan andJohn Langdon to theSecond Continental Congress.^[31] Sullivan, supported by Folsom and Langdon, persuaded the assembly to petition Wentworth to call a New Hampshire Assembly that he would not dissolve.^[31] Wentworth responded by dismissing Sullivan from the militia and further postponing the meeting of the assembly.^[32] Since Wentworth believed he had little power to arrest Sullivan and other leaders of the extra–legal assembly, Sullivan and Langdon started traveling to Philadelphia.^[33] Upon arrival in Philadelphia, Sullivan joined those who argued that war had been started by the actions at theBattles of Lexington and Concord and that the colonies should proceed with it.^[34]

Congress soon decided that it must take charge of the army forming around Boston.^[35] It appointedGeorge Washington as commander in chief and several other generals, including Sullivan as a brigadier general.^[35] On June 27, 1775, Sullivan left Philadelphia to join the army at thesiege of Boston.^[36]

After the British evacuated Boston in the spring of 1776, Washington sent Brigadier General Sullivan north to replace the fallenJohn Thomas as commander inQuebec.^[37] He took command of the sick and faltering invasion force, sent some of those forces on an unsuccessful counterattack against the British atTrois-Rivières, and withdrew the survivors toCrown Point.^[38] This led to the first of several controversies between Congress and Sullivan, as they sought a scapegoat for the failedinvasion of northeastern Canada.^[39] He was exonerated and promoted to major general on August 9, 1776.^[40]

Sullivan rejoined Washington and was placed in command of the troops onLong Island to defend against BritishGeneral Howe's forces about to envelopNew York City.^[41] But then, on August 23, Washington split the command between Sullivan and GeneralIsrael Putnam, with Putnam being the senior general.^[41] Confusion about the distribution of command contributed to the American defeat at theBattle of Long Island four days later. Sullivan's personal bravery was unquestioned, as he engaged theHessian attackers atBattle Pass with a pistol in each hand; however, he was captured.^[42]

General Howe and his brother, AdmiralRichard Howe, managed to convince Sullivan that a conference with members of the Continental Congress might lead to peace, and released him on parole to deliver a message to the Congress inPhiladelphia,^[43] proposing an informal meeting to discuss ending the armed conflict between Britain and its rebellious colonies.^{[citation needed]} After Sullivan's speech to Congress,John Adams cynically commented on this diplomatic attempt, calling Sullivan a "decoy-duck" and accusing the British of sending Sullivan "to seduce us into a renunciation of our independence"; others noted that it appeared to be an attempt to blame Congress for prolonging the war.^[44][45] Congress did agree to apeace conference with the British, which led to no new progress.

General Sullivan was released in a prisoner exchange (for captured British officerRichard Prescott)^[46] in time to rejoin Washington before theBattle of Trenton. There his division secured the important bridge over theAssunpink Creek to the south of the town.^[47] This prevented escape and ensured the high number of Hessian prisoners captured.^[48] In January 1777, Sullivan also performed well in theBattle of Princeton.^[49]

In August, he spoke out against the neutrality ofQuakers in the American Revolution and leda raid on Staten Island. Again Congress found fault, but he was exonerated by the court of inquiry.^{[citation needed]} This was followed by American losses atBrandywine andGermantown. During the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777, he and his troops were bivouacked at Brinton's Ford adjacent toBrinton's Mill.^[50] Sullivan's men were attacked and sent into retreat by a surprise flanking attack at Brandywine but were eventually able to leave the field in good order when they were reinforced by troops under the command of GeneralNathanael Greene.^[51] In the initial attack at Germantown, Sullivan's men routed British light infantry.^[52] Heavy fog caused wrong turns and delayed troop movements ruined Washington's plan, and Sullivan's troops took on friendly fire.^[53]

In early 1778, Sullivan was transferred to the post of Rhode Island where he led Continental troops and militia. It was intended he work together with aFrench Navy fleet to assault or besiege British-heldNewport. The attempt was called off when the French fleet ofAdmiral d'Estaing was scattered and damaged by a storm.^[54] Owing to the damage to his ships and discouraged by the arrival of a British fleet underLord Howe, D'Estaing withdrew toBoston.^[55] The British garrison of Newport then sortied, forcing Sullivan into retreat after fighting the inconclusiveBattle of Rhode Island in August 1778. Sullivan wrote a letter to D'Estaing protesting what he saw as treachery and cowardice and describing it as "derogatory to the honor of France".^[56]

In the summer of 1779, Sullivan led ascorched earth campaign inWestern New York against theIroquois, who were allied to the British. Washington ordered the campaign, which came to be known as theSullivan Expedition, in response to several American defeats at Iroquois hands, such as theBattle of Wyoming andCherry Valley massacre.^[57][58] Sullivan and his troops destroyed 40 Iroquois villages and numerous crop fields, forcibly displacing 5,000 Iroquois to British-controlledFort Niagara. 200 Iroquois were killed by American troops, including several women and children.^[59] During the harsh winter of 1779–1780, several hundred more Iroquois died from starvation or disease at Fort Niagara.^[2][3]

During the expedition, Sullivan pushed his troops so hard that many of their horses weakened and died, creating the namesake for the town ofHorseheads, New York.^[60] The conduct of American troops during the expedition has been described asgenocidal by several scholars, though other describe it asethnic cleansing and some reject the label of genocide entirely.^{[61][62][63][64][65]} Sullivan returned from the expedition to a lukewarm response from Congress, which was more than he could accept. Disappointed by Congress' estimation of his expedition, Sullivan resigned from the Continental Army in 1779 and returned toNew Hampshire.^{[citation needed]}

At home Sullivan was seen as a hero.^[66] The New Hampshire legislature selected him as a delegate to the Continental Congress for one year to start in November 1780, against his wishes.^[67] Although most of the delegates to Congress were new,^[68] Sullivan still had opponents there. Nonetheless, he accepted the position in order that New Hampshire be represented in the controversy concerning claims to Vermont under theNew Hampshire Grants.^[69] In the absence of other delegates from New Hampshire except the soon to departNathaniel Folsom, Sullivan was seated early, on September 11, 1780.^[70] Immediately, Sullivan and Folsom had to deal with the question of whether Vermont would be part of New York or New Hampshire or would be independent.^[71] Ultimately, since possible negotiation of Vermont with the British to become a part of Canada was threatened, on August 3, 1781, Sullivan seconded appointment of a committee to negotiate with Vermont on becoming a separate state.^[72]

Congress also had to deal with a financial crisis since the treasury was empty and the Confederation's credit was poor.^[68] Sullivan served on a committee to deal with this problem.^[73][74] In late 1780 or early 1781, Sullivan, who often claimed to be in financial straits, borrowed money from the French minister to Congress, probably with no intent or expectation of repayment.^[75] Sullivan already supported positions favorable to the French in Congress, but historian Charles Whittemore describes Sullivan's conduct as "ethically obtuse" and as tarnishing his reputation.^[76] Yet, Sullivan worked to help the country and government on several matters such as seeking French financial support for the United States.^[75]

Later in the year, Sullivan worked to get people appointed as peace negotiators, especiallyBenjamin Franklin, who were favored by the French because they might not insist on western land claims and thereby help shorten the war by eliminating that issue.^[77] Of course, Sullivan alone could not have attained results on such matters without majority support.^[78] One of Sullivan's last acts was to vote forRobert Livingston for appointment to the position ofUnited States Secretary of Foreign Affairs.^[79] Having been seated early, and having dealt with the matters he believed he was required to deal with, Sullivan resigned from the Congress and departed from Philadelphia on August 11, 1781, a month before the expiration of a one-year term from the date he was seated.^[79]

Returning home to New Hampshire, Sullivan was named the state's attorney general in 1782 and served until 1786.^[4] During this same time he was elected to the state assembly and served as speaker of the House.^[4] He led the drive in New Hampshire that led to ratification of theUnited States Constitution on June 21, 1788.^[4] He was elected president of New Hampshire(now governor) in 1786, 1787 and 1789. During his first term as governor, he put down theExeter Rebellion. He was also a candidate for theUnited States House of Representatives in 1788.^[80]

Sullivan was nominated by President Washington on September 24, 1789, to theUnited States District Court for the District of New Hampshire, to a new seat authorized by 1 Stat. 73.^[4] He was confirmed by theUnited States Senate on September 26, 1789, and received his commission the same day.^[4] His ill health delayed his assumption of the post until after 1792.^[81]

Sullivan died in his home in Durham on January 23, 1795.^[81][4] He was interred in the family cemetery in Durham.^[82] Sullivan was firstGrand Master of theGrand Lodge of New Hampshire and had been a member ofSt. John's Lodge, in Portsmouth since 1767.^[83] Following the conclusion of the Revolutionary War, Sullivan became one of the original 31 members of TheSociety of the Cincinnati in the state of New Hampshire on November 18, 1783.^[84] He was elected the first President of the New Hampshire Society and served in that capacity until 1793.^[85]

In New Hampshire, both acounty and atown are named after him.^[86] TheGeneral Sullivan Bridge spanningLittle Bay near his home town of Durham is named for him.^[87] He is featured on aNew Hampshire historical marker (number 89) alongNew Hampshire Route 108 in Durham.^[88]

Counties inMissouri,New York, Pennsylvania, andTennessee, as well asSullivan, New York, are named for him,^[89] as isSullivan Street inGreenwich Village, Manhattan.^[90] Sullivan's Bridge, a bicycle and pedestrian bridge crossing theSchuylkill River atValley Forge National Historical Park, is named in his honor.^[91]Sullivan Trail is a road through northeast Pennsylvania that in many areas follows the road made by Sullivan's army in 1779. Part of the march route into Trenton is namedSullivan Way.

Bostonians still celebrate the evacuation of British forces each year onEvacuation Day, which coincides withSaint Patrick's Day. According to local legend, Sullivan used "Saint Patrick" as the official password the day he led Colonial troops into Boston.^[10]

• Biography portal

• Everest, Allan S.Moses Hazen and the Canadian Refugees in the American Revolution. Syracuse University Press, 1976.
• Fischer, David Hackett (2004).Washington's Crossing. New York: Oxford University Press US.ISBN 978-0195181593.OCLC 186017328.
• Golway, Terry.Washington's General: Nathanael Greene and the Triumph of the American Revolution. Owl Books, 2006.
• Gruber, Ira (1972).The Howe Brothers and the American Revolution. New York: Atheneum Press.OCLC 1464455.
• Trevelyan, Sir George Otto (1903).The American Revolution: 1766–1776. London & New York: Longmans, Green. p. 263.OCLC 8978164.Trevelyan The American Revolution howe adams – princeton.
• Upton, Richard Francis.Revolutionary New Hampshire: An Account of the Social and Political Forces Underlying the Transition from Royal Province to American CommonwealthArchived October 7, 2017, at theWayback Machine. Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College Publications, 1936.OCLC 753114879. Retrieved 2013-09-12.
• Whittemore, Charles P.A General of the Revolution: John Sullivan of New HampshireArchived March 27, 2016, at theWayback Machine. New York, Columbia University Press, 1961.OCLC 426098. Retrieved 2013-09-12
• Journals of the military expedition of Major General John Sullivan against the Six nations of Indians in 1779. Auburn, N.Y., Knapp, Peck & Thomson, Printers. 1887.

• Stephens, Karl F.Neither the Charm Nor the Luck: Major-General John Sullivan. Denver: Outskirts Press, 2009.ISBN 978-1432742287.

• United States Congress."John Sullivan (id: S001054)".Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
• John Sullivan at theBiographical Directory of Federal Judges, a publication of theFederal Judicial Center.
• Meredith, Gertrude E. (Gertrude Euphemia), b. 1852; Burke, Bernard, Sir, 1814–1892; Amory, Thomas C. (Thomas Coffin), 1812–1889 "Materials for a history of the family of John Sullivan of Berwick, New England, and of the O'Sullivans of Ardea, Ireland" pub 1893
• State Builders: An Illustrated Historical and Biographical Record of the State of New Hampshire. State Builders Publishing Manchester, N.H., 1903
• The Society of the Cincinnati
• The American Revolution Institute

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