| Jezebel אִיזֶ֗בֶל | |
|---|---|
| Queen ofIsrael | |
 19th-century painting of Jezebel byJohn Liston Byam Shaw | |
| Died | c. 852 BCE Tel Jezreel |
| Spouse | KingAhab |
| Issue | Ahaziah Jehoram Athaliah? |
| Father | Ithobaal I |
| Religion | Canaanite religion |
Jezebel (/ˈdʒɛzəbəl,-bɛl/)[1][2][3][4] was the daughter ofIthobaal I ofTyre and the wife ofAhab,King of Israel, according to theBook of Kings of theHebrew Bible (1 Kings 16,1 Kings 16:31).[5]
According to the biblical narrative, Jezebel replacedYahwism withBaal andAsherah worship and was responsible forNaboth’s death. This caused irreversible damage to the reputation of theOmride dynasty, who were already unpopular among the Israelites.[6][7][8][9] For these offences, Jezebel wasdefenestrated and devoured by dogs, underJehu's orders, which Elijah prophesied (2 Kings 9,2 Kings 9:33–37).
Later, in theBook of Revelation, the name Jezebel is contemptuously attributed to a prophetic woman ofThyatira, whom the author, through the voice of the risen Christ, accuses of leading her followers into fornication (idolatry). For refusing to repent, she is threatened with sexualized punishment ("throw[n] on a bed") and the death of her children.[10][11]
Jezebel is the Anglicized transliteration of the HebrewאִיזֶבֶלʾIzeḇel.The Oxford Guide to People & Places of the Bible states that the name is "best understood as meaning 'Where is the Lord?'" (Hebrew:אֵיזֶה בַּעַל,romanized: ʾēze baʿal), a ritual cry from worship ceremonies in honor ofBaal during periods of the year when the god was considered to bein the underworld.[12] Alternatively, a femininePunic name noted by theCorpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum,Phoenician:𐤁𐤏𐤋𐤀𐤆𐤁𐤋,romanized: bʿlʾzbl,[13] may have been a cognate to the original form of the name, as the Israelites were known to often alter personal names which invoked the names of foreign gods (cf. instances for Baal,Mephibosheth andIsh-bosheth).
Jezebel is introduced into the biblical narrative as aPhoenician princess, the daughter ofIthobaal I, king ofTyre (1 Kings 16:31 says she was "Sidonian", which is a biblical term for Phoenicians in general).[12]According to genealogies given inJosephus and other classical sources, she was the great-aunt ofDido, Queen ofCarthage.[12] As the daughter of Ithobaal I, she was also the sister ofBaal-Eser II. Jezebel eventually married KingAhab ofSamaria, thenorthern kingdom of Israel.
Near Eastern scholar Charles R. Krahmalkov proposed thatPsalm 45 records the wedding ceremony of Ahab and Jezebel,[14] but other scholars cast doubt on this association.[15] This marriage was the culmination of the friendly relations existing between Israel and Phoenicia during Omri's reign, and possibly cemented important political designs of Ahab. Jezebel, like the foreign wives ofSolomon, required facilities for carrying on her form of worship, so Ahab made a Baalist altar in the house of Baal, which he had built in Samaria.[16]Geoffrey Bromiley points out that it was Phoenician practice to install a royal woman as a priestess ofAstarte, thus she would have a more active role in temple and palace relations than was customary in the Hebrew monarchy.[17]
Her coronation as queen upset the balance of power betweenYahwism andBaalism.[18][19] As queen, Jezebel institutionalized Baalism and killed Yahwist prophets, which most likely included the priests ofJeroboam'sgolden calf cult,[20] and desecrated their altars.[21][22]Obadiah, a pro-Yahwist figure in Ahab's royal court, secretly protected the survivors of these purges in a cave.[16][22] Some modern commentators observe that Jezebel's desecration ofYahwist altars would have normally been condoned since they were built outside ofJerusalem, which contravened theDeuteronomic Code. However, they were overlooked due to Elijah's piety or Jezebel's 'improper' motives.[23][24] Alternatively, some scholars argue that the Deuteronomic Code promotes laicization and considers all of Israel to be Yahweh's "sacred space". Theologians likewise argue that the "sacred space" is any place where Yahweh "manifested" to humans, according toExodus 20:24.[25][26]
As a result,Elijah invited Jezebel's prophets of Baal and Asherah to a challenge atMount Carmel.[22][27]Adam Clarke believes these prophets were royal chaplains and that the Baalist prophets had more jurisdiction over Samaria during Jezebel's reign than the Asherah prophets, who were always indigenous to Samaria.[28] The challenge was to see which god, Yahweh or Baal, would burn a bull sacrifice on an altar. Jezebel's prophets failed to summon Baal in burning the bull sacrifice, despite their cries and cutting themselves. Elijah, however, succeeded when he summoned Yahweh, impressing the Israelites. He then ordered the people to seize and kill the prophets of Baal and Asherah at theKishon River. In response, Jezebel vows to kill Elijah.[29][22][27] Elijah fled toMount Horeb,[30] where he mourned theapostasy of Israel.[16][31]
After these events,Ben-Hadad, the king ofAram-Damascus, besieged Israel and threatened to capture Ahab's wives, including Jezebel. Ahab refused and defeated him in battle. However, he spared Ben-Hadad's life, an act that was denounced by an unnamed prophet. The prophet also declared that Israel would be ravaged by the Arameans as punishment.[32]
In 855–856 BC,[33][page needed][34] Jezebel resolved a failed business deal between Ahab and a civilian namedNaboth, concerning a vineyard. To do this, she ordered the execution of Naboth and his sons,[35][36] under false charges of blasphemy against God and the king. Commentators observe that the execution was performed according to theBiblical guidelines so that suspicions of foul play could be minimized.[37] After Naboth's death, his corpse was licked by stray dogs. His execution was criticized by Elijah, who prophesized doom for Jezebel's family as punishment.
Three years later, Ahab died in battle. Jezebel's sonAhaziah inherited the throne, but died as the result of an accident and was succeeded by his brother,Jehoram.Jehu later usurped the throne[12] and killed Jehoram, and his nephewAhaziah, who was the son of Jehoram's possible sisterAthaliah and her Judahite husbandJehoram. He later approached Jezebel at the royal palace in Jezreel.
Anticipating his arrival, Jezebel put on make-up and a formal wig with adornments and looked out of a window and taunted him. Bromiley says that it should be looked at less as an attempt at seduction and more as the public defiance of the queen mother, invested with the authority of the royal house and cult to confront a rebellious commander.[17] In his two-volumeGuide to the Bible (1967 and 1969),Isaac Asimov describes Jezebel's last act: dressing in all her finery, make-up, and jewelry, as deliberately symbolic, indicating herdignity, royal status, and determination to go out of this life as a queen.[38]
Jehu, however, remained unfazed and ordered Jezebel'seunuch servants tothrow her from the window. Her blood splattered on the wall and horses, and Jehu's horse trampled her corpse. He entered the palace where, after he ate and drank, he ordered Jezebel's body to be taken for burial. However, only her skull, her feet, and the palms of her hands remained—her flesh had been eaten by stray dogs, just as the prophet Elijah had prophesied.[39][40]Edwin R. Thiele dates Jezebel's deathc. 850 BCE.[41]
According toIsrael Finkelstein, the marriage of King Ahab to the daughter of the ruler of the Phoenician empire was a sign of the power and prestige of Ahab and the northern Kingdom of Israel. He termed it a "brilliant stroke of international diplomacy".[42] He says that the inconsistencies and anachronisms in the biblical stories of Jezebel and Ahab mean that they must be considered "more of a historical novel than an accurate historical chronicle".[42] Among these inconsistencies,1 Kings 20 states that "Ben-Hadad king ofAram" invaded Samaria during Ahab's reign, but this event did not take place until later in the history of Israel, and "Ben-Hadad" was the title of the ruler of Aram-Damascus.[43] Finkelstein also states that the biblical accounts are "obviously influenced by thetheology of the seventh century BCE writers".[42] They were hostile to polytheism and viewed Samaria as a rival to Jerusalem.[42]
According to Dr J. Bimson, ofTrinity College, Bristol 1 and 2 Kings are not "a straightforward history but a history which contains its own theological commentary". He points to verses like1 Kings 14:19 that show the author of Kings was drawing on other earlier sources.[44] The book mixes the annals of history with legends, folktales, miracle stories and "fictional constructions",[45] and presentation of earlier sources is heavily edited to fit the Deuteronomist agenda.[46][47] Janet Howe Gaines likewise finds the narratives implausible, especially the narrative of Naboth being betrayed by an entire Israelite town.[48] But Christian Frevel argues that the biblical narrative subtly alludes to the Omrides' historical role in introducing Yahwism to Judah, which was obfuscated by anti-Omride Judeans. For example, Ahab gave his children theophoric names during his years of expansion in the northern territories and Judah.[49][50] Other scholars propose that the Baal worshipped by Ahab and Jezebel was the "YHWH of Samaria", which was opposed as Yahwist heresy by the Judean priests,[51] but some disagree based on archaeological evidence and extrabiblical records on Jezebel's upbringing.[52][53] Brian R. Doak believes the narratives are historically plausible because of the historicity of Omri and Ahab, evidence for widespread paganism among Israelites, international marriages for political purposes and competition between religious professionals during periods of "political unrest or social change". In addition, other contemporary sources, including sources written by Phoenicians, face similar issues in terms of being unverified by third-party sources.[54]
A seal from the 9th century BCE, discovered in 1964, has a partially damaged inscription of "YZBL" which could have once read, "belonging to Jezebel". However, there are some issues with this theory. Whereas on the seal it appears the inscription begins with the letteryodh, Jezebel's name starts with analeph, which is lacking on the seal; furthermore, the possessivelamedh which would translate to the predicate "belonging to ..." is also missing from the seal. However, it is entirely possible these letters simply could have been located where the seal is nowdamaged. The seal includes motifs associated with both Egyptian and Israelite royalty, such as theUraeus cobra, which is commonly found on pharaonic artifacts, and symbols such as thewinged sun andankh, which are found on numerous other Israelite royal seals from the 8th century BCE and onwards. Regardless, scholars do not agree on whether the seal is evidence for the historicity of the biblical character. Some scholars have said that the size and intricacy of the seal could mean it was used by royalty. If the seal truly represents Jezebel, then she most likely represented 'Anat as queen, who was the wife of theUgaritic Baal. This aligns with Phoenician royal tradition.[52]
According toGeoffrey Bromiley, the depiction of Jezebel as "the incarnation of Canaanite cultic and political practices, detested by Israelite prophets and loyalists, has given her a literary life far beyond the existence of a ninth-century Tyrian princess."[17]
Through the centuries, the nameJezebel came to be associated with false prophets. By the early 20th century, it was also associated with fallen or abandoned women.[55] By the 1950s and 1960s, the figures of Jezebel in 1 and 2 Kings and the Jezebel of Revelation began to be conflated and became "a trope for women".[56] In Christian lore, a comparison to Jezebel suggested that a person was apagan or anapostate masquerading as a servant of God. By manipulation and seduction, she misled the saints of God into sins of idolatry and sexual immorality.[57] In particular, Christians associated Jezebel withpromiscuity and the usurpation of male authority.[56] Thecosmetics which Jezebel applied before her death also led some Christians to associate makeup with vice, although, as Isaac Asimov points out in hisGuide to the Bible, such cosmetics—used on ceremonial occasions by royalty and priestesses—could be interpreted as the desire of a proud woman to meet her last moments in a manner and attire becoming a Queen. In theMiddle Ages, the chroniclerMatthew Paris criticisedIsabella of Angoulême, thequeen consort ofJohn, King of England, by writing that she was "more Jezebel than Isabel".[58] TheJezebel stereotype is an oppressive image and was used as a justification for sexual assault and sexual servitude during the eras ofcolonization andslavery in the United States.[59][60][61] In modern usage, the name of Jezebel is sometimes used as a synonym for sexually promiscuous or controlling women.[62][56]
In feminist interpretations and Bible scholarship, Jezebel is re-examined and, for example, seen as unfairly framed[63] or her story altered,[64] or as a resource for womanist theology.[65]
In American Christianspiritual warfare contexts, particularly popular amongneo-Charismatic groups such as theNew Apostolic Reformation (NAR), the Jezebel spirit is considered one of multiple named demons orterritorial spirits and is "near [ubiquitous] in spiritual warfare literature".[66] It is a powerful demon representing an "apocalyptic threat to American life, one whose demonic reign [is] hastening US moral decline and who thus [has] to be both guarded against and dethroned and replaced, spiritually and politically, if the nation [is] to evade divine judgement".[67][56] "The story of Jezebel so permeates NAR culture", states religion journalistFrederick Clarkson, that prophetic art has been made by one of the movement's apostles "depicting the scene when she's devoured by dogs."[68] In 2016, the senior editor ofCharisma magazine claimed that the 2016 US presidential election removed the spirit of Jezebel present in the government.[69][70] NARapostles and prophets have used the term in reference to American politics. NAR apostleLance Wallnau has stated US Vice PresidentKamala Harris is guided by an "occult spirit", the Spirit of Jezebel";[71] NAR pastorChé Ahn prayed at a January 5, 2021 rally that the Jezebel spirit upon the 2020 US presidential election would be thrown out to allow Christians to "rule and reign throughPresident Trump".[72] Ahn has also invoked Jezebel in reference to Harris, decreeing that she would be "cast out" by Trump in 2024, who he sees as a Jehu figure, and "lose in Jesus's name".[73] Thepolitically violent implications of such messaging, and lack of significant media coverage, have been criticized by Clarkson and others.[68][73] In 2024, a candidate for lieutenant governor in the US state of Indiana referred to the race as being between Republican "strength and godly boldness" and the "Jezebel spirit".[74] Others who have been identified with the demonic Jezebel spirit include singerMadonna.[56] In 2024, pastorMark Driscoll criticized theJames River Church Stronger Men's Conference for being opened by "the Jezebel spirit" following a sword-swallowing act.[75]
Bette Davis andHenry Fonda starred in the 1938 romantic dramaJezebel.
The American gospel vocal groupGolden Gate Quartet released a single called "Jezebel" in 1941 which narrates the story of Jezebel.[76][77]
Frankie Laine recorded "Jezebel" (1951), written byWayne Shanklin, which became a hit song.[78] The song begins:
If ever the Devil was born without a pair of horns
It was you, Jezebel, it was you
If ever an angel fell
Jezebel, it was you, Jezebel, it was you![79]
Paulette Goddard starred as Jezebel in the filmSins of Jezebel (1953).[80]
Claude Demetrius references Jezebel in the fourth verse of the No. 1 hit single,Hard Headed Woman released as a single (1958) byElvis Presley.
TheFaces 1971 song "Stay with Me" includes the line, "I hear you're a mean old Jezebel".
David Byrne andBrian Eno's 1981 albumMy Life in the Bush of Ghosts includes the song "The Jezebel Spirit", featuring clips of the exorcism of a Jezebel spirit.
InMargaret Atwood'sThe Handmaid's Tale (1985) and itsHulu adaptation, Jezebels are women forced to work as prostitutes after they are sterilized for the totalitarian and theocratic Republic of Gilead and are named after the biblical figure of the same name.
Sade's 1985 albumPromise includes the track "Jezebel", written bySade Adu.
TheNatalie Merchant song "Jezebel" was released on the10,000 Maniacs 1992 albumOur Time in Eden and later performed acoustically on the 1993 live albumMTV Unplugged (10,000 Maniacs album).
The 1995KMFDM song "Juke Joint Jezebel" is the band's most well-known song with around 3 million copies sold.
The underground rapperDizzee Rascal in his 2003 albumboy in da corner features a song named "Jezebel".
The popular historianLesley Hazleton wrote a revisionist account,Jezebel: The Untold Story of the Bible's Harlot Queen (2004), presenting Jezebel as a sophisticated queen engaged in mortal combat with the fundamentalist prophetElijah.[81]
Iron & Wine included a song "Jezebel" on his 2005 EPWoman King. It contains many references to the biblical Jezebel, in particular the dogs associated with her death.[82]
The Jezabels is an Australian indie rock band founded in 2007. The band's name is based on the biblical character, whom one band member describes as "misunderstood or misrepresented" and "an example of how women are really wrongly presented".[83][84]
TheKid Harpoon 2022 song "Little Freak" released byHarry Styles includes the line, "Little freak, Jezebel".
Finland sent a song by the name "Jezebel" to theEurovision Song Contest 2022.
In the 2023Barbie Movie, theMattel CEO calls Barbie a "Jezebel" while trying to force her back into her toy box.
2 often not capitalized : an impudent, shameless, or morally unrestrained woman
Media related toJezebel at Wikimedia Commons
