| Jie Zhitui | |||||||||||
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_by_Li_Tang_(%25E6%259D%258E%25E5%2594%2590)%2c_1140.jpg) | |||||||||||
| Chinese | 介之推 | ||||||||||
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| Alternative names | |||||||||||
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| Jie Zitui | |||||||||||
| Chinese | 介子推 | ||||||||||
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| Jiezi | |||||||||||
| Chinese | 介子 | ||||||||||
| Literal meaning | Master Jie Viscount Jie | ||||||||||
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| Jie Tui | |||||||||||
| Chinese | 介推 | ||||||||||
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| Wang Guang | |||||||||||
| Chinese | 王光 | ||||||||||
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Jie Zhitui (fl. 7th century BC),[1] also known asJie Zitui, was an ancientaristocrat who served theJin princeChong'er during theSpring and Autumn period ofChinese history. Chinese legend holds that when Chong'er finally ascended to power as theduke of Jin ("Duke Wen"), Jie either refused or was passed over for any reward, despite his great loyalty during the prince's times of hardship. Jie then retired to the forests of Jin in what is now centralShanxi with his mother. Supposedly, the duke so desired to repay Jie's years of loyalty that, when Jie declined to present himself at court, he ordered aforest fire to compel the recluse out of hiding. Instead, Jie and his mother were killed by the fire onMt Mian. By theHan, Jie was being revered in centralShanxi as aTaoist immortal. He was annually commemorated with a ritual avoidance of fire that, despite many official bans, eventually became China'sCold Food andQingming Festivals.
Jie Zhitui[a] or Jiezhi Tui[4] is the name given to him in the oldest surviving records,[5] with Jie Zitui or Jiezi Tui[4] coming later.[6]Sima Qian treats his name as though it were actuallyJie Tui, with "Jiezi" serving as anhonorific equivalent to "Master" or"Viscount Jie".[7][8][9] A single 2nd-century source has "Jiezi Sui" (simplified Chinese:介子绥;traditional Chinese:介子綏;pinyin:Jièzǐ Suí).[10] Others state that the entire name Jiezi Tui was aposthumous title and that his real name had beenWang Guang.[11]
Jie was aJinaristocrat,poet, and composer for theChinese zither during theSpring and Autumn period ofChina'sZhoudynasty.[4] He served at the court of the Jin princeChong'er (posthumously the "Wen Duke") inPu during the reign of Chong'er's fatherDuke Guizhu (posthumously the "Xian Duke"). A passage of theHuainanzi relates that, when Master Jie sang "The Dragon and the Snake", Prince Chong'er "broke down in tears".[12][13]Giles[14] considered Jie to be the same person as the "Jiezi Tui" who is mentioned as having been a minister inChu at the age of 15.[15][16]
In 655 BC, Jie followed Chong'er into exile[10] among theDi tribes north of the Chinese[17] when theRong beautyLi Jisuccessfully plotted against the sons of the other wives of theDuke of Jin. Her sonXiqi and his successorZhuozi were quickly killed by the ministerLi Ke, who then offered the throne to Chong'er in 651 BC. The prince declined; his younger brotherYiwu (posthumously the "Hui Duke") accepted and then—after a perilous period of imprisonment inQin—sentassassins after Chong'er in 646 BC. Hearing about them, he and his court fled from the Di, arriving at thestate of Qi inShandong in 644 BC. Soon after, Qi fell intoa civil war over its own succession. Prince Chong'er and his growing entourage then travelled to the courts ofCao,Song,Zheng,Chu, and finallyQin. In 636 BC,Duke Renhao (posthumously the "Mu Duke") lent Qin's army for an invasion against Duke Yiwu's sonYu (posthumously the "Huai Duke"), defeating him atGaoliang.
Jie was passed over for reward when Chong'er became duke of Jin.[1] The 4th-century-BCcommentary on theSpring and Autumn Annals credited toZuo Qiuming contains the earliest surviving record of Jie's story,[6] in a section now placed besideConfucius's entry onDuke Yiwu's death in 637 BC. In it, aThucydidean dialogue between Jie and his mother explains how he finds the duke's other retainers to be thieves for taking credit and receiving rewards whenHeaven itself was responsible for Chong'er's restoration. His lord also showed himself to be unworthy by failing to reward him despite his failure to appear at court. His mother asks him to at least go before the duke,[2] but he explains he has already criticized the other nobles so harshly that he could not possibly return and is resolved towithdraw into the wilderness. She accepts his decision and leaves with him. When the duke later realized his mistake, he sought out Jie but failed. He then set aside the produce of the fields ofMianshang[18] to endow sacrifices in Jie's honor, "a memento ... of my neglect and a mark of distinction for the good man".[19]
Theannals compiledc. 239 BC underQin'schancellorLü Buwei opine that Duke Chong'er never became aking because he proved less capable in success than he had been in adversity.[20] Its account of Jie's fate—which omits mention of his mother—begins with the moral that "it is easy to hold onto others if you offer them honor and wealth[, b]ut it is difficult ... if you offer them poverty and debasement".[21] Lü's scholars do not suggest that the duke overlooked Jie, however, but that he was simply "far from the vulgar crowd" and embarrassed by the behavior the duke's other close retainers.[20] He posts apoem upon the palace gates,[22][b] obliquely announcing his retirement into the mountains. Chong'er hears of it, recognizes its author, and goes intomourning for his old friend, changing his clothes and sleeping away from the palace.[20] He offers a million "fields" of land and a position as senior minister (上卿; 'shǎngqīng') to anyone—noble or common—who is able to find Jie for him. The only person who does discover Jie, however, finds him carrying a pot and a large umbrella in the remote mountains. Asked if he knows where Jie Zhitui might live, the hermit replies that Jie "does not wish to be discovered" and "wants to remain hidden". Complaining "How is it that I alone know this?" he wandered away beneath his umbrella, never to be seen again.[20]
The account inSima Qian's 1st-century BCRecords largely repeats theZuozhuan account with greater detail.[23] (In fact, thefour-character lines andrhyming dialogue in Jie's conversations with his mother suggests it draws on an earlier, now-lost poetic treatment of the life of Chong'er.)[24] Sima specifies that Jie hid himself out of disgust at what he took asHu Yan's insincere and overdramatic retirement on the journey from Qin to Jin, which Chong'er declined with similar overstatement.[25] Sima interrupts Jie's story, though, to make excuses for the duke's tardiness in remembering and rewarding Jie. The beginning of Chong'er's reign was distracted by rioting caused by Duke Yu's partisans[26]Yin Yi[27] andXi Rui,[28] who even succeeded in burning down the ducal palace before being captured and put to death withDuke Renhao's assistance.[26] When Jie is brought back to Chong'er's attention by the poem on the gates of the new palace,[17][c] it has been placed there not by Jie himself but by his own loyal friends. Chong'er sees it himself and again immediately understands that it is about Jie.[23] Jie and his mother are never seen again,[29] but Chong'er—doing what he can—"surrounded and sealed off" the "heart" of Mianshang in order to make it Jie's and "in order to record [his] error and also to commend an excellent man".[30]
By the 3rd century BC, Jie Zhitui's story had received additional embellishment.[31]Han Fei'scollected works reference the story—dramatizing Jie's selflessness and loyalty—whereby he fed Chong'er with soup made from flesh carved from his own body because he was unable to bear his lord's thirst or hunger.[32]Zhuang Zhou'scollected works specify that the meat came from his thigh and that he "was burned to death with a tree in his arms".[33] TheSongs of Chu written and compiled between the 3rd century BC and the 2nd century AD[34] reference Jie repeatedly as a loyal and wronged vassal,[31] mentioning the story about his flesh,[35] treating his former haunts as shrines for honest officials,[36] and adding the details that Chong'er found Jie's body and donnedmourning robes for him.[37][d]
Modern forms of the story invariably include the story of Jie cooking a stew using flesh from his own thigh and wild herbs,[41] usually specifying that Chong'er was on the verge of starvation at the time.[42][43][44][41] Some elaborate on the duke's generosity toall his other supporters: one source includes proclamations that "awards may be divided into three grades: the first-grade award goes to those [who] followed me into exile; the second-grade award goes to those who donated money; and the third grade goes to those who welcomed the return of my dukedom" and that even "those who have supported me in other ways but not yet been rewarded may report their names for awards".[45] Nonetheless, Jie retired toMt Mian,[citation needed] carrying his mother.[45] When the duke was unable to find his old friend's hermitage amid the endless trees and ridges,[43] his advisors suggested lighting aforest fire on one side[41] of Mt Mian to drive him out[46] since hisduty to his mother would overcome his pride.[45] However, the fire raged three days and nights[45][41] and Jie was burnt to death under awillow[46][47] together with his mother.[45][43][44][41] Some add the detail that he left verses written in blood, "I cut off my own flesh to dedicate [it] to you, [and] only wish [that] my king will always be clear and bright."[42] Duke Chong'er then erected a temple in his honor[41] and personally ordered theCold Food Festival.[1][42][46][44][47]
Jie is listed as the author of severalpoems orsongs, although since they were composed in a dialect ofOld Chinese their lines do not necessarilyrhyme orscan correctly in present-dayMandarin.[4] The lyrics of "The Dragon and Snake Song" (simplified Chinese:龙蛇歌; traditional Chinese:龍蛇歌; pinyin:Lóngshégē) or "The Song of the Dragon and the Snake" (simplified Chinese:龙蛇之歌; traditional Chinese:龍蛇之歌; pinyin:Lóngshé zhī Gē) are included in theQin Melodies.[10] They tell the story of a beautifuldragon stripped of its horns, scales, and flight owing to the jealousy ofHeaven. OnEarth, it becomes close friends with asnake before eventually returning to its proper station. The snake understands the two come from different worlds but remains forlorn, and the song—set for theChinese zither—ends with the moral that, "to be cheerful, one cannot look back."[e] He was also credited with "The Scholar who Lost His Ambition" (士失志操;Shì Shī Zhì Cāo).[4]
The oldest sources for Jie's story state that Duke Chong'er set apart the income from the fields of Mianshang nearJiexiu[48][49] to endow sacrifices in his honor.[19] By theEastern Han (1st & 2nd centuries), he was listed among theTaoistimmortals[11] and had atemple inTaiyuan[50][51] and another atMt Mian[52] at his tomb on Lord Jie Ridge.[43] The mountain temple supposedly also preserved various relics of Jie's, brought there by Chong'er.[43] Agrove of blackened trees on the mountain was also revered and, in the 6th century, supposed to be a place ofmiracles granted by the sage.[53][54]
During theEastern Han, people in central and southernShanxi avoided fire for up to a month in the middle of winter, either out of respect[55][5] for Jie or because they fearedhis spirit's vengeance against those who broke the taboo.[50][31] This left them unable to cook theirstaple grains likerice andmillet or most other forms ofChinese food.[56] At first, the most common dish was a cold form of uncookedcongee orgruel;[57] later, a menu developed of items that were precooked but kept long enough that they could be eaten unheated during the festival.[56]
From the 2nd to the 5th century,Zhou Ju (simplified Chinese:周举; traditional Chinese:周舉; pinyin:Zhōu Jǔ),[50][58]Cao Cao,[59][60]Shi Le,[61][62] andTuoba or Yuan Hong[63][64] all attempted to ban thisCold Food Festival because of the suffering that it caused children and the elderly.[50][31] All failed,[54] in Shi Le's case because a massivehailstorm across all ofShanxi the year after his ban required that he adjust the policy.[61][65] At some point before the end of the 3rd century, however, the pronouncements of Zhou Ju and other officials did succeed in moving the festival from the middle of winter to 105 days later, around theQingmingsolar term near the end of spring (by Chinese reckoning).[66] The Cold Food Festival spread throughout China by the 6th century[53][67] but, after the incorporation ofancestral veneration and other aspects of theDouble Third Festival under theTang,[68] the prohibition against fire and remembrance of Jie slowly diminished in importance as it became the modernTomb-Sweeping Festival[69] by theQing.[70] Today, as was true long in the past, observance of the fire taboo is mostly limited to the countryside aroundJiexiu andMt Mian inShanxi,[71] where there is still a small temple in his honor, the Pavilion of the Divine Jie (simplified Chinese:介神阁; traditional Chinese:介神閣; pinyin:Jièshéngé).[72] Some people hang willow beside their doors.[46] DowntownJiexiu also holds themed events andtemple fairs during the old Cold Food Festival[44] and some cold foods likeqingtuan continue to be popular as seasonal staples.[71]
Jie is usually considered the namesake of the town ofJiexiu (lit. 'Jie's Rest'), which was renamed from Pingchang under theTang about AD 618 to reflect the name its surroundingcommandery—including Mt Mian—had borne since theNorthern Wei (4th–6th century).[73]
His legend—with adjustments—appears in Wang Mengji's 17th-century short story "Jie Zhitui Sets Fire to His Jealous Wife",[74] which usesirony andabsurdities to comment on femininejealousy and the difficulty of matching results to intentions.[75] The firstcontemporary dance troupe onTaiwan,[76] theCloud Gate Dance Theater, has dramatized the story of Jie Zhitui asHan Shih since 1974.[77] Jie is depicted in "a white robe with a long, broad trail ... as the hero[,] dragging the weight of his principle, struggles to his self-redemption".[77]He Bing portrayed "Jie Zitui" as the main character of the 2011 TV dramaSong of Spring and Autumn.
Jie's intransigence has not always escaped criticism. TheLegalistphilosopherHan Fei listed him among the absurd advisors who "were all like hard gourds".[78]Holzman acknowledges that Jie's behavior "earned him immortality as a loyal official who chose obscure retirement rather than sacrifice his principles", but still personally finds it "rather strange... and rather petulant".[6] A 2015 article in theShanghai Daily admits that, "judged in light of modern notion[s]", Jie "would probably be suffering from personality disorders that lead to him to perceive and understand the world in ways that are 'inflexible'". Being "one of the most celebrated models of integrity of the old school", however, Jie is not faulted for his actions but listed as "a mentally sound person who live[d] in an 'unhealthy society'" and did not "fit" it.[79]
Adragon went flying,
Circling all the world.
Five serpents accompanied him,
Serving as aides and helpers.
When the dragon returned to his home,
And won his proper place,
Four of the serpents accompanied him
And won their dew and rain.
But one serpent was ashamed of this
And withered to death in the open fields.
有龍矯矯，遭天譴怒。
卷排角甲，來遯於下。
志願不與，蛇得同伍，
龍蛇俱行，身辨山墅。
龍得升天，安厥房戶，
蛇獨抑摧，沈滯泥土。
仰天怨望，綢繆悲苦，
非樂龍伍，惔不眄顧。
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