John Byng | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Born | baptised(1704-10-29)29 October 1704 Southill, Bedfordshire, England |
| Died | 14 March 1757(1757-03-14) (aged 52) Portsmouth, England |
| Cause of death | Execution by firing squad |
| Allegiance |  Great Britain |
| Service |  Royal Navy |
| Years of service | 1718–1757 |
| Rank | Admiral |
| Commands | Newfoundland Station Leith Station Mediterranean Fleet |
| Battles / wars | |
AdmiralJohn Byng (baptised 29 October 1704 – 14 March 1757)[1] was aRoyal Navy officer, politician and colonial administrator who wascourt-martialled and executed by firing squad. After joining the navy at the age of thirteen, he participated at theBattle of Cape Passaro in 1718. Over the next thirty years he built up a reputation as a solid naval officer and received promotion tovice-admiral in 1747. He also served asCommodore-Governor ofNewfoundland Colony in 1742,Commander-in-Chief, Leith, 1745 to 1746 and was amember of Parliament from 1751 until his death.
Byng failed to relieve a besieged British garrison during theBattle of Minorca at the beginning of theSeven Years' War. He had sailed for Minorca at the head of a hastily assembled fleet of vessels, some of which were in poor condition. In the ensuing battle with aFrench Royal Navy off the Minorcan coast, he was defeated and the fleet under his command considerably damaged. He then elected to withdraw to Gibraltar to repair his ships. Upon return to Britain, Byng was court-martialled and found guilty offailing to "do his utmost" to preventMinorca from falling to the French. He was sentenced to death and, after pleas for clemency were denied, was shot dead by a firing squad on 14 March 1757.
John Byng was born atSouthill Park in the parish ofSouthhill in Bedfordshire, England, the fourth son of Rear-AdmiralSir George Byng.[2] His father had supported KingWilliam III in his successful bid to be crownedKing of England in 1689 and had seen his own stature and fortune grow.
George Byng was a highly skilled naval commander, had won distinction in a series of battles, and was held in esteem by the monarchs whom he served. In 1721, he was rewarded byKing George I with aviscountcy, being createdViscount Torrington.[3]
John Byng entered the Royal Navy in March 1718,[1] aged 13, when his father was a well-established admiral at the peak of a uniformly successful career. Early in his career, Byng was assigned to a series ofMediterranean postings. In 1723, aged 19, he was promoted lieutenant and, at 23, rose to becomecaptain ofHMS Gibraltar. His Mediterranean service continued until 1739 without much action.[4]
In 1742 he was appointed Commodore-Governor of theBritish colony ofNewfoundland.[4] He was promoted torear-admiral in 1745 and appointedCommander-in-Chief, Leith, a post he held until 1746. Byng, stationed off Scotland, thwarted the resupply ofBonnie Prince Charlie's forces during the1745 Jacobite Rebellion. The admiral also assisted theDuke of Cumberland in Britain's crackdown after theBattle of Culloden. He was promoted tovice-admiral in 1747 and appointed Commander-in-Chief of theMediterranean Fleet.[4] He served as a Member of Parliament forRochester from 1751 until his death.[5]
_p5.105_-_Wrotham_Park%2c_Middlesex.jpg)
Having purchased a large estate inHertfordshire, in 1754 Byng commissioned the building within it ofWrotham Park, a Palladian mansion (sited within the present-day bounds ofPotters Bar). It is doubtful that he ever lived there. Byng never married and the house was left to a brother's eldest son, a descendant of whom still owns it.[6][7]
The island ofMinorca had been a British possession since 1708, when it was captured during theWar of the Spanish Succession. On the approach of theSeven Years' War, numerous British diplomats based in the Mediterranean raised the alarm that Minorca was threatened by aFrench naval attack fromToulon.[8] Since 1748, British downsizing of the Royal Navy meant that only threeships-of-the-line were assigned to protect trading interests in the Mediterranean by 1755.[9] TheLondon Evening Post had reported as far back as April 1755 that Toulon was outfitting twelve brand new "men of war".[10] LordGeorge Anson, head of the Admiralty, chose to focus instead on preventing a French invasion, keeping warships close to Britain.[11]
Byng was given orders to raise a fleet on 11 March 1756, with only six of ten assigned ships present in Portsmouth, and all of them severely undermanned.[12] Byng's orders were multiplex, his first target being the alleged new French fleet at Toulon, while the British garrison ofFort St Philip atPort Mahon was a secondary concern.[13]
Despite his protests, he was not given enough money or time to prepare the expedition properly. His fleet was delayed in Portsmouth for over a month, and he was ordered by the Admiralty Office to outfit other Channel ships ahead of his own fleet.[14] Additionally, half of his assigned ships were in disrepair or missing. When theDefiance pulled into Portsmouth, for example, the warship was missing its fore and main topmast.[15]
By 6 April, still short of over 800 men, Byng set sail from Portsmouth using ColonelRobert Bertie'sfusiliers in place of sailors. While he was en route, the French Toulon fleet, on 17 April 1756, escorted over 1,000tartanes and transport ships landing 15,000 troops under the command ofGeneral Richelieu atCiutadella, on the far west end of Minorca.[16]
Byng arrived at Gibraltar and was told of the French landing. Remarkably, GeneralThomas Fowke, then in command at Gibraltar, held awar council and refused to supply him with a regiment ofmarines, as ordered by the War Office.[17] Further, naval facilities at Gibraltar were dilapidated.[18]
Byng wrote a letter to the Admiralty Office, explaining the situation as dire. Many military historians have interpreted that dispatch as Byng preparing for failure and that he did not believe that the garrison could hold out against the French force. Without marines to land, and with only fusiliers to lend to the garrison (which would render his fleet once again severely undermanned), Byng nonetheless took his fleet to Minorca to assess the situation for himself.[citation needed]
Byng sailed on 8 May 1756. On 19 May, Byng's fleet appeared off of Port Mahon, and he endeavoured to open communications with the fort. The French squadron appeared before he could open up a line of communication with any fort officer, however.[citation needed]
TheBattle of Minorca was fought on the following day. Byng had gained theweather gage, which both forces had attempted to gain. However, the two fleets were not parallel with one another. Byng called for a lasking manoeuvre, meaning that all his ships would turn in unison and, with the wind behind them, sail straight toward the enemy bow first. But Captain Thomas Andrews of theDefiance, the lead ship due to the angled approach, did not steer directly for the first French ship in the enemy's line, but instead steered a parallel course. ThePortland,Buckingham,Lancaster andCaptain followed the example set by theDefiance. It took two cannon shots from Byng's flagship, theRamillies, and some ten to fifteen minutes for the admiral to redirect the lasking. But by this time, the French admiral had ordered his ships to pull more sail and lead away from the attempted lasking. This delay cost Byng the element of surprise, and it also allowed the French to make the rest of the battle a "running fight", as CaptainAugustus Hervey later called it.[19]
Because of the angle, the leading van took the brunt of the damage. The last ship in that squadron, theIntrepid, was heavily damaged, losing three of its masts, including the main. The next three ships, theRevenge,Princess Louisa andTrident, did not pass the now listingIntrepid to keep the sanctity of the battle line. Instead, those ships nearly collided with one another, with Captain Frederick Cornwall of theRevenge eventually navigating his ship between theIntrepid and the enemy.[citation needed]
Byng's battle line was broken. It cost him twenty to thirty minutes to reform the line, and once the line was reformed, the French pulled full sail and expediently pulled away. Byng was told by Captain Arthur Gardiner, hisflag captain, that he could set full sail for the enemy, thus providing an example to the three bottled-up ships on what to do. He declined, recalling that AdmiralThomas Mathews had been dismissed for doing so at theBattle of Toulon in 1744. After four to four and a half hours, neither side had lost a ship in the engagement, and casualties were roughly even, with 43 British sailors killed and 168 wounded, against French losses of 38 killed and 175 wounded.[20]
Byng remained near Minorca for four days without establishing communication with the fort or sighting the French. On 24 May, he called a war council of his own where, by unanimous voting, the fleet would return to Gibraltar for repairs, succour, sailors and more marines for the garrison.[21] The fleet arrived at Gibraltar on 19 June, where they were reinforced with four more ships of the line and a 50-gun frigate. Repairs were effected to the damaged vessels and additional water and provisions were loaded aboard.[21] But, before his fleet could return to sea, another ship arrived from England with further instructions, relieving Byng, Fowke and several others of their command and ordering a return to home.[citation needed]
On arrival in England, Byng was placed in custody. The garrison resisted theSiege of Fort St Philip until 29 June, when it was forced to capitulate.[citation needed]
News of the Battle of Minorca's outcome was wanting. TheNewcastle ministry had suffered military setbacks elsewhere in the British Empire;George Washington's defeat atFort Necessity at the hands of the French and Indians,Edward Braddock's army's losses inPennsylvania, the siege ofFort Oswego, and the renewal of theCarnatic Wars inIndia, with the fall ofCalcutta. Domestically, conditions were also horrid: food riots had broken out, beginning in the Midlands, spreading toWales to the south and as far north asGlasgow.[22] Another failure would challengeNewcastle's hold on power. Indeed, in the wake of publication of the battle,George II was flooded with petitions and addresses to investigate the government's poor handling of a whole host of issues.[23]
When news of the Battle of Minorca did arrive, it was via a Spanish diplomat, who carried a dispatch from the French admiral, Byng's counterpart,Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière. Without any word from Byng, or any other naval or army officer attached to his fleet, ministers chose to recall several officers, Byng included. It would be another 20 days before Byng's version of the battle arrived in London. By then, however, ministers had chosen a course of action detrimental to Byng.[citation needed]
On 26 June 1756, the government newspaper,The London Gazette, printed an edited version of Byng's report removing passages and rewording others to make the admiral appear a coward. Protest against Byng began with effigy burnings mostly in port cities throughout England and one as far away as Boston, Massachusetts.
Newcastle also received his share of odium. In a letter toRobert Craggs-Nugent, the First Minister wrote,
I have touched upon a Ticklish Point... I thought it not fair, to lay the Loss expressly upon Byng, Tho' there it will, & must be laid, & there only.[24]
Even prior to the battle,George Bubb Dodington informedHenry Fox that ministers had already chosen a scapegoat in case events in the Mediterranean went astray.[25] Clearly the government had chosen Byng to take the fall for their neglect of the Mediterranean theatre.[citation needed]
Byng's perceived failure to relieve the garrison at Minorca caused public outrage among fellow officers and the country at large.[26][27] Byng was brought home to be tried bycourt-martial for breach of theArticles of War which had been revised eleven years prior to mandate capital punishment for officers who did not do their utmost against the enemy, either in battle or pursuit.[28]
The revision followed an event in 1745 during theWar of the Austrian Succession, when a young lieutenant namedBaker Phillips had been court-martialled and shot after his ship was captured by the French. His captain had done nothing in order to prepare the vessel for action and was killed almost immediately by a broadside. Taking command, the inexperienced junior officer had been forced to surrender the ship when she could no longer be defended.[28] The negligent behaviour of Phillips's captain was noted by the subsequent court-martial and a recommendation for mercy was entered,[29] but Phillips's sentence was approved by theLords Justices of Appeal.[30]
This sentence angered some in parliament, who felt that an officer of higher rank would likely have been spared or else given a lighter punishment and that Phillips had been executed because he had been a powerless junior officer and thus a useful scapegoat. The Articles of War were amended to become one law for all: the death penalty for any officer of any rank who did not do his utmost against the enemy in battle or pursuit.[28]
Byng's court-martial was convened on 28 December 1756 aboard the elderly 96-gun vesselHMSSt George, which was anchored in Portsmouth Harbour. The presiding officer was AdmiralThomas Smith, supported byrear admiralsFrancis Holburne, Harry Norris andThomas Broderick, and a panel of ninecaptains.[31] The verdict was delivered four weeks later on 27 January 1757, in the form of a series of resolutions describing the course of Byng's expedition to Minorca and an interpretation of his actions.
The court acquitted Byng of personal cowardice.[27] However, its principal findings were that Byng had failed to keep his fleet together while engaging the French; that his flagship had opened fire at too great a distance to have any effect; and that he should have proceeded to the immediate relief of Minorca rather than returning to Gibraltar. As a consequence of these actions, the court held that Byng had "not done his utmost" to engage or destroy the enemy, thereby breaching the 12th Article of War.[31][a]
Once the court determined that Byng had "failed to do his utmost", it had no discretion over punishment under the Articles of War. In accordance with those Articles the court condemned Byng to death, but unanimously recommended that the Lords of the Admiralty ask King George II to exercise hisroyal prerogative of mercy.[1]
It fell to AdmiralJohn Forbes, in his role asLord Commissioner of the Admiralty, to sign Byng's death warrant. This he refused to do, believing the sentence to be illegal, instead attaching to the warrant a document explaining his refusal.[32] A copy of the document, believed to be Forbes' draft, on three sheets of paper, is in the archives of theSociety of Genealogists.[32] Another copy, signed "J.F. 16 February 1757", is in the Senate House Library at theUniversity of London.[32] It was also published as abroadside.[32]
_from_NPG.jpg)
First Lord of the AdmiraltyRichard Grenville-Temple was granted an audience with George II, to request clemency, but this was refused in an angry exchange. Four members of the board of the court-martial petitioned Parliament, seeking to be relieved from their oath of secrecy to speak on Byng's behalf. TheCommons passed a measure allowing this, but theLords rejected the proposal.[33]
Prime MinisterWilliam Pitt the Elder was aware that the Admiralty was at least partly to blame for the loss at Minorca due to the poor manning and repair of the fleet. The Duke of Newcastle, the politician responsible, had by now joined the Prime Minister in an uneasypolitical coalition and this made it difficult for Pitt to contest the court-martial's verdict as strongly as he would have liked. He did, however, petition the King to commute the death sentence. The appeal was refused; Pitt and the king were political opponents, with Pitt having pressed for George to relinquish his hereditary position ofElector of Hanover as being a conflict of interest with the government's policies in Europe.[33]
The severity of the penalty, combined with suspicion that the Admiralty had sought to protect themselves from public anger over the defeat by throwing all the blame on the admiral, led to a reaction in favour of Byng in both the Navy and the country, which had previously demanded retribution.[28] Pitt, thenLeader of the House of Commons, told the King: "the House of Commons, Sir, is inclined to mercy", to which George responded: "You have taught me to look for the sense of my people elsewhere than in the House of Commons."[34][35]
The King did not exercise his prerogative to grant clemency. Following the court-martial and pronouncement of sentence, Byng was detained aboardHMS Monarch in theSolent and, on 14 March 1757, he was taken to thequarterdeck for execution in the presence of all hands and men from other ships of the fleet in boats surroundingMonarch. The admiral knelt on a cushion and signified his readiness by dropping his handkerchief, whereupon a squad ofMarines shot him dead.[27]
He is buried in the Byng Mausoleum in All Saints' Church in Southill, Bedfordshire, built for the burial of his father. He died unmarried, so having left no children he bequeathed his estates, including Wrotham Park, to one of his younger nephews,George Byng (c. 1735–1789),[36] the eldest son of his next elder brotherRobert Byng (1703–1740),Governor of Barbados, who had died 17 years before the admiral's death. (His eldest surviving nephew,George Byng, 4th Viscount Torrington, had already inherited the grand paternal mansion and estate at Southill Park.) In 2018, the estate and house, largely unchanged,[36] remained the home and property of George Byng's descendant (via a female line[37]) Robert Michael Julian Wentworth Byng (born 1962),[36] the grandson of Lady Elizabeth Alice Byng (born 1897), briefly the wife of Michael Lafone,[38] eldest daughter and co-heiress ofEdmund Henry Byng, 6th Earl of Strafford (1861–1951).[39]
Byng's execution was satirised byVoltaire in his novelCandide. In Portsmouth, Candide witnesses the execution of an officer by firing squad and is told that "in this country, it is good to kill an admiral from time to time to encourage the others"(Dans ce pays-ci, il est bon de tuer de temps en temps un amiral pour encourager les autres).[40]
Byng was the last of his rank to be executed in this fashion and, 22 years after the event, the Articles of War were amended to allow "such other punishment as the nature and degree of the offence shall be found to deserve" as an alternative to capital punishment.[27]
In 2007, some descendants of the Byng family petitioned the government for a posthumous pardon. TheMinistry of Defence refused.[41] Members of his family continue to seek a pardon, along with a group at Southill in Bedfordshire where the Byng family lived.[41][42]
Byng's execution has been called "the worst legalistic crime in the nation's annals".[27] Some defend the policy, however; naval historianN. A. M. Rodger believes it may have influenced the behaviour of later naval officers by helping inculcate:[43]
a culture of aggressive determination which set British officers apart from their foreign contemporaries, and which in time gave them a steadily mounting psychological ascendancy. More and more in the course of the century, and for long afterwards, British officers encountered opponents who expected to be attacked, and more than half expected to be beaten, so that [the latter] went into action with an invisible disadvantage which no amount of personal courage or numerical strength could entirely make up for.
Such policy considerations were no comfort to the family of their victim.Warren Tute said "far from encouraging anyone at all, this judicial murder had the opposite effect".[27]Admiral Byng was buried in the Byng vault at the Church of All Saints in Southill, Bedfordshire.[44] His epitaph there expresses their view:[27]
To the perpetual Disgrace
of PUBLICK JUSTICE
The Honble. JOHN BYNG Esqr
Admiral of the Blue
Fell a MARTYR to
POLITICAL PERSECUTION
March 14th in the year 1757 when
BRAVERY and LOYALTY
were Insufficient Securities
For the
Life and Honour
of a
NAVAL OFFICER[45]
Mrs Saunders-Davies said: 'Admiral Byng did not deserve to be shot. He may not have been a brilliant sailor but he had an unblemished career and he had never lost a ship or drowned a sailor. The Byngs won't take the refusal of a pardon lying down. We're going to take this further.'
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
Media related toJohn Byng at Wikimedia Commons| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland 1742 | Succeeded by |
| Parliament of Great Britain | ||
| Preceded by | Member of Parliament forRochester 1751–1757 With:David Polhill 1751–1754 Nicholas Haddock 1754–1757 | Succeeded by |
| Proprietary Governors (1610–1660) | |
|---|---|
| French Governors of Plaisance (1655–1713) | |
| Lieutenant-governors of Placentia (1713–1770) | |
| Commodore-Governors (1729–1825) | |
| Civil Governors (1825–1855) | |
| Colonial Governors (1855–1907) | |
| Dominion Governors (1907–1934) | |
| Commission Governors (1934–1949) | |
| Lieutenant Governors (1949–present) | |
