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| Jiaozhi | |||||||||||||||||
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| Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||
| Chinese | 交趾 | ||||||||||||||||
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| Alternative Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||
| Chinese | 交阯 | ||||||||||||||||
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| Vietnamese name | |||||||||||||||||
| Vietnamese alphabet | Giao Chỉ | ||||||||||||||||
| Chữ Hán | 交趾 | ||||||||||||||||
| History ofVietnam (bynames of Vietnam) |  | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Jiaozhi (standard Chinese,pinyin:Jiāozhǐ), orVietnamese:Giao Chỉ, was a historical region ruled by variousChinese dynasties, corresponding to present-day northernVietnam. The kingdom ofNanyue (204–111 BC) set up theJiaozhi Commandery (Chinese:交趾郡,交阯郡;Vietnamese:Quận Giao Chỉ,chữ Hán: 郡交趾) an administrative division centered in theRed River Delta that existed through Vietnam'sfirst andsecond periods of Chinese rule. During theHan dynasty, thecommandery was part of a province of the same name (later renamed toJiaozhou) that covered modern-day northern and central Vietnam as well asGuangdong andGuangxi in southern China. In 670 AD, Jiaozhi was absorbed into theAnnan Protectorate established by theTang dynasty. Afterwards, official use of the name Jiaozhi was superseded by "Annan" (Annam) and othernames of Vietnam, except during the brieffourth period of Chinese rule when theMing dynasty administered Vietnam as theJiaozhi Province.
Chinese chroniclers assigned variousfolk etymologies for the toponym.
According toMichel Ferlus, the Sino-VietnameseJiao in Jiāozhǐ (交趾), together with the ethnonym and autonym of theLao people (lǎo 獠), and the ethnonymGēlǎo (仡佬), aKra population scattered fromGuizhou (China) to North Vietnam, would have emerged from*k(ə)ra:w.[7] The etymon*k(ə)ra:w would have also yielded the ethnonym Keo/ KæwkɛːwA1, a name given to the Vietnamese by Tai speaking peoples, currently slightly derogatory.[7] InPupeo (Kra branch),kew is used to name theTay (Central Tai) of North Vietnam.[8]
Frederic Pain proposes that*k(ə)ra:w means 'human being' and originates fromAustroasiatic:[9] he further links it to a local root *trawʔ[nb 1], which is associated withtaro, is ancestral to various Austroasiatic lexical items such as "Monic (Spoken Monkrao or Nyah-kurtraw), Palaungic (Tung-wakraɷʔ or Semklao), or Katuic (Ongraw or Soueiʰraw < proto-Katuic *craw)", and possibly evoked "a particular (most probably tuber-based) cultivation practice used by small Mon-Khmer horticultural communities—as opposed to more complex and advanced cereal-growing (probably rice-based) societies"[11]
Meanwhile, James Chamberlain claims thatJiao originated from a word also ancestral toLao, thus meaning Jiao & Lao are cognates.[12] Chamberlain, like Joachim Schlesinger, claim that the Vietnamese language was not originally based in the area of theRed River in what is now northern Vietnam. According to them, the Red River Delta region was originally inhabited byTai-speakers. They claim that the area become Vietnamese-speaking only between the seventh and ninth centuries AD,[13] or even as late as the tenth century, as a result of immigration from the south, i.e., modernnorth-central Vietnam.[14][15] According toHan-Tang records, east of Jiaozhi and the coast ofGuangdong,Guangxi was populated byTai-Kadai speakers (whom Chinese contemporaries calledLǐ 俚 andLǎo 獠).[16][17][18] Catherine Churchman proposes that the Chinese character 獠 transliterated a native term and was shortened from older two-character combinations (which were used transcribe the endonym's initial consonantal cluster); noting that the older two-character combinations 鳩獠Qiūlǎo, 狐獠Húlǎo, and 屈獠Qūlǎo had been pronounced *kɔ-lawʔ, *ɣɔ-lawʔ, and *kʰut-lawʔ respectively inMiddle Chinese, she reconstructs the endonym *klao, which is either related to the wordklao, meaning "person", in theKra languages, or is a compound, meaning "our people", of prefixk- for "people" andProto-Tai first person plural pronoun *rəu[nb 2] "we, us".[19] Even so, Michael Churchman acknowledged that "The absence of records of large-scale population shifts indicates that there was a fairly stable group of people in Jiaozhi throughout the Han–Tang period who spoke Austroasiatic languages ancestral to modern Vietnamese."[20]
Jiaozhi, pronouncedKuchi in theMalay, became theCochin-China of thePortuguese tradersc. 1516, who so named it to distinguish it from thecity and theKingdom of Cochin in India, their first headquarters in theMalabar Coast. It was subsequently called "Cochinchina".[21][22]
Numerous Chinese sources, dated to theSpring & Autumn andWarring States periods, mentioned a place calledJiao(zhi) to the south ofAncient China.[23][24][25][26][27][28] Book of Rites is the earliest extant source to associate the name Jiaozhi with theNanman.[29] However, Vietnamese historianĐào Duy Anh locates Jiaozhi (which was mentioned in ancient texts) only south of Mount Heng (衡山) (aka 霍山 Mount Huo or 天柱山Mount Tianzhu), within the lower part ofYangtze's drainage basin, and nowhere farther than todayAnhui province in China (i.e. not in todaynorthern Vietnam); accordingly, Đào definesJiao(zhi) as "lands in the south which bordered [ancient Chinese's] territories".[30]
The native state ofVăn Lang is not well attested, but much later sources nameGiao Chỉ as one of the realm's districts (bộ). Its territory purportedly comprised present-dayHanoi and the land on the right bank of theRed River. According to tradition, theHung kings directly ruled Mê Linh while other areas were ruled by dependent Lac lords.[31] The Van Lang kingdom fell to theÂu under princeThục Phán around 258 BC.
Thục Phán established his capital atCo Loa in Hanoi'sDong Anhdistrict. The citadel was taken around 208 BC by theQin generalZhao Tuo.
Zhao Tuo declared his independent kingdom ofNanyue in 204 and organized his Vietnamese territory as the twocommanderies of Jiaozhi andJiuzhen (Vietnamese:Cửu Chân; present-dayThanh Hóa,Nghệ An, andHà Tĩnh). Following a native coup that killed the Zhao king and hisChinese mother, the Han launchedtwo invasions in 112 and 111 BC that razed the Nanyue capital atPanyu (Guangzhou). When Han dynasty conqueredNanyue in 111 BC, the Han court divided it into 9 commanderies, one commandery called Jiaozhi was the center of Han administration and government for all 9 areas. Because of this, the entire areas of 9 commanderies was sometime called Jiaozhi. From Han to Tang, the names Jiaozhi and Jiao county at least was used for a part of the Han-era Jiaozhi. In 670, Jiaozhi was absorbed into a larger administrative called Annan (Pacified South). After this, the name Jiaozhi was applied for theRed River Delta and most or all of northern Vietnam (Tonkin).[32]
TheHan dynasty received the submission of the Nanyue commanders in Jiaozhi andJiuzhen, confirming them in their posts and ushering in the "First Era of Northern Domination" inVietnamese history. Thesecommanderies were headed bygrand administrators (taishou) who were later overseen by the inspectors (刺史,cishi) ofJiaozhou or"Jiaozhi Province" (Giao Chỉ bộ), the first of whom wasShi Dai.
Under the Han, the political center of the former Nanyue lands was moved from Panyu (Guangzhou) south to Jiaozhi. The capital of Jiaozhi was first Mê Linh (Miling) (within modernHanoi'sMe Linhdistrict) and thenLuy Lâu, withinBac Ninh'sThuan Thanhdistrict.[33][34] According to theBook of Han’s "Treatise on Geography", Jiaozhi contained 10counties:Leilou (羸𨻻), Anding (安定), Goulou (苟屚), Miling (麊泠), Quyang (曲昜), Beidai (北帶), Jixu (稽徐), Xiyu (西于),Longbian (龍編), and Zhugou (朱覯).Đào Duy Anh stated that Jiaozhi's territory contained all ofTonkin, excluding the regions upstream of theBlack River andMa River.[35] SouthwesternGuangxi was also part of Jiaozhi.[35] The southwest area of present-dayNinh Bình was the border of Jiuzhen. Later, the Han dynasty created another commandery namedRinan (Nhật Nam) located south of Jiuzhen, stretching from theNgang Pass toQuảng Nam Province.
One of the Grand Administrators of Jiaozhi wasSu Ding.[36] In AD 39, two sistersTrưng Trắc and Trưng Nhị who were daughters of the Lac lord of Mê Linh, led anuprising that quickly spread to an area stretching approximate modern-day Vietnam (Jiaozhi,Jiuzhen,Hepu andRinan), forcing Su Ding and the Han army to flee. All of Lac lords submitted to Trưng Trắc and crowned her Queen.[37] In AD 42 the Han empire struck back by sending an reconquest expedition led byMa Yuan.Copper columns of Ma Yuan was supposedly erected by Ma Yuan after he had suppressed the uprising of theTrưng Sisters in AD 44.[38] Ma Yuan followed his conquest with a brutal course of assimilation,[39] destroying the natives'bronze drums in order to build the column, on which the inscription "If this bronze column collapses, Jiaozhi will be destroyed" was carved, at the edge of the Chinese empire.[40] Following the defeat of Trưng sisters, thousands of Chinese immigrants (mostly soldiers) arrived and settled in Jiaozhi, adopted surname Ma, and married with localLac Viet girls, began the developing of Han-Viet ruling class while local Lac ruling-class families who had submitted to Ma Yuan were used as local functionaries in Han administration and were natural participants in the intermarriage process.[41] In 100,Cham people in Xianglin county (near modern-dayHuế) revolted against the Han rule due to high taxes. The Cham plundered and burned down the Han centers. The Han respond by putting down the rebellion, executed their leaders and granting Xianglin a two-year tax respite.[42] In 136 and 144, Cham people again launched another two rebellions which provoked mutinies in the Imperial army from Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, then rebellion in Jiaozhi. The governor of Jiaozhi, according to Kiernan, "lured them to surrender" with "enticing words."[42]
In 115, the Wuhu Li ofCangwu district revolted against the Han. In the following year, thousand of rebels from Yulin and Hepu besieged Cangwu.Empress Dowager Deng decided to avoid conflict and instead sent attendant censor Ren Chuo with a proclamation to grant them amnesty.[43]
In 157, Lac leaderChu Đạt in Jiuzhen attacked and killed the Chinese magistrate, then marched north with an army of four to five thousand. The governor of Jiuzhen, Ni Shi, was killed. The Han general of Jiuzhen, Wei Lang, gathered an army and defeated Chu Đạt, beheading 2,000 rebels.[44][45]
In 159 and 161, Indian merchants arrived Jiaozhi and paid tributes to the Han government.[46]
In 166, a Roman trade mission arrived Jiaozhi, bringing tributes to the Han, which "were likely bought from local markets" of Rinan and Jiaozhi.[47]
In 178, Wuhu people underLiang Long sparked a revolt against the Han inHepu and Jiaozhi. Liang Long spread his revolt to all northern Vietnam,Guangxi and central Vietnam as well, attracting all non-Chinese ethnic groups in Jiaozhi to join. In 181, the Han empire sent general Chu Chuan to deal with the revolt. In June 181 Liang Long was captured and beheaded, and his rebellion was suppressed.[48]
In 192,Cham people in Xianglin county led byKhu Liên successful revolted against the Han dynasty. Khu Liên found the independent kingdom ofLâm Ấp.[49]
Jiaozhi emerged as the economic center of gravity on the southern coast of the Han empire. In 2 AD, the region reported four times as many households asNanhai (modern Guangdong), while its population density is estimated to be 9.6 times larger than that of Guangdong. Jiaozhi was a key supplier of rice and produced prized handicrafts and natural resources. The region's location was highly favorable to trade. Well connected to central China via theLing Canal, it formed the nearest connection between the Han court and theMaritime Silk Road.[50]
By the end of the second century AD,Buddhism (brought from India via sea by Indian Buddhists centuries earlier) had become the most common religion of Jiaozhi.[51]
During theThree Kingdomsperiod, Jiaozhi was administered fromLongbian (Long Biên) byShi Xie on behalf of theWu. This family controlled several surrounding commanderies, but upon the headman's deathGuangzhou was formed as a separate province from northeasternJiaozhou and Shi Xie's son attempted to usurp his father's appointed replacement. In retaliation,Sun Quan executed the son and all his brothers and demoted the remainder of the family to common status.[52]
During theFourth Chinese domination of Vietnam, theMing dynasty revived the historical name Jiaozhi and created theJiaozhi Province in northern Vietnam. After repelling the Ming forces,Lê Lợi dismissed all former administrative structure and divided the nation into 5dao. Thus, Giao Chỉ and Giao Châu have never been names of official administrative units ever since.
In 166 CE An-tun (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) of the state ofTa Ch'in sent missinaries from beyondRinan to offer present of ivory, rhinoceros horn, and tortoise to the Han court.[53] Hou Han shu records:
In the ninth Yanxi year [AD 166], during the reign ofEmperor Huan, the king ofDa Qin [the Roman Empire], Andun (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,r. 161–180), sent envoys from beyond the frontiers through Rinan... During the reign of Emperor He [AD 89–105], they sent several envoys carrying tribute and offerings. Later, the Western Regions rebelled, and these relations were interrupted. Then, during the second and the fourth Yanxi years in the reign of Emperor Huan [AD 159 and 161], and frequently since, [these] foreigners have arrived [by sea] at the frontiers of Rinan [Commandery in modern central Vietnam] to present offerings.[54][55]
TheBook of Liang states:
The merchants of this country [the Roman Empire] frequently visit Funan [in theMekong delta], Rinan (Annam) and Jiaozhi [in theRed River Delta near modernHanoi]; but few of the inhabitants of these southern frontier states have come to Da Qin. During the 5th year of the Huangwu period of the reign of Sun Quan [AD 226] a merchant of Da Qin, whose name was Qin Lun came to Jiaozhi [Tonkin]; the prefect [taishou] of Jiaozhi, Wu Miao, sent him toSun Quan [the Wu emperor], who asked him for a report on his native country and its people."[56]
The capital of Jiaozhi was proposed byFerdinand von Richthofen in 1877 to have been the port known to the geographerPtolemy and the Romans asKattigara, situated near modernHanoi.[57][58] Richthofen's view was widely accepted until archaeology atÓc Eo in theMekong Delta suggested that site may have been its location. Kattigara seems to have been the main port of call for ships traveling to China from the West in the first few centuries AD, before being replaced byGuangdong.[59]
In terms of archaeological finds, aRepublican-eraRoman glassware has been found at aWestern Han tomb inGuangzhou along theSouth China Sea, dated to the early 1st century BC.[60] In addition, from a site near theRed River in the northern Vietnamese province ofLao Cai (borders withYunnan), a glass bowl dated from late first century BC to early first century AD was recovered along with 40 ancient artifacts including sevenHeger type I drums.[61] At Óc Eo, then part of theKingdom of Funan near Jiaozhi, Roman golden medallions made during the reign ofAntoninus Pius and his successor Marcus Aurelius have been found.[62][63] This may have been the port city of Kattigaradescribed by Ptolemy, laying beyond theGolden Chersonese (i.e.Malay Peninsula).[62][63]
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)| Sili |  Han provinces and commanderies in 219 CE | |
|---|---|---|
| Yu Province | ||
| Ji Province | ||
| Yan Province | ||
| Xu Province | ||
| Qing Province | ||
| Jing Province | ||
| Yang Province | ||
| Yi Province | ||
| Liang Province | ||
| Bing Province | ||
| Shuofang Province | ||
| You Province | ||
| Jiaozhi Province | ||
Full list(202 BC – 220 AD) | ||