John J. Pershing | |
|---|---|
 Pershing,c. 1907–1916 | |
| Birth name | John Joseph Pershing |
| Nickname | "Black Jack" |
| Born | (1860-09-13)September 13, 1860 nearLaclede, Missouri, U.S. |
| Died | July 15, 1948(1948-07-15) (aged 87) Washington, D.C., U.S. |
| Buried | |
| Allegiance | United States |
| Branch | United States Army |
| Years of service | 1882–1924 |
| Rank | General of the Armies |
| Service number | O-1 |
| Unit | Cavalry Branch |
| Commands | 8th Brigade[1][2] Mexican Expedition American Expeditionary Force First United States Army Chief of Staff of the United States Army |
| Battles / wars | |
| Awards | Distinguished Service Cross Distinguished Service Medal Silver Star Honorary Knight Grand Cross of theOrder of the Bath (United Kingdom) Legion of Honour (France) Order of the Precious Brilliant Golden Grain (China) |
| Spouses | |
| Children | 4, with Helen |
| Signature |  |
General of the ArmiesJohn Joseph Pershing (September 13, 1860 – July 15, 1948),[a] nicknamed "Black Jack", was an American army general, educator, and founder of thePershing Rifles. He served as the commander of theAmerican Expeditionary Forces (AEF) duringWorld War I from 1917 to 1920. In addition to leading the AEF to victory in World War I, Pershing served as a mentor to many in the generation of generals who led theUnited States Army duringWorld War II, includingGeorge C. Marshall,Dwight D. Eisenhower,Omar Bradley,Lesley J. McNair,George S. Patton, andDouglas MacArthur.[4][5]
During his command in World War I, Pershing resisted British and French demands that American forces be integrated with their armies, essentially as replacement units, and insisted that the AEF would operate as a single unit under his command, although some American units fought under British and Australian command, notably in theBattle of Hamel and the breaching of theHindenburg Line atSt Quentin Canal, precipitating the final German collapse. Pershing also allowed (at that time segregated)American all-Black units to be integrated with theFrench Army.
Pershing's soldiers first saw serious battle atCantigny,Chateau-Thierry, andBelleau Wood on June 1–26, 1918, andSoissons on July 18–22, 1918. To speed up the arrival of American troops, they embarked for France leaving heavy equipment behind, and used British and French tanks, artillery, airplanes and other munitions. In September 1918 atSt. Mihiel, theFirst Army was directly under Pershing's command; it overwhelmed thesalient – the encroachment intoAllied territory – that theGerman Army had held for three years. For theMeuse-Argonne Offensive, Pershing shifted roughly 600,000 American soldiers to the heavily defended forests of the Argonne, keeping his divisions engaged in hard fighting for 47 days, alongside the French. TheAlliedHundred Days Offensive, of which the Argonne fighting was part, contributed to Germany calling for anarmistice. Pershing was of the opinion that the war should continue and that all ofGermany should be occupied in an effort to permanently destroy German militarism.
Pershing is the only American to be promoted in his own lifetime toGeneral of the Armies, the highest possible rank in the United States Army.[b] Allowed to select his own insignia, Pershing chose to continue using four stars in either silver or gold.[7][8] Some of his tactics have been criticized both by other commanders at the time and by modern historians. His reliance on costlyfrontal assaults, long after other Allied armies had abandoned such tactics, has been blamed for causing unnecessarily high American casualties.[9]
Pershing was also criticized by some historians for his actions on the day of armistice as the commander of the American Expeditionary Force. Pershing did not approve of the armistice, and despite knowing of the imminent ceasefire, he did not tell his commanders to suspend any new offensive actions or assaults in the final few hours of the war.[10] In total, there were nearly 11,000 casualties (3,500 American), dead, missing, or injured during November 11, the final day of the war, which exceeded theD-Day casualty counts of June 1944. For instance, allied casualties on the first day of the D-Day invasion were 4,414 confirmed dead.[11] Pershing and several subordinates were later questioned by Congress;[10] Pershing maintained that he had followed the orders of his superior,Ferdinand Foch; Congress found that no one was culpable.[12]
Pershing was born on a farm nearLaclede, Missouri, on September 13, 1860,[13] the son of farmer and store owner John Fletcher Pershing and homemaker Ann Elizabeth Thompson.[14] Pershing's great-grandfather, FrederickPfoerschin, emigrated fromAlsace and arrived inPhiladelphia in 1749.[15] He had five siblings who lived to adulthood: brothers James F. (1862–1933) and Ward (1874–1909), and sisters Mary Elizabeth (1864–1928), Anna May (1867–1955) and Grace (1867–1903); three other children died in infancy.[16][17] When theCivil War began, his father supported theUnion and was asutler for the18th Missouri Volunteer Infantry; he died on March 16, 1906.[18] Pershing's mother died during his initial assignment in the American West.[18]
Pershing attended a school in Laclede that was reserved for precocious students who were also the children of prominent citizens, and he later attended Laclede's one-room schoolhouse.[11] After completing high school in 1878, he became a teacher of localAfrican American children.[11] While pursuing his teaching career, Pershing also studied at the StateNormal School (nowTruman State University) inKirksville, Missouri, from which he graduated in 1880 with aBachelor of Science degree inscientific didactics.[19][20] Two years later, he competed for appointment to theUnited States Military Academy.[21] He performed well on the examination, and received the appointment from CongressmanJoseph Henry Burrows.[22] He later admitted that he had applied not because he was interested in a military career, but because the education was free and better than what he could obtain in rural Missouri.[21]
Pershing was sworn in as a West Point cadet in July 1882.[23] He was selected early for leadership positions and became successively First Corporal, First Sergeant, First Lieutenant, andFirst Captain, the highest possible cadet rank.[24] Pershing also commanded,ex officio, the honor guard that saluted the funeral train ofPresidentUlysses S. Grant as it passed West Point in August 1885.[25]
Pershing graduated in the summer of 1886 ranked 30th in his class of 77, and was commissioned asecond lieutenant;[26] he was commended by the West Point Superintendent, GeneralWesley Merritt, who said Pershing gave early promise of becoming an outstanding officer.[27] Pershing briefly considered petitioning the Army to let him study law and delay the start of his mandatory military service.[28] He also considered joining several classmates in a partnership that would pursue development of an irrigation project inOregon.[29] He ultimately decided against both courses of action in favor of active Army duty.[30]
Pershing reported for active duty on September 30, 1887, and was assigned to Troop L of the6th U.S. Cavalry stationed atFort Bayard, in theNew Mexico Territory. While serving in the 6th Cavalry, Pershing participated in severalIndian campaigns and was cited for bravery for actions against theApache. During his time atFort Stanton, Pershing and close friends Lt.Julius A. Penn and Lt.Richard B. Paddock were nicknamed "The Three Green P's," spending their leisure time hunting and attendingHispanic dances. Pershing's sister Grace married Paddock in 1890.[31]
Between 1887 and 1890, Pershing served with the 6th Cavalry at various postings inNew Mexico,Arizona, andSouth Dakota.[32] He also became an expert marksman and won several prizes for rifle and pistol at army shooting competitions.[33]
On December 9, 1890, Pershing and the 6th Cavalry arrived atFort Meade,South Dakota where Pershing played a role in suppressing the last uprisings of theLakota (Sioux)Indians.[34][35] Though he and his unit did not participate in theWounded Knee Massacre, they did fight three days after it on January 1, 1891, when Sioux warriors attacked the 6th Cavalry's supply wagons.[36] When the Sioux began firing at the wagons, Pershing and his troops heard the shots, and rode more than six miles to the location of the attack.[36] The cavalry fired at the forces of ChiefWar Eagle, causing them to retreat.[36] This was the only occasion on which Pershing saw action during theGhost Dance campaign.[36]
In September 1891, he was assigned as the professor of military science and tactics at theUniversity of Nebraska, a position he held until 1895. While carrying out this assignment, Pershing attended the university'sCollege of Law,[37] from which he received hisLL.B. degree in 1893.[38] He formed a drill company of chosen university cadets, Company A. In March 1892, it won the Maiden Prize competition of the National Competitive Drills inOmaha, Nebraska. The Citizens of Omaha presented the company with a large silver cup, the "Omaha Cup". On October 2, 1894, former members of Company A established a fraternal military drill organization named the Varsity Rifles. The group renamed itself thePershing Rifles in 1895 in honor of its mentor and patron.[39] Pershing maintained a close relationship with Pershing Rifles for the remainder of his life.[40][41]
On October 20, 1892,[42] Pershing was promoted tofirst lieutenant and in 1895 took command of a troop of the10th Cavalry Regiment, one of the originalBuffalo Soldier regiments composed ofAfrican-American soldiers under white officers. FromFort Assinniboine in north centralMontana, he commanded an expedition to the south and southwest that rounded up and deported a large number ofCree Indians toCanada.
In 1897, Pershing was appointed to the West Point tactical staff as an instructor, where he was assigned to Cadet Company A. Because of his strictness and rigidity, Pershing was unpopular with the cadets, who took to calling him "Nigger Jack" because of his service with the 10th Cavalry.[43][44][45]
During the course of his tour at theAcademy, this epithet softened to "Black Jack," although, according to Vandiver, "the intent remained hostile."[46] Still, this nickname stuck with Pershing for the rest of his life, and was known to the public as early as 1917.[47]
At the start of theSpanish–American War, First Lieutenant Pershing was theregimental quartermaster for the 10th Cavalry. His duties as quartermaster had him unloading supplies at Daiquiri Cuba on June 24. He missed theBattle of Las Guasimas that was fought that same day but arrived at the battle site late in the afternoon of June 24. He fought on Kettle andSan Juan Hills inCuba, and was cited for gallantry.Theodore Roosevelt, who also participated in those battles, said that "Captain Pershing is the coolest man under fire I ever saw in my life."[48] In 1919, Pershing was awarded theSilver Citation Star for these actions, and in 1932 the award was upgraded to theSilver Star decoration. A commanding officer here commented on Pershing's calm demeanor under fire, saying he was "cool as a bowl of cracked ice."[49] Pershing also served with the 10th Cavalry during thesiege and surrender of Santiago de Cuba.[50]
Pershing was commissioned as a major ofUnited States Volunteers on August 26, 1898, and assigned as anordnance officer. In March 1899, after suffering frommalaria, Pershing was put in charge of the Office of Customs and Insular Affairs which oversaw occupation forces in territories gained in the Spanish–American War, includingCuba,Puerto Rico, thePhilippines, andGuam. He was honorably discharged from the volunteers and reverted to his permanent rank of first lieutenant on May 12, 1899. He was again commissioned as a major of Volunteers on June 6, 1899, this time as an assistantadjutant.
When thePhilippine–American War began, Pershing reported to Manila on August 17, 1899, was assigned to the Department ofMindanao andJolo, and commanded efforts to suppress theFilipino Insurrection.[51] On November 27, 1900, Pershing was appointed adjutant general of his department and served in this posting until March 1, 1901. He was cited for bravery for actions on theCagayan River while attempting to destroy a Philippine stronghold at Macajambos (or Macahambus).[52][53]
Pershing wrote in his autobiography that "The bodies [of someMoro outlaws] were publicly buried in the same grave with a dead pig."[54][55] This treatment was used against capturedjuramentado so that the superstitious Moro would believe they would be going to hell.[56] Pershing added that "it was not pleasant [for the Army] to have to take such measures".[54][57] Historians do not believe that Pershing was directly involved with such incidents, or that he personally gave such orders to his subordinates. Letters and memoirs from soldiers describing events similar to this do not have credible evidence of Pershing having been personally involved.[58][59] Military historianB.H. Liddell Hart wrote that, on the contrary, Pershing's conduct toward the Moros was notable for its "unexpected sympathy," and for the fact that, because of Pershing's conscious effort to interact with and understand them, "he could negotiate with the Moros without the intervention of an interpreter."[60]
On June 30, 1901, Pershing was honorably discharged from the Volunteers and he reverted to the rank of captain in theRegular Army, to which he had been promoted on February 2, 1901. He served with the1st Cavalry Regiment in the Philippines. He later was assigned to the15th Cavalry Regiment, serving as an intelligence officer and participating in actionsagainst the Moros. He was cited for bravery atLake Lanao. In June 1901, he served as commander of Camp Vicars in Lanao, Philippines, after the previous camp commander was promoted tobrigadier general.[61]
In June 1903, Pershing was ordered to return to the United States. PresidentTheodore Roosevelt, taken by Pershing's ability, petitioned the Army General Staff to promote Pershing tocolonel. At the time, Army officer promotions were based primarily on seniority rather than merit,[49] and although there was widespread acknowledgment that Pershing should serve as a colonel, the Army General Staff declined to change their seniority-based promotion tradition just to accommodate Pershing. They would not consider a promotion tolieutenant colonel or evenmajor. This angered Roosevelt, but since the President could only name and promote army officers in the generals' ranks, his options for recognizing Pershing through promotion were limited.
In 1904, Pershing was assigned as the Assistant Chief of Staff of the Southwest Army Division stationed atOklahoma City, Oklahoma. In October 1904, he began attendance at theArmy War College,[62] and then was ordered toWashington, D.C., for "general duties unassigned."
Since Roosevelt could not yet promote Pershing, he petitioned theUnited States Congress to authorize a diplomatic posting, and Pershing was stationed asmilitary attaché inTokyo after his January 1905 War College graduation. Also in 1905, Pershing married Helen Frances Warren, the daughter of powerfulU.S. SenatorFrancis E. Warren, aWyomingRepublican who served at different times as chairman of theMilitary Affairs andAppropriations Committees. This union with the daughter of a powerful politician who had also received theMedal of Honor during theAmerican Civil War continued to aid Pershing's career even after his wife died in 1915.[63]
After serving as anobserver in the Russo-Japanese War attached to GeneralKuroki Tamemoto'sJapanese First Army inManchuria from March to September,[64] Pershing returned to the United States in the fall of 1905. President Roosevelt employed his presidential prerogative and nominated Pershing as abrigadier general, a move of which Congress approved. In skipping three ranks and more than 835 officers senior to him, the promotion gave rise to accusations that Pershing's appointment was the result of political connections and not military abilities.[65] However, several other junior officers were similarly advanced to brigadier general ahead of their peers and seniors, includingAlbert L. Mills (captain),Tasker H. Bliss (major), andLeonard Wood (captain). Pershing's promotion, while unusual, was not unprecedented, and had the support of many soldiers who admired his abilities.[66][67]
In 1908, Pershing briefly served as a U.S. military observer in theBalkans, an assignment which was based inParis. Upon returning to the United States at the end of 1909, Pershing was assigned once again to the Philippines, an assignment in which he served until 1913. While in the Philippines, he served as Commander ofFort McKinley, nearManila, and also was the governor of theMoro Province. The last of Pershing's four children was born in the Philippines, and during this time he became anEpiscopalian.
In 1913, Pershing was recommended for theMedal of Honor following his actions at theBattle of Bud Bagsak.[68] He wrote to theAdjutant General to request that the recommendation not be acted on, though the board which considered the recommendation had already voted no before receiving Pershing's letter.[69] In 1922 a further review of this event resulted in Pershing being recommended for theDistinguished Service Cross, but as theArmy Chief of Staff Pershing disapproved the action.[70] In 1940 Pershing received theDistinguished Service Cross for his heroism at Bud Bagsak, with PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt presenting it in a ceremony timed to coincide with Pershing's 80th birthday.[71]
During this period Pershing's reputation for both stern discipline and effective leadership continued to grow, with one experienced old soldier under his command later saying Pershing was an "S.O.B." and that he hated Pershing's guts, but that "as a soldier, the ones then and the ones now couldn't polish his (Pershing's) boots."[72]
On December 20, 1913, Pershing received orders to take command of the 8th Brigade at thePresidio inSan Francisco. With tensions running high on theborder between the United States and Mexico because of theMexican Revolution, the brigade was deployed toFort Bliss, Texas, on April 24, 1914, arriving there on the 27th.[73]
After a year at Fort Bliss, Pershing decided to take his family there. The arrangements were almost complete, when on the morning of August 27, 1915, he received a telegram informing him of a house fire at thePresidio inSan Francisco, where a lacquered floor ignited; the flames rapidly spread, resulting in the smoke inhalation deaths of his wife, Frances Warren Pershing and three young daughters: Mary Margaret, age 3; Anne Orr, age 7; and Helen, age 8. Only his 6-year-old son, Warren, survived.[74][75] After the funerals at Lakeview Cemetery inCheyenne, Wyoming, Pershing returned to Fort Bliss with his son, Warren, and his sister, May, and resumed his duties as commanding officer.[76][77]
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On March 15, 1916,[78][79][80] Pershing led an expedition into Mexico to capturePancho Villa. This expedition was ill-equipped and hampered by a lack of supplies due to the breakdown of theQuartermaster Corps. Although there had been talk of war on the border for years, no steps had been taken to provide for the handling of supplies for an expedition. Despite this and other hindrances, such as the lack of aid from the former Mexican government, and their refusal to allow American troops to transport troops and supplies over their railroads, Pershing organized and commanded theMexican Punitive Expedition, a combined armed force of 10,000 men that penetrated 350 miles (560 km) into chaotic Mexico. They routed Villa's revolutionaries, but failed to capture him.[81][82]
At the start of theUnited States' involvement in World War I, PresidentWoodrow Wilson considered mobilizing an army to join the fight.Frederick Funston, Pershing's superior in Mexico, was being considered for the top billet as the Commander of theAmerican Expeditionary Forces (AEF) when he died suddenly from a heart attack on February 19, 1917. Pershing was the most likely candidate other than Funston, and followingAmerica's entrance into the war in May, Wilson briefly interviewed Pershing, and then selected him for the command. He was officially installed in the position on May 10, 1917, and held the post until 1918. Pershing choseChaumont, France as the AEF headquarters. On October 6, 1917, Pershing, then amajor general, was promoted to full general in theNational Army. He bypassed the three star rank of lieutenant general, and was the first full general sincePhilip Sheridan in 1888.
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As AEF commander, Pershing was responsible for the organization, training, and supply of a combined professional and draft Army and National Guard force that eventually grew from 27,000 inexperienced men to twofield armies, with a third forming as the war ended, totaling over two million soldiers. Pershing was keenly aware of logistics, and worked closely withAEF's Services of Supply (SOS). The new agency performed poorly under generalsRichard M. Blatchford andFrancis Joseph Kernan; finally in 1918James Harbord took control and got the job done.[83] Pershing also worked with ColonelCharles G. Dawes—whom he had befriended in Nebraska and who had convinced him not to give up the army for a legal career—to establish an Interallied coordination Board, theMilitary Board of Allied Supply.[84][85]
Pershing exercised significant control over his command, with a full delegation of authority from Wilson andSecretary of WarNewton D. Baker. Baker, cognizant of the endless problems of domestic and allied political involvement in military decision making in wartime, gave Pershing unmatched authority to run his command as he saw fit. In turn, Pershing exercised his prerogative carefully, not engaging in politics or disputes over government policy that might distract him from his military mission. While earlier a champion of the African-American soldier, he did not advocate their full participation on the battlefield, understanding the general racial attitudes of white Americans.
George C. Marshall served as one of Pershing's top assistants during and after the war. Pershing's initial chief of staff wasJames Harbord, who later took a combat command but worked as Pershing's closest assistant for many years and remained extremely loyal to him.
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After departing fromFort Jay atGovernors Island inNew York Harbor under top secrecy on May 28, 1917, aboard theRMS Baltic, Pershing arrived in France in June 1917.[86] In a show of American presence, part of the16th Infantry Regiment marched through Paris shortly after his arrival. Pausing at the tomb ofGilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, he was reputed to have uttered the famous line "Lafayette, we are here," a line spoken, in fact, by his aide, ColonelCharles E. Stanton.[87] American forces were deployed in France in the autumn of 1917.
In September 1917, the French government commissioned a portrait of Pershing by 23-year-old Romanian artistMicheline Resco. Pershing removed the stars and flag from his car and sat up front with his chauffeur while traveling from his AEF headquarters to visit her by night in her apartment on the rue Descombes. Their friendship continued for the rest of his life.[88] In 1946, at 85, Pershing secretly wed Resco in hisWalter Reed Hospital apartment. Resco was 35 years his junior.[89]
For the first time in American history, Pershing allowed American soldiers to be under the command of a foreign power. In late June, GeneralSir Henry Rawlinson, commanding theBritish Fourth Army, suggested to Australian Lieutenant GeneralJohn Monash that American involvement in a set-piece attack alongside the experienced Australians in the upcomingBattle of Hamel would both give the American troops experience and also strengthen the Australian battalions by an additional company each. On June 29, Major GeneralGeorge Bell Jr., commanding theAmerican 33rd Division, selected two companies each from the131st and132nd Infantry Regiments of the 66th Brigade. Monash had been promised ten companies of American troops and on June 30 the remaining companies of the 1st and 2nd battalions of the 131st regiment were sent. Each American platoon was attached to aFirst Australian Imperial Force company, but there was difficulty in integrating the American platoons (which numbered 60 men) among the Australian companies of 100 men. This difficulty was overcome by reducing the size of each American platoon by one-fifth and sending the troops thus removed, which numbered 50 officers and men, back to battalion reinforcement camps.
The day before the attack was scheduled to commence, Pershing learned of the plan and ordered the withdrawal of six American companies.[90] While a few Americans, such as those attached to the 42nd Battalion, disobeyed the order, the majority, although disappointed, moved back to the rear. This meant that battalions had to rearrange their attack formations and caused a serious reduction in the size of the Allied force. For example, the 11th Brigade was now attacking with 2,200 men instead of 3,000.[91] There was a further last-minute call for the removal of all American troops from the attack, but Monash, who had chosen July 4 as the date of the attack out of "deference" to the US troops, protested to Rawlinson and received support from Field MarshalSir Douglas Haig, commander of theBritish Expeditionary Force (BEF).[90][91] The four American companies that had joined the Australians during the assault were withdrawn from the line after the battle and returned to their regiments, having gained valuable experience. Monash sent the 33rd Division's commander, Bell, his personal thanks, praising the Americans' gallantry, while Pershing set out explicit instructions to ensure that US troops would not be employed in a similar manner again (except as described below).[90]
Undercivilian control of the military, Pershing adhered to the racial policies ofPresidentWoodrow Wilson,Secretary of WarNewton D. Baker, and southern Democrats who promoted the "separate but equal" doctrine. African-American "Buffalo Soldiers" units were not allowed to participate with theAmerican Expeditionary Forces (AEF) during the war, but experiencednon-commissioned officers were provided to other segregated black units for combat service – such as the 317th Engineer Battalion.[92] The American Buffalo Soldiers of the92nd and93rd Infantry Divisions were the first American soldiers to fight in France in 1918, but they did so under French command as Pershing had detached them from the AEF to get them into action. Most regiments of the 92nd and all of the 93rd would continue to fight under French command for the duration of the war.[93]
When General Pershing met General Pétain at Compiègne at 10:45pm on the evening of March 25, 1918, Pétain told him he had few reserves left to stop theGerman Spring Offensive on the Western Front. In response, Pershing said he would waive the idea of forming a separate American I Corps, and put all available American divisions at Pétain's disposal.[94][95] The message was repeated to General Foch on March 28, after Foch assumed command of all allied armies.[96] Most of these divisions were sent south to relieve French divisions, which were transported to the fight in Flanders.
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By early 1918, entire divisions were beginning to serve on the front lines alongside French troops. Although Pershing desired that the AEF fight as units under American command rather than being split up by battalions to augment British and French regiments and brigades, the27th and30th Divisions, grouped underII Corps command, were loaned during thedesperate days of spring 1918, and fought with the BritishFourth Army under General Rawlinson until the end of the war, taking part in the breach of theHindenburg Line in October.
By May 1918, Pershing had become discontented withAir Service of the American Expeditionary Force, believing staff planning had been inefficient with considerable internal dissension, as well as conflict between its members and those of Pershing's General Staff. Further, aircraft and unit totals lagged far behind those expected. Pershing appointed his formerWest Point classmate and non-aviator,Major GeneralMason Patrick as the newChief of Air Service. Considerable house-cleaning of the existing staff resulted from Patrick's appointment, bringing in experienced staff officers to administrate, and tightening up lines of communication.[97][98]
In October 1918, Pershing saw the need for a dedicatedMilitary Police Corps and the first U.S. Army MP School was established atAutun, France. For this, he is considered the founding father of the United States MPs.[99]
Because of theeffects oftrench warfare on soldiers' feet, in January 1918, Pershing oversaw the creation of an improvedcombat boot, the "1918 Trench Boot," which became known as the "Pershing Boot" upon its introduction.[100]
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American forces first saw serious action during the summer of 1918, contributing eight large divisions, alongside 24 French ones, at theSecond Battle of the Marne. Along with the British Fourth Army'svictory at Amiens on August 8, the Allied victory at the Second Battle of the Marne marked the turning point of World War I on theWestern Front.
In August 1918 theU.S. First Army had been formed, first under Pershing's direct command (while still in command of the AEF) and then by Lieutenant GeneralHunter Liggett, when theU.S. Second Army under Lieutenant GeneralRobert Bullard was created in mid-October. After a relatively quick victory atSaint-Mihiel, east ofVerdun, some of the more bullish AEF commanders had hoped to push on eastwards toMetz, but this did not fit in with the plans of the Allied Supreme Commander, MarshalFerdinand Foch, for three simultaneous offensives into the "bulge" of the Western Front (the other two being the French Fourth Army's breach of theHindenburg Line and anAnglo-Belgian offensive, led by GeneralSir Herbert Plumer'sBritish Second Army, inFlanders). Instead, the AEF was required to redeploy and aided by French tanks, launched a major offensive northward in very difficult terrain atMeuse-Argonne. Initially enjoying numerical odds of eight to one, this offensive eventually engaged 35 or 40 of the 190 or so German divisions on the Western Front, although to put this in perspective, around half the German divisions were engaged on theBritish Expeditionary Force (BEF) sector at the time.
The offensive was marked by a Pershing failure, specifically his reliance on massed infantry attacks with little artillery support led to high casualty rates in the capturing of three key points. This was despite the AEF facing only second-line German troops after the decision byErich Ludendorff, theGerman Chief of Staff, to withdraw to the Hindenburg Line on October 3 – and in notable contrast to the simultaneous British breakthrough of the Hindenburg Line in the north. Pershing was subsequently forced to reorganize the AEF with the creation of the Second Army, and to step down as the commander of the First Army.[101]
When he arrived in Europe, Pershing had openly scorned the slow trench warfare of the previous three years on the Western Front, believing that American soldiers' skill with the rifle would enable them to avoid costly and senseless fighting over a small area ofno-man's land. This was regarded as unrealistic by British and French commanders, and (privately) by a number of Americans such as the formerArmy Chief of Staff GeneralTasker Bliss and even Liggett. Even German generals were negative, withErich Ludendorff dismissing Pershing's strategic efforts in the Meuse-Argonne offensive by recalling how "the attacks of the youthful American troops broke down with the heaviest losses".[102] The AEF had performed well in the relatively open warfare of the Second Battle of the Marne, but the eventual American casualties against German defensive positions in the Argonne (roughly 120,000 American casualties in six weeks, against 35 or 40 German divisions) were not noticeably better than those of the Franco-Britishoffensive on the Somme two years earlier (600,000 casualties in four and a half months, versus 50 or so German divisions). More ground was gained, but by this stage of the war theGerman Army was in worse shape than in previous years.
Some writers[103] have speculated that Pershing's frustration at the slow progress through the Argonne was the cause of two incidents which then ensued. First, he ordered the U.S. First Army to take "the honor" of recapturingSedan, site of theFrench defeat in 1870; the ensuing confusion (an order was issued that "boundaries were not to be considered binding") exposed American troops to danger not only from the French on their left, but even from one another, as the1st Division tacked westward by night across the path of the42nd Division (accounts differ as to whetherBrigadier GeneralDouglas MacArthur, then commanding the 84th Brigade of the 42nd Division, was really mistaken for a German officer and arrested).[104] Liggett, who had been away from headquarters the previous day, had to sort out the mess and implement the instructions from the Allied Supreme Command, Marshal Foch, allowing the French to recapture the city; he later recorded that this was the only time during the war in which he lost his temper, describing the event as "an atrocity".[105]
Second, Pershing sent an unsolicited letter to the AlliedSupreme War Council, demanding that the Germans not be given an armistice and that instead, the Allies should push on and obtain an unconditional surrender.[106] Although in later years, many, including PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt, felt that Pershing had been correct, at the time, this was a breach of political authority. Pershing narrowly escaped a serious reprimand from Wilson's aide,"Colonel" Edward M. House, and later apologized.[107]
At the time of theArmistice with Germany, another Franco-American offensive was due to start on November 14, thrusting towardsMetz and intoLorraine, to take place simultaneously with further BEF advances throughBelgium. In his memoirs, Pershing claimed that the American breakout from the Argonne at the start of November was the decisive event leading to the German acceptance of an armistice, because it made untenable the Antwerp–Meuse line. This is probably an exaggeration; the outbreak ofcivil unrest andnaval mutiny inGermany, the collapse ofBulgaria, theOttoman Empire, and particularlyAustria-Hungary followingAllied victories inSalonika,Syria, andItaly, and the Allied victories on the Western Front were among a series of events in the autumn of 1918 which made it clear that Allied victory was inevitable, and diplomatic inquiries about an armistice had been going on throughout October.
President Wilson was keen to tie matters up before the mid-term elections,[citation needed] and as the other Allies were running low on supplies and manpower,[108] they followed Wilson's lead.[citation needed]
American successes were largely credited to Pershing, and he became the most celebrated American leader of the war. MacArthur, however, saw Pershing as a desk soldier, and the relationship between the two men deteriorated by the end of the war. Similar criticism of senior commanders by the younger generation of officers (the future generals ofWorld War II) was made in the British and other armies, but, in Pershing's defense, although it was not uncommon for brigade commanders to serve near the front and even be killed, the state of communications in World War I made it more practical for senior generals to command from the rear.
He controversially ordered the First and Second Armies to continue fighting before the signed Armistice took effect. This resulted in 3,500 American casualties on the last day of the war, an act which was regarded as murder by a few officers under his command. Pershing doubted the Germans' good faith, and most of his contemporaries took the view he expressed to theHouse Committee on Military Affairs in his testimony on November 5, 1919:
When the subject of the armistice was under discussion we did not know what the purpose of it was definitely, whether it was something proposed by theGerman High Command to gain time or whether they were sincere in their desire to have an armistice; and the mere discussion of an armistice would not be sufficient grounds for any judicious commander to relax his military activities....No one could possibly know when the armistice was to be signed, or what hour be fixed for the cessation of hostilities so that the only thing for us to do, and which I did as commander in chief of the American forces, and which Marshal Foch did as commander in chief of the Allied armies was to continue the military activities....[12]
The year of 1918 also saw a personal health struggle for Pershing as he was sickened during the1918 flu pandemic, but unlike many who were not so fortunate, Pershing survived.[109] He rode his horse, Kidron, in the Paris victory parade in 1919.[110]
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In September 1919, in recognition of his distinguished service during World War I, theU.S. Congress authorized the President to promote Pershing toGeneral of the Armies of the United States, the highest rank possible for any member of the United States armed forces, which was created especially for him.[111]
In 1976, Congress authorized PresidentGerald Ford to posthumously promoteGeorge Washington to this rank as part of theUnited States Bicentennial; Washington previously held the rank ofGeneral in theContinental Army, and wore a three-star insignia;[112] his posthumous appointment to General of the Armies rank and the specific wording of the authorizing statute, Public Law 94-479,[113] of October 1976, ensured that Washington would always be considered the U.S. Army's highest-ranking officer.[114][115] Pershing was authorized to create his insignia for the new rank and chose to continue wearing four silver stars[116][117][118] for the rest of his career.[119]
There was a movement to draft Pershing as a candidate for president in 1920; he refused to campaign, but indicated that he "wouldn't decline to serve" if the people wanted him.[120] Though Pershing was aRepublican, many of his party's leaders considered him too closely tied to the policies of theDemocratic Party's PresidentWoodrow Wilson.[121] Another general,Leonard Wood, was the earlyRepublican front runner, but the nomination went to SenatorWarren G. Harding ofOhio, who went on to win thegeneral election.[122]
In 1921, Pershing becameChief of Staff of the United States Army, serving for three years. He created thePershing Map, a proposed national network of military and civilian highways. TheInterstate Highway System instituted in 1956 bears considerable resemblance to the Pershing map. On his 64th birthday, September 13, 1924, Pershing retired from active military service. (Army regulations from the late 1860s to the early 1940s required officers to retire on their 64th birthday.)
On November 1, 1921, Pershing was inKansas City to take part in the groundbreaking ceremony for the Liberty Memorial that was being constructed there, (now known as theNational World War I Museum and Memorial). Also present that day were Lieutenant GeneralBaron Jacques of theBelgian Army, Admiral of the FleetDavid Beatty of the BritishRoyal Navy, MarshalFerdinand Foch of theFrench Army, and GeneralArmando Diaz of theRoyal Italian Army. One of the main speakers was Vice PresidentCalvin Coolidge. In 1935, bas-reliefs of Pershing, Jacques, Foch and Diaz by sculptorWalker Hancock were added to the memorial. Pershing also laid the cornerstone of theWorld War Memorial inIndianapolis on July 4, 1927.[123]
In 1919, Pershing created theMilitary Order of the World War as an officer's fraternity for veterans of the First World War, modeled after theMilitary Order of Foreign Wars. Both organizations still exist today and welcome new officer members to their ranks. Pershing joined the MOFW in 1899. On January 5, 1935, Pershing was designated aMilitary Order of the World Wars Honorary Commander-in-Chief for Life.[124]
On October 2, 1922, amid several hundred officers, many of them combat veterans of World War I, Pershing formally established theReserve Officers Association (ROA) as an organization at theWillard Hotel in Washington, D.C. ROA is a 75,000-member, professional association of officers, former officers, and spouses of all the uniformed services of the United States, primarily the Reserve and United States National Guard. It is a congressionally chartered Association that advises the Congress and the President on issues of national security on behalf of all members of the Reserve Component.
In 1924, Pershing became a compatriot of the Pennsylvania Society of theSons of the American Revolution. In 1932 he was elected as an honorary member of theSociety of the Cincinnati of New Hampshire.[125] He was also a Veteran Companion of theMilitary Order of Foreign Wars.
Pershing served on a committee of theSons of the American Revolution to establish and recognizeConstitution Day in the United States.[126]
During the 1930s, Pershing largely retreated from public life, but returned to the public eye with publication of his memoirs,My Experiences in the World War, which were awarded the 1932Pulitzer Prize for history. He was also an activeCivitan during this time.[127]
In 1937, Pershing created a custom full dress uniform to attend the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, denoting his rank with four gold stars embroidered on each sleeve.[128]
In 1940, before and after theFall of France, Pershing was an outspoken advocate of aid for theBritish Empire duringWorld War II.
In August 1940, he publicly supported the "Destroyers for Bases Agreement", whereby the United States sold fifty warships from World War I to the UK in exchange for lengthy leases of land onBritish possessions for the establishment for military bases.
In 1944, with Congress' creation of the five-star rank ofGeneral of the Army, Pershing was still considered to be the highest-ranking officer of the United States military as his rank was General of the Armies. "In [1799] Congress created forGeorge Washington the rank of General of the Armies ... General[Ulysses S.] Grant received the title of General of the Army in 1866. ... Carefully Congress wrote a bill (HR 7594) to revive the rank of General of the Armies for General Pershing alone to hold during his lifetime. The rank would cease to exist upon Pershing's death." Later, when asked if this made Pershing a five-star general,Secretary of WarHenry L. Stimson commented that it did not, since Pershing never wore more than four stars, but that Pershing was still to be considered senior to the present five-star generals of World War II.[129]
In July 1944, Pershing was visited byFree French leader GeneralCharles de Gaulle. When Pershing asked after the health of his old friend, MarshalPhilippe Pétain – who headed the pro-GermanVichy regime – de Gaulle replied tactfully that, when he last saw him, the Marshal was well, a very tactful reply in view of Petain's subservience to the Nazis after the defeat of France.[130]
On July 15, 1948, Pershing died ofcoronary artery disease andcongestive heart failure at age 87 atWalter Reed General Hospital in Washington, D.C., which was his home after 1944. Helay in state at theUnited States Capitol rotunda[131] and following astate funeral, he was buried inArlington National Cemetery,[132][133] near the grave sites of the soldiers he commanded in Europe. The site is now known as Pershing Hill.[134]George C. Marshall, then serving as U.S. Secretary of State, was in charge of funeral plans.[135]
Pershing was aFreemason, a member of Lincoln Lodge No. 19,Lincoln, Nebraska.[136]
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Colonel Francis Warren Pershing (1909–1980), Pershing's son, served in theSecond World War as an advisor to the Army Chief of Staff, GeneralGeorge C. Marshall.[54]: 570 After the war he continued with his financial career and founded a stock brokerage firm,Pershing & Company.[54]: 570 In 1938, he married Muriel Bache Richards, granddaughter of financierJules Bache.[137] He was father to two sons who both served inVietnam War, Colonel John Warren Pershing III (1941–1999) and Second Lieutenant Richard W. Pershing (1942–1968). John Pershing III served in the Army from 1964 to 1967 andArmy Reserve from 1967 to 1999.[138] He attained the rank of colonel, and his assignments included special assistant to Army Chief of Staff GeneralGordon R. Sullivan.[138] Richard Pershing served as a second lieutenant in the502nd Infantry and was killed in action nearHải Lăng district on February 17, 1968.[139][54]: 570
In 1917, two years after the deaths of his wife Helen and three daughters, Pershing courtedAnne Wilson "Nita" Patton, the younger sister of his protégé,George S. Patton.[140]
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Pershing met her when she traveled to Fort Bliss to visit her brother,[141] and he introduced them.[141] Pershing and Nita Patton soon began a relationship; they became engaged in 1917, but their separation because of Pershing's time in France during World War I ended it.[140][141] Nita Patton never married, while Pershing remained unmarried until he secretly wed Micheline Resco in 1946.[89][141][142]
Pershing had wartime affairs, including one with French-Romanian artist Micheline Resco (1894–1968), and he later expressed regret that he had let Nita Patton "get away".[143] Resco was 34 years his junior and they had known each other and exchanged encoded love letters since meeting inParis in 1917, where Resco painted Pershing's portrait.[144] In 1946, Pershing secretly married Resco in hisWalter Reed Hospital apartment.[144]
Pershing, Indiana is named after him.
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| Insignia | Rank | Component | Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| No Insignia | Cadet | United States Military Academy | July 1, 1882 |
| No Insignia in 1886 | Second Lieutenant | 6th Cavalry,Regular Army | July 1, 1886 |
 | First Lieutenant | 10th Cavalry, Regular Army | October 20, 1892 |
 | Major | Chief Ordnance Officer,Volunteers | August 18, 1898 |
| Major | Assistant Adjutant General, Volunteers | June 6, 1899 (Reverted to permanent Regular Army rank of captain on July 1, 1901) |
 | Captain | Cavalry, Regular Army | February 2, 1901 |
 | Brigadier General | Regular Army | September 20, 1906 |
 | Major General | Regular Army | September 25, 1916 |
 | General | National Army | October 6, 1917 |
| General of the Armies | Regular Army | September 3, 1919[152][153] | |
| General of the Armies | Retired List | September 13, 1924[154][128] |
In 1940 General Pershing was awarded theDistinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in action leading an assault against hostile Moros at Mount Bagsak, on the island of Jolo in the Philippines on June 15, 1913.[155]
For extraordinary heroism against hostile fanatical Moros at Mount Bagsak, Jolo, Philippine Islands on June 15, 1913. He personally assumed command of the assaulting line at the most critical period when only about 15 yards from the last Moro position. His encouragement and splendid example of personal heroism resulted in a general advance and the prompt capture of the hostile stronghold.[155]
 |  |  |
 |  |  |
 |  |   |
| |  |
| Army Distinguished Service Cross (1940) | Army Distinguished Service Medal (1918) | Silver Star (1932) |
| Indian Campaign Medal (1907) | Spanish Campaign Medal (1905) (with silver citation star upgraded to Silver Star decoration in 1932) | Army of Cuban Occupation Medal (1915) |
| Philippine Campaign Medal (1905) | Mexican Service Medal (1917) | World War I Victory Medal with 15battle clasps (1919) |
| World War I Victory Medal with 15battle clasps (1919) | World War I Victory Medal with 15battle clasps (1919) | Army of Occupation of Germany Medal (1941) |
In 1932, eight years after Pershing's retirement from active service, his silver citation star was upgraded to theSilver Star decoration. In 1941, he was retroactively awarded theArmy of Occupation of Germany Medal for service in Germany following the close of World War I. As the medal had a profile of Pershing on its obverse, Pershing became the only soldier in the history of the U.S. Army, and only one of four in the entire U.S. Armed Forces, eligible to wear a medal with his own likeness on it. Navy admiralsGeorge Dewey,William T. Sampson andRichard E. Byrd were also entitled to wear medals with their own image on them.
 |  | ||
 |  |  |  |
 |  |  |  |
|  |  |  |
 |  |  |  |
 |  |  |  |
| Knight Grand Cross of theOrder of the Bath (Britain) | Grand Cross of theLegion of Honor (France) | ||
| Military Medal (France) | WWICroix de Guerre with bronze palm (France) | Grand Cross of theOrder of Leopold (Belgium) | WWICroix de Guerre (Belgium) |
| Order Virtuti Militari (2nd class – Commander's Cross) (Poland) | Order of the White Lion (1st Class with Swords) (Czechoslovakia) | Czechoslovak War Cross 1918 | Grand Cordon of the Order of the Precious Jade (China) |
| Order of the Golden Grain (1st Class) (China) | Order of the Redeemer (Grand Cross) (Greece) | Grand Cross of theMilitary Order of Savoy (Italy) | Grand Cross of theOrder of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Italy) |
| Order of the Rising Sun (Grand Cordon) (Japan) | Medaille Obilitch,Miloš Obilić medal instituted byPetar II Petrović Njegoš (Montenegro) | Grand Cross of theOrder of Prince Danilo I (Montenegro) | Medal of La Solidaridad (1st Class) (Panama) |
| Grand Cross of theOrder of the Sun (Peru) | Order of Michael the Brave (1st Class) (Romania) | Grand Cross of theOrder of the Star of Karageorge with Swords (Serbia) | Grand Cordon of theOrder of the Liberator (Venezuela) |
Informational notes
Citations
... and the boys stood in formation from noon till evening before the arrival of the automobile bearing the impressive insignia of four gold stars.
The Pershing ancestry was a purposeful mixture of Anglo-Saxon on his mother's side of the house, Alsatian and German on his father's.
Anna May Pershing, a sister of the late General of the Armies John J. Pershing, died yesterday at the age of 89. ...
Brother of General Succumbs to Cerebral Thrombosis After a Long Illness. Was President of an Insurance Company. Formerly a Clothing Manufacturer. ...
Maj. Gen. John J. Pershing, the famous "Black jack" of the regulars, will go down in history as the first American army officer to command troops on the battlefields of Europe. He (Pershing) is one of the officers picked by Colonel Roosevelt, when the Colonel was President, for rapid promotion to the highest of army commands. ...
john j. pershing promotion brigadier seniority.
pershing distinguished service cross roosevelt birthday.
The war in Europe at the time that the United States became an associate of the Allies was still at a stalemate. The Allied countries were reaching the exhaustion of both men and supplies ...
Immediately before the parade starts the general will be presented with a handsome general's flag, bearing four gold stars, by the Girls' Overseas club.
the Army's dark blue full dress uniform…has…four gold stars on each sleeve….
He wears thefour silver stars of his rank on either shoulder, and the gold ornaments of the general staff.
The general wore the regular service uniform of a mounted officer and save for thefour silver stars on his shoulder, designating the rank of a full general, none of the honors and decorations which have been bestowed upon him by a grateful government and appreciative allies were in evidence.
Bibliography
This article incorporatespublic domain material from websites or documents of theUnited States Army Center of Military History.
Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Data from Wikidata| Military offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Chief of Staff of the United States Army 1921–1924 | Succeeded by |
| Honorary titles | ||
| New title | Honorary Commander ofThe American Legion 1926 Served alongside:MarshalFerdinand Foch | Title abolished |
| Preceded by | Persons who havelain in state or honor in theUnited States Capitol rotunda July 18–19, 1948 | Succeeded by |
| Awards and achievements | ||
| Preceded by | Cover ofTime Magazine August 11, 1924 | Succeeded by |
Leaders of theUnited States Army | ||
|---|---|---|
| Senior officers / commanding generals |   | |
| Chiefs of staff | ||
| Vice chiefs of staff | ||
Media from CommonsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceData from Wikidata| International | |
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