John Locke (/lɒk/; 29 August 1632 (O.S.) – 28 October 1704 (O.S.))[11] was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential ofthe Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "father ofliberalism".[12][13][14] His important works includeA Letter Concerning Toleration (1689),Two Treatises of Government (1689/90), both published anonymously, andAn Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689/90). His writing on toleration contends that religion is a matter for the individual and that the churches are voluntary associations, ruling out religious coercion and uniformity; these lead to the idea of separation of church and state. HisTwo Treatises on Government argues for government based on the consent of the governed and the right to revolt against tyrannous government, which has lost consent. TheTwo Treatises had a direct influence on the language thatThomas Jefferson chose in his drafting the July 1776Declaration of Independence during theAmerican Revolution.
Locke lived through the tumultuous political era of theEnglish Civil War andCommonwealth of England after the execution of Charles I,Restoration of the Stuart monarchy, and the 1688Glorious Revolution. These experiences affected his political thinking and life choices. During theInterregnum, Locke won a place atChrist Church, Oxford after attending the prestigiousWestminster School. He spent 15 years at Oxford, first as a student, then as a tutor, pursuing medical and other scientific interests in a circle of friends. In 1666, Locke became an associate ofLord Shaftesbury, a key figure in English political life after the Restoration (1660), and Locke was appointed to governmental posts at Shaftesbury's recommendation. Locke was elected a Fellow of theRoyal Society (1668). When Shaftesbury fell from royal favor and died shortly thereafter, Locke went into political exile for five years in the Netherlands (1683–85). There he wrote some of his most important works. During this period, he gained the patronage ofThomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke. Locke returned to England from exile, accompanying Queen Mary II in 1689. He published three of his most notable works soon after his return. He served as aCommissioner of Trade and Plantations, then retired from public life due to ill health. For the last fourteen years of his life, he lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham and his wife, philosopherLady Masham, whom Locke had known since she was a young woman.[15][16]
When Locke was born on 29 August 1632 toPuritan parents in the village ofWrington, Somerset, there was no hint that he would become a notable figure in history. His parents, John Locke, Sr. (born 1606), was 23 when he married Agnes Keene, age 33. They had their first child, John, about a year later, when the couple was living in a house that had been Agnes's grandparents. The boy wasbaptized the same day as his birth in nearby All Saints' Church. During the reign ofHenry VIII, young Locke's great-grandfather, Sir William Locke, was a prosperous merchant dealing in luxury cloth. His son Nicholas Locke (d. 1648) continued in the cloth trade, as a businessman involved in theputting-out system, providing raw wool to weavers working in their homes, then collecting the finished cloth and sending it on. John Locke, Sr. was Nicholas's oldest son, who became an attorney. Soon after Locke's birth in 1632, the family moved to themarket town ofPensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, into a house Nicholas gave his lawyer son. Young Locke grew up in a ruralTudor house inBelluton, where his brothers were born: Peter, who died in infancy, and Thomas (b. 1637). Locke, Sr. served as clerk to theJustices of the Peace inChew Magna. One of the justices wasAlexander Popham, a Member of Parliament for Bath and a wealthy landowner.[22][23]
Young Locke was 10 at the outbreak of theEnglish Civil War in 1642, pitting royalists supportingCharles I againstParliamentarian forces. It is no surprise that as a Puritan, Locke's father fought in the Parliamentarian forces, the winning side of that conflict. He served as a captain in acavalry under Alexander Popham. Locke, Sr.'s political choice and personal connection came to benefit his son and namesake. In 1647, young Locke's provincial life changed when he became a student at the prestigiousWestminster School in London, under the sponsorship of Popham. Locke wrote of those early years, "I found myself in a storm."[24]
At Westminster School, Locke gained the education leading to further accomplishment. Also importantly, young Locke gained entry into anetwork of friendship and patronage that later aided his scholarly and political career. While he was a student there, he was just a half mile away from the site of Charles I's execution following his trial by a special court created by Parliament; Westminster students were not allowed to attend it.[25][26]
After completing studies at Westminster at age 20, he was admitted toChrist Church,Oxford, in the autumn of 1652. The dean of the college at the time wasJohn Owen, vice-chancellor of the university.[27] Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of modern philosophers, such asRené Descartes, more interesting than theclassical material taught at the university.[citation needed]
Through his friendRichard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and theexperimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and by members of theRoyal Society, founded in 1660, of which he eventually became a member.[27]
Christ Church College, Oxford
Locke was awarded abachelor's degree in February 1656 and amaster's degree in June 1658, all of which was during theInterregnum.[1] Much later, he was awarded abachelor of medicine in February 1675,[28] having studied the subject extensively during his time at Oxford and served as a physician prior to formal certification.
In the modern era, there is an engraved floor memorial plaque to Locke atChrist Church Cathedral, Oxford, which also notes his connection to Westminster School.[33]
In 1665, Locke travelled outside England for the first time, when he was appointed the secretary of Sir Walter Vane on a royal diplomatic mission to the Elector of Brandenburg. He was probably chosen through the network of contacts from his days at Westminster School who now had high influence. The diplomatic mission was a failure, but the time spent in Cleves, the capital, was still important. There he experienced a place where different religious groups, writing to his Oxford friendRobert Boyle that people "quietly permit one another to choose their way to heaven".[34] He turned down a subsequent opportunity in a diplomatic mission to Spain and returned to Oxford.
In 1666, when Locke was 34, he metAnthony Ashley Cooper, later Lord Shaftesbury, a title by which he is now generally known. When he met Locke, he held the powerful position ofChancellor of the Exchequer; he became a key figure in Locke's life. Up until then, Locke lived a quiet scholarly life. The meeting with Shaftesbury was by chance; he was in Oxford, visiting his son. Shaftesbury wanted to drink waters from a nearby spa for a liver infection, which somehow Locke was tasked with bringing him. Shaftesbury was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. In 1667 Locke moved into Shaftesbury's London home atExeter House on the Strand, to be his personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage ofThomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major effect on Locke's natural philosophical thinking, emphasizing observation rather a priori thinking. Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesbury's liver infection became life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Ashley to undergo surgery (then life-threatening in itself) to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life.
In 1669 Ashley, one of the Lord Proprietors of Carolina, directed Locke in drafting theFundamental Constitutions of Carolina. Sometimes it is attributed to Locke as author, but his role was more as secretary to Ashley. Locke's patron becameLord Chancellor in 1672 and then raised to the title1st Earl of Shaftesbury in 1673. An indication of Locke's rise in status is that the first known portrait was painted byJohn Greenhill, around the same that Shaftesbury sat for the artist. Shaftesbury appointed Locke secretary to theLords Proprietors and secretary to the Council of Trade and Plantations.[35] Locke was one of the early scholars in Britain to read and ownBaruch Spinoza's radical textTractatus Theologico-Politicus in 1672, which he sold to his patron Shaftesbury in 1675, but purchased another copy to replace it. Locke took great care subdequently "to avoid being tainted by 'Spinosa'".[36]
After Shaftesbury fell from favour in 1675, Locke left England for France on a trip already planned. He served a tutor and medical attendant toCaleb Banks. Locke traveled in France twice on extended tours, 1675–77 and 1678-79.[37] Locke returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes took a positive turn. It has been argued that around this time, perhaps at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of theTwo Treatises of Government.[38] In the preface Locke says theTreatises were written to defend theGlorious Revolution of 1688, which ousted Catholic James II and brought Protestants William III and Mary II to the English throne, but recent scholarship suggests that the work was composed well before that.[38] The work is now viewed as a more general argument againstabsolute monarchy (particularly as espoused byRobert Filmer andThomas Hobbes) and for individual consent as the basis ofpolitical legitimacy. Although Locke was associated with the influentialWhigs, his ideas aboutnatural rights and government are considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history. PhilosopherAlgernon Sidney was exploring similar ideas and was executed for treason against Charles II in 1683.
In 1683, Locke slipped away to theDutch Republic in political exile, spending five years there in various cities. "His enforced exile in Holland was intellectually the most productive period of his life."[39] While in the Netherlands, Locke had time to return to his writing. He worked onTwo Treatises on Government, perhaps from an earlier draft. He spent a great deal of time working on theEssay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke sent the manuscript to Thomas Herbert, nowEarl of Pembroke, whom he had met in France in the 1670s. Locke also composed theA Letter on Toleration, likely addressed to Philipp Van Limborch, the leader of the Remonstrants in Amsterdam who became a good friend. Both considered religious tolerance important to Christianity.[40] Van Limborch was a fierce opponent of the philosophy ofBaruch Spinoza's in theTractatus Theologico-Politicus, and had aided in the publication of one of the first refutations.[41] Among other friends he made in the Netherlands were Swiss theologianJean LeClerc, and pioneeringmicroscopistAntonie van Leeuwenhoek.
Beyond the reach of the crown wishing to arrest him, Locke was deprived of his connection to Oxford when in 1684, Charles II told the head of Christ Church, Oxford that Locke's senior studentship was to be revoked.[42] His life in the Netherlands was fairly itinerant, spending time in various cities and living under a variety of aliases; he was under surveillance by British authorities and feared arrest and extradition. One pseudonym was Dr. Van Linden.[43] It is likely that Locke knew other British political exiles in the Netherlands, but disclosure of contacts with them carried risk.
Lord Charles Mordaunt
Locke's political prospects significantly changed when James II's Catholic wife,Mary of Modena, gave birth to a son, thereby ensuring that the royal line would remain Catholic, rather than being an interlude until James's Protestant daughterPrincess Mary, wed toWilliam of Orange, succeeded to the throne. William was "invited" by Whig nobles to invade England to return it to being a Protestant nation.Lord Charles Mordaunt directly asked Locke to be part of the royal party accompanying Princess Mary to England, where she would succeed to the throne with her husband William. The invitation allowed Locke to return to England without his political that kept him in Holland for five years. He arrived in England in February 1688, aged 57. He had lost his secure place at Oxford, which would have provided a home for the rest of his life. His late patron Shaftesbury had diverted him from practicing medicine, and he had only a small independent income from properties inherited from his father. However, Locke had formed connections to Pembroke and Mordaunt, now in positions to aid him following theRevolution of 1688-89.[44]
With the regime change bringing William III and Mary II as joint rulers, Locke's later years found him again with powerful patrons and able to publish major philosophical works that had been in progress during his exile in Holland. The bulk of Locke's publishing took place upon his return from exile:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, theTwo Treatises of Government andA Letter Concerning Toleration, all appearing in quick succession, but only theEssay Concerning Human Understanding was he identified as the author. Locke's close friendLady Masham invited him to join her at Oates, the Mashams' country house in Essex. Although his time there was marked by variable health fromasthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs. During this period, he discussed matters with such figures asJohn Dryden andIsaac Newton.
John Locke in old ageOates Manor,High Laver, EssexLocke's Tomb, High Laver, Essex
The iconic image of a gaunt Locke shows him in old age and poor health. He retired from his work in London to Oates Manor, living now fulltime in the household of Sir Francis Masham and his wife, the philosopher LadyDamaris Masham, Locke's friend since she was a young woman. He had been resident there since 1691 after returning from exile in Holland. After a period of increasingly poor health, he died in his rooms at Oates Manor on 28 October 1704.[45] He is buried in the churchyard of All Saints' Church inHigh Laver, nearHarlow in Essex, near the Mashams' house.[46]
Locke composed his own obituary in Latin. Friends tracked down the information on his birth and added that of his death, and had the text engraved on a marble tablet.[47] The text begins "Siste Viator, Hic juxta situs est JOHANNES LOCKE". A 19th-century Locke biographer,Henry Fox Bourne translated the text below.[48]
Stay traveller: near this place lies JOHN LOCKE. If you ask what sort of man he was, the answer is that he was contented with his modest lot. Bred a scholar, he used his studies to devote himself to truth alone. This you may learn from his writings which will show you anything else that is to be said about him more faithfully than the doubtful eulogies of an epitaph. His virtues, if he had any, were too slight for him to offer them to his own credit or as an example to you. Let his vices be buried with him. Of good life, you have an example, should you desire it, in the gospel; of vice, would there be none for you; of mortality, surely (and you may profit by it) you have one here and everywhere. That he was born on the 29th of August in the year of our Lord 1632, and he died on the 28th of October in the year of our Lord 1704, this tablet, which will quickly perish, is a record.
Since Locke's writings were first published in the tumultuous 17th century, they continue to be discussed and debated. Locke exercised a profound influence onpolitical philosophy, in particular on modern liberalism.Michael Zuckert has argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearlyseparating the realms of Church and State. He had a strong influence onVoltaire, who called him "le sage Locke". His arguments concerningliberty and thesocial contract later influenced the written works ofThomas Jefferson. One passage from theSecond Treatise is reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, the reference to a "long train of abuses". Of Locke, Jefferson wrote:[49][50][51]
Bacon, Locke andNewton ... I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences.
Locke's influence was also important in the realm ofepistemology. He redefinedsubjectivity, or theself, leadingintellectual historians such asCharles Taylor andJerrold Seigel to argue that Locke'sAn Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689/90) marks the beginning of the modern Western conception of the self.[52][53] Locke'stheory of association heavily influenced the subject matter ofmodern psychology. At the time, Locke's recognition of two types of ideas,simple andcomplex—and, more importantly, their interaction through association—inspired other philosophers, such asDavid Hume andGeorge Berkeley, to revise and expand this theory and apply it to explain how humans gain knowledge in the physical world.[54] Locke thought the state's borders and the functioning and enforcement of the existence of the state and its constitution were metaphysically tied to "the natural rights of the individual", and this inspired futureliberalpoliticians andphilosophers.[55]
Locke consistently defended toleration andnaturalization ofEnglish Jews, arguing that no group in England should forfeit civil rights on the basis of religion. He understood that Jews were a part of English life and opposed proposals and measures that imposed special taxes on Jews. In his firstLetter Concerning Toleration, Locke uniquely advocated toleration for Jews unconditionally, but in subsequent letters he reverted to the conventional Christian view of toleration as a means to convert Jews, reflecting hismillenarian beliefs over the principle of full religious and social equality.[61]
Locke's political theory was founded upon that ofsocial contract. UnlikeThomas Hobbes, Locke believed thathuman nature is characterised byreason andtolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allows people to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In anatural state, all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend their "life, health, liberty, or possessions".[62]: 198 Most scholars trace the phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" in theAmerican Declaration of Independence to Locke's theory of rights,[63] although other origins have been suggested.[64]
Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established acivil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society. But Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day.[65] Locke also advocated governmentalseparation of powers and believed that revolution is not only aright but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas had a profound influence on theDeclaration of Independence and theConstitution of the United States.
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, however, Locke'sTwo Treatises of Government were rarely cited. HistorianJulian Hoppit said of the book "except among some Whigs, even as a contribution to the intense debate of the 1690s it made little impression and was generally ignored until 1703, though in Oxford in 1695 it was reported to have made 'a great noise'."[66]John Kenyon, in his study of British political debate from 1689 to 1720, has remarked that Locke's theories were "mentioned so rarely in the early stages of the [Glorious] Revolution, up to 1692, and even less thereafter, unless it was to heap abuse on them" and that "no one, including most Whigs, [was] ready for the idea of a notional or abstract contract of the kind adumbrated by Locke".[67]: 200 In contrast, Kenyon adds thatAlgernon Sidney'sDiscourses Concerning Government were "certainly much more influential than Locke'sTwo Treatises."[i][67]: 51 In the 50 years after Queen Anne's death in 1714, theTwo Treatises were reprinted only once, except in the collected works of Locke. With the rise of English colonies' resistance to Parliament's new taxes after theSeven Years' War, theSecond Treatise of Government gained a new readership. It was frequently cited in the debates in both America and Britain. The first American printing occurred in 1773 in Boston.[68]
Contemporary feminist scholars of John Locke argue that his views on gender and women contain both egalitarian elements and significant limitations. Locke states that a mother shall "hath an equal title" to her children,[69] directly challenging the assumption that fathers naturally possess superior authority. Locke rejectsRobert Filmer's belief that parental power originates in Adam's authority, and to "hear the instructions of thy father, and forsake not the law of thy mother."[69] "Locke grants women rights of contract in marriage, including the right to negotiate the terms of such contracts in matters of childcare, custody, and divorce."[70] Although Locke seems to provide an "equal title"[69] to women, he nevertheless frames political rights, property ownership, and entry into civil society in male terms.[69]
Despite attributing parental authority to women, Locke claims that it is "Men who unite into commonwealths."[69] British political theoristCarol Pateman writes that this language signals that “women are not party to the original contract that founds civil society; instead, they are the subjects over whom the contract establishes male political right."[71]Carole Pateman andTeresa Brennan argue that political agency is assigned to men, while women remain in the domestic sphere, still withstanding equal rights. They write that "Locke assumes a free and equal female individual will always enter a marriage contract that places her in subjection to her husband, her subjection is still limited due to possessing her own 'Peculiar Right'."[72] However, the "Peculiar right"[69] is "excluding her from the crucial area of decision-making about family property."[72]Mary Lyndon Shanley observes that “it appears that Locke attributed parental authority to the mother, he quickly slipped back into using the common phrase 'paternal' power rather than 'parental' power."[70] Locke’sFirst Treatise of Government[69] andSecond Treatise of Government[69] present arguments in which mothers share paternal power with the father. Locke writes that a mother shall ‘hath an equal title”[69] to her children, which challenges traditional paternal superiority. Although Locke includes women in parental rights, he frames political authority in terms that apply to men.[citation needed]
In the 18th century,Mary Wollstonecraft writes that "Mr. Locke has clearly proved that the senses are the primary source of knowledge."[73] She states that[73] Locke's theory of knowledge inAn Essay Concerning Human Understanding emphasizes that all ideas are derived from experience and that rational development depends on education and reflection.[citation needed] Wollstonecraft argues that if women are denied proper education and intellectual opportunities, they are prevented from developing their own rational capacities. She contends that women are "rendered weak and wretched by a variety of concurring causes" and that society trains them to be "alluring mistresses rather than rational wives."[73] Since Locke emphasizes rationality and knowledge equally apply to women,[74] Wollstonecraft argues that failure to provide these conditions reinforces their dependence and subordination.[73]
Locke's views on slavery were multifaceted. Although he wrote againstslavery in general, he was briefly an investor and beneficiary of the slave-tradingRoyal Africa Company. Locke was secretary to theEarl of Shaftesbury, one of the Lord Proprietors of Carolina granted territory byCharles II, and a previous investor in the sugar colony of Barbados. Locke was directed to draft theFundamental Constitutions of Carolina, which established a quasi-feudalaristocracy and gave Carolinianplanters absolute power over their enslaved chattel property; the constitutions pledged that "every freeman of Carolina shall have absolute power and authority over his negro slaves".[75][76]
PhilosopherMartin Cohen observes that Locke, as secretary to theCouncil of Trade and Plantations and a member of theBoard of Trade, was "one of just half a dozen men who created and supervised both the colonies and their iniquitous systems of servitude".[75][76] According to historian James Farr, Locke never expressed any thoughts about his contradictory opinions of slavery, which Farr ascribes to his personal involvement in theAtlantic slave trade.[77] Locke's positions on slavery have been described as hypocritical, and laying the foundation for theFounding Fathers to hold similarly contradictory thoughts regarding freedom and slavery.[78]
HistorianHolly Brewer argues that Locke's role in theConstitutions has been exaggerated and that he was merely paid to revise and make copies of a document that had already been partially written before he became involved as Shaftesbury's secretary; she compares Locke's role to a lawyer writing a will.[79] She states that Locke was paid in Royal African Company stock in lieu of money for his work as a secretary for a governmental sub-committee, and that he sold the stock after a few years.[80] Brewer likewise argues that Locke actively worked to undermine slavery in Virginia while heading a Board of Trade created byWilliam of Orange following theGlorious Revolution. He specifically attacked colonial policy granting land to slave owners and encouraged the baptism and Christian education of the children of enslaved Africans to undercut a major justification of slavery—that they were heathens who possessed no rights.[81]
Locke wrote in support ofchild labour. In his "Essay on the Poor Law", he discusses the education of the poor; he laments that "the children of labouring people are an ordinary burden to the parish, and are usually maintained in idleness, so that their labour also is generally lost to the public till they are 12 or 14 years old".[82]: 190 He suggests the setting up of "working schools" for poor children in each parish in England so that they will be "from infancy [three years old] inured to work".[82]: 190 He goes on to outline the economics of these schools, arguing not only that they will be profitable for the parish, but also that they will instill a good work ethic in the children.[82]: 191
Locke rejected the Cartesian view that animals are mere automata without consciousness. In hisEssay Concerning Human Understanding, he argued that animals possess some cognitive faculties, particularly perception and memory, though not abstraction or reasoning in the human sense. Locke maintained that perception is present "in some degree, in all sorts of animals", including even oysters and cockles, though he described their sensations as "dull". He further held that animals are capable of retaining ideas, but he denied them the capacity for forming abstract or general ideas, which he regarded as a defining feature ofhuman cognition.[83]
Locke used these observations to challenge Descartes'sanimal machine doctrine and to support the possibility that matter could think, if God so willed. This hypothesis, that God might superadd thought to matter, allowed Locke to argue that mental faculties could be distributed in varying degrees among animals and humans. Locke sometimes used these arguments rhetorically against theological opponents, but was cautious about committing to the immateriality or immortality ofanimal souls. Instead, he suggested that attributing mental faculties to animals did not necessitate belief in their immortality, thereby avoiding the theological implications Descartes sought to escape by denyinganimal sentience altogether.[83]
Locke's general theory of value and price is asupply-and-demand theory, set out in a letter to a member of parliament in 1691, titledSome Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money.[84] In it, he refers to supply asquantity and demand asvent: "The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyers and sellers ... that which regulates the price ... [of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their vent."[85] Thequantity theory of money forms a special case of this general theory. His idea is based on "money answers all things" (Ecclesiastes) or "rent of money is always sufficient, or more than enough" and "varies very little". Locke concludes that, as far as money is concerned, thedemand for it is exclusively regulated by its quantity, regardless of whether the demand is unlimited or constant. He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply. Forsupply, he explains the value of goods as based on theirscarcity and ability to beexchanged andconsumed. He explainsdemand for goods as based on their ability to yield a flow of income. Locke develops an early theory ofcapitalisation, such as of land, which has value because "by its constant production of saleablecommodities it brings in a certain yearly income". He considers the demand for money as almost the same as demand for goods or land: it depends on whether money is wanted asmedium of exchange. As a medium of exchange, he states that "money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life", and forloanable funds "it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income ... or interest".
Locke distinguishes two functions of money: as acounter tomeasure value, and as apledge to lay claim togoods. He believes that silver and gold, as opposed topaper money, are the appropriate currency for international transactions. Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the government which issues it.
Locke argues that a country should seek a favourablebalance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade. Since the worldmoney stock grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, by which in addition to commodity movements, there are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determineexchange rates. He considers the latter less significant and lessvolatile than commodity movements. As for a country's money stock, if it is large relative to that of other countries, he says it will cause the country's exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do.
Locke prepares estimates of thecash requirements for different economic groups (landholders, labourers, and brokers). In each group he posits that the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues the brokers—themiddlemen—whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of labourers and landholders, have a negative influence on both personal and the public economy to which they supposedly contribute.[86]
Locke uses the concept ofproperty in both broad and narrow terms: broadly, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more particularly, it refers tomaterial goods. He argues that property is anatural right that is derived fromlabour. In Chapter V of hisSecond Treatise, Locke argues that the individual ownership of goods and property is justified by the labour exerted to produce such goods—"at least where there is enough [land], and as good, left in common for others" (para. 27)—or to use property to produce goods beneficial to human society.[87]
Locke states in hisSecond Treatise that nature on its own provides little of value to society, implying that the labour expended in the creation of goods gives them their value. From this premise, understood as alabour theory of value,[87] Locke developed alabour theory of property, whereby ownership ofproperty is created by the application of labour. In addition, he believed that property precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily".Karl Marx later critiqued Locke's theory of property in his own social theory.[88]
According to Locke, unused property is wasteful and an offence against nature,[89] but, with the introduction of"durable" goods, men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for those which would last longer and thus not offend thenatural law. In his view, the introduction of money marked the culmination of this process, making possible the unlimited accumulation of property without causing waste through spoilage.[90] He includes gold or silver as money because they may be "hoarded up without injury to anyone",[91] as they do not spoil or decay in the hands of the possessor. In his view, the introduction of money eliminates limits to accumulation. Locke stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract establishingcivil society or thelaw of land regulating property. Locke was aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation, but did not consider it his task. He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the unlimited accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth; he does not say which principles government should apply to solve this problem. Not all elements of his thought form a consistent whole. For example, thelabour theory of value in theTwo Treatises of Government stands side by side with the demand-and-supply theory of value developed in a letter he wrote titledSome Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money. Moreover, Locke anchors property in labour but, in the end, upholds unlimited accumulation of wealth.[92]
Locke definesthe self as "that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends".[93] He does not wholly ignore "substance", writing that "the body too goes to the making the man".[94] In hisEssay, Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind. Arguing against both theAugustinian view of man asoriginally sinful and theCartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an 'empty mind', atabula rasa, which is shaped by experience,sensations andreflections being the two sources of all ourideas.[95] He writes inAn Essay Concerning Human Understanding:
This source of ideas every man has wholly within himself; and though it be not sense, as having nothing to do with external objects, yet it is very like it, and might properly enough be called 'internal sense.'[96]
Locke'sSome Thoughts Concerning Education is an outline on how to educate this mind. Drawing on thoughts expressed in letters written toMary Clarke and her husband about their son,[97] he expresses the belief that education makes the man—or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet":[98]
I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education.
Locke also wrote, "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences".[98] He argues that the "associations of ideas" one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of theself; they are, put differently, what first mark thetabula rasa. In hisEssay, in which both these concepts are introduced, Locke warns, for example, against letting "a foolish maid" convince a child that "goblins and sprites" are associated with the night, for "darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other".[99]
This theory came to be calledassociationism. It strongly influenced 18th-century thought, particularlyeducational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the development ofpsychology and other new disciplines withDavid Hartley's attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in hisObservations on Man (1749).
Locke was critical of Descartes's version of thedream argument, making the counter-argument that people cannot have physical pain in dreams as they do in waking life.[100]
Some scholars have seen Locke's political convictions as based on his religious beliefs.[101][102][103] Locke's parents were Puritans, so religious trajectory began inCalvinisttrinitarianism. By the time of theReflections (1695) Locke was advocating not justSocinian views on tolerance but also SocinianChristology.[104] Wainwright (1987) notes that in the posthumously publishedParaphrase (1707) Locke's interpretation of one verse,Ephesians 1:10, is markedly different from that of Socinians such asBiddle, and may indicate that near the end of his life Locke returned nearer to anArian position, thereby accepting Christ's pre-existence.[105][104]
Locke was at times unsure about the subject oforiginal sin, so he was accused of Socinianism, Arianism, orDeism.[106] Locke argued that the idea that "allAdam's Posterity [are] doomed to Eternal Infinite Punishment, for the Transgression ofAdam" was "little consistent with the Justice or Goodness of the Great and Infinite God", leadingEric Nelson to associate him withPelagian ideas.[107] However, he did not deny the reality of evil. Man was capable of waging unjust wars and committing crimes. Criminals had to be punished, even with the death penalty.[108]
With regard to the Bible, Locke was very conservative. He retained the doctrine of theverbal inspiration of the Scriptures.[57] The miracles were proof of the divine nature of the biblical message. Locke was convinced that the entire content of the Bible was in agreement with human reason (The Reasonableness of Christianity, 1695).[109][57] Although Locke was an advocate of tolerance, he urged the authorities not to tolerateatheism, because he thought denial of God's existence undermined the social order and led to chaos.[110] That excluded all atheistic varieties of philosophy and all attempts to deduce ethics and natural law from purely secular premises.[111] In Locke's opinion thecosmological argument was valid and proved God's existence. His political thought was based on Protestant Christian views.[111][112] Locke advocated a sense of piety out of gratitude to God for giving reason to men.[113]
Locke engaged deeply with contemporary theological debates about therestoration of the Jews to the Land of Israel. He came to these views through close study ofSeder Odor byFranciscus Mercurius van Helmont and by theological exchanges withIsaac Newton. In his notes on Romans 11:23, Locke interpreted Paul’s metaphor of Jews being “grafted in again” as indicating that the Jews would one day flourish anew as a people, profess Christianity, and be restored to the land promised to the patriarchs. This interpretation aligned with his earlier statements inThe Reasonableness of Christianity (1695), where he emphasized that first-century Jews lived in expectation of the Messiah and a divinely established kingdom. His theological framework shaped his evangelical view of contemporary Jews as a community ultimately destined for conversion and a state of their own.[61]
Locke's concept of man started with the belief in creation.[114] Like philosophersHugo Grotius andSamuel Pufendorf, Locke equatednatural law with biblicalrevelation.[115][116][117] Locke derived the fundamental concepts of his political theory from biblical texts, in particular fromGenesis 1 and 2 (creation), theDecalogue, theGolden Rule, the teachings of Jesus, and the letters ofPaul the Apostle.[118]The Decalogue puts a person's life, reputation and property under God's protection. Locke's philosophy on liberty is also derived from the Bible. Locke derived from the Bible basic human equality, includingequality of the sexes, the starting point of the theological doctrine ofImago Dei.[119]
To Locke, one of the consequences of the principle of equality was that all humans were created equally free and therefore governments needed the consent of the governed.[120] Locke compared the English monarchy's rule over the British people to Adam's rule over Eve in Genesis, which was appointed by God.[121] Following Locke's philosophy, the AmericanDeclaration of Independence founded human rights partially on the biblical belief in creation. Locke's doctrine that governments need the consent of the governed is also central to the Declaration of Independence.[122]
Locke's signature in Bodleian Locke 13.12. Photo taken at the Bodleian Library, Oxford.The only edition of theTreatises published in America during the 18th century (1773)
Locke was an assiduous book collector and notetaker throughout his life. By his death in 1704, Locke had amassed a library of more than 3,000 books, a significant number in the seventeenth century.[123] Unlike some of his contemporaries, Locke took care to catalogue and preserve his library, and his will made specific provisions for how his library was to be distributed after his death. Locke's will offered Lady Masham the choice of "any four folios, eight quartos and twenty books of less volume, which she shall choose out of the books in my Library."[124] Locke also gave six titles to his "good friend"Anthony Collins, but Locke bequeathed the majority of his collection to his cousinPeter King (later Lord King) and to Lady Masham's son, Francis Cudworth Masham.[124]
Lady Masham's son, Francis, was promised one "moiety" (half) of Locke's library when he reached "the age of one and twenty years."[124] The other "moiety" of Locke's books, along with his manuscripts, passed to his cousin King.[124] Over the next two centuries, the Masham portion of Locke's library was dispersed.[125] The manuscripts and books left to King remained with King's descendants (later theEarls of Lovelace), until most of the collection was bought by theBodleian Library, Oxford in 1947.[126] Another portion of the books Locke left to King was discovered by the collector and philanthropistPaul Mellon in 1951.[126] Mellon supplemented this discovery with books from Locke's library which he bought privately, and in 1978, he transferred his collection to the Bodleian.[126]
The holdings in the Locke Room at the Bodleian have been a valuable resource for scholars interested in Locke, his philosophy, practices for information management, and the history of the book. Many of the books still contain Locke's signature, which he often made on thepastedowns of his books. Many also include Locke'smarginalia. The printed books in Locke's library reflected his various intellectual interests as well as his movements at different stages of his life. Locke travelled extensively in France and the Netherlands during the 1670s and 1680s, and during this time he acquired many books from the continent.[127]
Only half of the books in Locke's library were printed in England, while close to 40% came from France and the Netherlands.[127] These books cover a wide range of subjects. According to John Harrison and Peter Laslett, the largest genres in Locke's library weretheology (23.8% of books), medicine (11.1%), politics and law (10.7%), and classical literature (10.1%).[128] The Bodleian library currently holds more than 800 of the books from Locke's library.[126] These include Locke's copies of works by several of the most influential figures of the seventeenth century, including:
The QuakerWilliam Penn:An address to Protestants of all perswasions (Bodleian Locke 7.69a)
The explorerFrancis Drake:The world encompassed by Sir Francis Drake (Bodleian Locke 8.37c)
The scientistRobert Boyle:A discourse of things above reason (Bodleian Locke 7.272)
The bishop and historianThomas Sprat:The history of the Royal-Society of London (Bodleian Locke 9.10a)
In addition to books owned by Locke, the Bodleian possesses more than 100manuscripts related to Locke or written in his hand. Like the books in Locke's library, these manuscripts display a range of interests and provide different windows into Locke's activity and relationships. Several of the manuscripts include letters to and from acquaintances like Peter King (MS Locke b. 6) andNicolas Toinard [fr] (MS Locke c. 45).[129] MS Locke f. 1–10 contain Locke's journals for most years between 1675 and 1704.[129]
Some of the most significant manuscripts include early drafts of Locke's writings, such as hisEssay Concerning Human Understanding (MS Locke f. 26).[129] The Bodleian also holds a copy of Robert Boyle'sGeneral History of the Air with corrections and notes Locke made while preparing Boyle's work for posthumous publication (MS Locke c. 37 ).[130] Other manuscripts contain unpublished works. Among others, MS. Locke e. 18 includes some of Locke's thoughts on theGlorious Revolution, which Locke sent to his friend Edward Clarke but never published.[131]
One of the largest categories of manuscript at the Bodleian comprises Locke's notebooks andcommonplace books. The scholar Richard Yeo calls Locke a "Master Note-taker" and explains that "Locke's methodical note-taking pervaded most areas of his life."[132] In an unpublished essay "Of Study," Locke argued that a notebook should work like a "chest-of-drawers" for organising information, which would be a "great help to the memory and means to avoid confusion in our thoughts."[133] Locke kept several notebooks and commonplace books, which he organised according to topic. MS Locke c. 43 includes Locke's notes on theology, while MS Locke f. 18–24 contain medical notes.[129] Other notebooks, such as MS c. 43, incorporate several topics in the same notebook, but separated into sections.[129]
Page 1 of Locke's unfinished index in Bodleian Locke 13.12. Photo taken at the Bodleian Library, Oxford.
These commonplace books were highly personal and were designed to be used by Locke himself rather than accessible to a wide audience.[134] Locke's notes are often abbreviated and are full of codes which he used to reference material across notebooks.[135] Another way Locke personalised his notebooks was by devising his own method of creating indexes using a grid system and Latin keywords.[136] Instead of recording entire words, his indexes shortened words to their first letter and vowel. Thus, the word "Epistle" would be classified as "Ei".[137]
Locke published his method in French in 1686, and it wasrepublished posthumously in English in 1706. Some of the books in Locke's library at the Bodleian are a combination of manuscript and print. Locke had some of his books interleaved, meaning that they were bound with blank sheets in-between the printed pages to enable annotations. Locke interleaved and annotated his five volumes of the New Testament in French, Greek, and Latin (Bodleian Locke 9.103–107). Locke did the same with his copy of Thomas Hyde's Bodleian Library catalogue (Bodleian Locke 16.17), which Locke used to create a catalogue of his own library.[138]
^Kenyon (1977) adds: "Any unbiassed study of the position shows in fact that it was Filmer, not Hobbes, Locke or Sidney, who was the most influential thinker of the age" (p. 63).
^Bostock, David (2009).Philosophy of Mathematics: An Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 43.All of Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume supposed that mathematics is a theory of ourideas, but none of them offered any argument for this conceptualist claim, and apparently took it to be uncontroversial.
^Yolton, John W. (2000).Realism and Appearances: An Essay in Ontology. Cambridge University Press. p. 136.[ISBN missing]
^Grigoris Antoniou; John Slaney, eds. (1998).Advanced Topics in Artificial Intelligence. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 1502. Springer. p. 9.doi:10.1007/BFb0095035.ISBN978-3-540-65138-3.
^Hansen, Hans V.; Pinto, Robert C., eds. (1995).Fallacies: classical and contemporary readings. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press.ISBN978-0271014166.OCLC30624864.
^Grave tablet from1705:... That he was born on the 29th of August in the year of our Lord 1632, and that he died on the 28th of October in the year of our Lord 1704, this tablet, which itself will quickly perish, is a record.See also: R. Woolhouse,Locke. A Biography, NY 2007, p. 1.
^Sharma, Urmila; S. K. Sharma (2006).Western Political Thought. Washington:Atlantic Publishers. p. 440.
^Korab-Karpowicz, W. Julian (2010).A History of Political Philosophy: From Thucydides to Locke. New York: Global Scholarly Publications. p. 291.[ISBN missing]
^Bourne, H.R. Fox.The Life of John Locke. London: Henry S. King & Co. 2 volumes
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^"Foreword and study guide to"John Locke's Two Treatises on Government: A Translation into Modern English, ISR Publications, 2013, p. ii.ISBN978-0906321690
^Woolhouse, Roger.John Locke, A Biography. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press 2007, pp. 5-7ISBN978-0-521-81786-8
^Broad, C. D. (2000).Ethics And the History of Philosophy. UK: Routledge.ISBN978-0415225304.
^Locke writing in 1660, quoted in Woolhouse 2007, p.5
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^"The Three Greatest Men".American Treasures of the Library of Congress. Library of Congress. August 2007.Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved27 June 2018.Jefferson identified Bacon, Locke, and Newton as 'the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception'. Their works in the physical and moral sciences were instrumental in Jefferson's education and world view.
^Jefferson, Thomas."The Letters: 1743–1826 Bacon, Locke, and Newton". Archived fromthe original on 31 December 2009. Retrieved13 June 2009.Bacon, Locke and Newton, whose pictures I will trouble you to have copied for me: and as I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical & Moral sciences.
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^abcdWollstonecraft, Mary (1972) [1792].A Vindication of the Rights of Women. W.W. Norton. p. 66.
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Ashcraft, Richard (1986).Revolutionary Politics & Locke's Two Treatises of Government. Princeton: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0691022482.OCLC13124720.Discusses the relationship between Locke's philosophy and his political activities.
Bailyn, Bernard (1992) [1967].The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0674443013.OCLC494071.Discusses the influence of Locke and other thinkers upon the American Revolution and on subsequent American political thought.
Dunn, John (1988).The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of the Two Treatises of Government (Reprinted ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521074087.OCLC1077366466.Introduced the interpretation which emphasises the theological element in Locke's political thought.
Heussi, Karl (1956),Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte (in German), Tübingen, DE: J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck)
Hudson, Nicholas (1997). "John Locke and the Tradition of Nominalism". In Hugo Keiper;Christoph Bode; Richard Utz (eds.).Nominalism and Literary Discourse. Amsterdam: Rodopi. pp. 283–299.ISBN978-9042002883.OCLC38471194.
Locke, John (1996). Grant, Ruth W; Tarcov, Nathan (eds.).Some Thoughts Concerning Education and of the Conduct of the Understanding. Indianapolis:Hackett Publishing Co. p. 10.ISBN978-0872203341.
Locke Studies, appearing annually from 2001, formerlyThe Locke Newsletter (1970–2000), publishes scholarly work on John Locke.
Macpherson, C.B.; Cunningham, Frank (2011) [1962].The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke (Wynford ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195444018.OCLC648388121.Establishes the deep affinity from Hobbes to Harrington, the Levellers, and Locke through to nineteenth-century utilitarianism.
Waldron, Jeremy (2002).God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521890571.
Huyler, Jerome,Was Locke a Liberal?(PDF), Independent, archived fromthe original(PDF) on 26 March 2009, retrieved2 August 2008, a complex and positive answer.
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