The JAO was designated by a Soviet official decree in 1928, and officially established in 1934. At its height, in the late 1940s, theJewish population in the region peaked around 46,000–50,000, approximately 25% of its population.[9] Since then, the share of Jews steadily declined, and according to the2021 Russian census, there were only 837 ethnic Jews left in the JAO (0.6%).
In December 1858, the Russian government authorized the formation of theAmur Cossack Host to protect the south-east boundary of Siberia and communications on the Amur andUssuri rivers.[12] This military colonization included settlers fromTransbaikalia. Between 1858 and 1882, many settlements consisting of wooden houses were founded.[13] It is estimated that as many as 40,000 men from the Russian military moved into the region.[13]
Map of the Trans-Siberian Railroad: original route in red, Baikal-Amur Mainline in green.
The Jewish Autonomous Oblast with the administrative center of Birobidzhan underlined.
In 1899, construction began on the regional section of theTrans-Siberian Railway connectingChita andVladivostok. The project produced a large influx of new settlers and the foundation of new settlements. Between 1908 and 1912, stations opened at Volochayevka,Obluchye,Bira,Birakan,Londoko,In, andTikhonkaya. The railway construction finished in October 1916 with the opening of the 2,590-metre (8,500 ft)Khabarovsk Bridge across the Amur atKhabarovsk.
During this time, before the1917 revolution, most local inhabitants were farmers.[12] The only industrial enterprise was the Tungussky timber mill, although gold was mined in the Sutara River, and there were some small railway workshops.[12]
AlthoughJudaism as a religion ran counter to theBolshevik party's policy of atheism and their crackdown on organized Jewish communities by closing synagogues and harassing believers,Vladimir Lenin also wanted to appease minority groups to gain their support and provide examples of tolerance.[15][16][17][18]
In 1924, the unemployment rate among Jews exceeded 30 percent,[19] as a result of USSR policies against private property ownership, which prohibited them from being craftspeople and small businessmen as many had been prior to the revolution.[20] With the goal of getting Jews back to work to be more productive members of society, the government establishedKomzet, the committee for the agricultural settlement of Jews.[19] The Soviet government entertained the idea of resettling all Jews in the USSR in a designated territory where they would be able to pursue a lifestyle that was "socialist in content and national in form". The Russians also wanted to offer an alternative toZionism, the establishment of theMandate of Palestine as a Jewish homeland.Socialist Zionists such asBer Borochov were gaining followers at that time, and Zionism was the favored ideology in the world's political economy to the Yiddish interpretations, which were essentially incompatible with the USSR because of the Yiddish movement's growing opposition (e.g.Emma Goldman) to the very ethno-nationalism which constituted and structured Soviet states.[12]
Crimea was initially considered in the early 1920s, when it already had a significant Jewish population.[12] Two Jewish districts (raiony) were formed in Crimea and three in south Ukraine.[19][21] However, an alternative scheme, perceived as more advantageous, was put into practice.[12]
Eventually,Birobidzhan, in what is now the JAO, was chosen by the Soviet leadership as the site for the Jewish region.[22] The choice of this area was a surprise to Komzet; the area had been chosen for military and economic reasons.[15] This area was often infiltrated byChina, whileJapan also wanted Russia to lose the provinces of theSoviet Far East. At the time, there were only about 30,000 inhabitants in the area, mostly descendants of Trans-BaikalCossacks resettled there by tsarist authorities, Koreans, Kazakhs, and theTungusic peoples.[23] The Soviet government wanted to increase settlement in the remoteRussian Far East, especially along the vulnerable border with China. GeneralPavel Sudoplatov writes about the government's rationale behind picking the area in the Far East: "The establishment of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast in Birobidzhan in 1928 was ordered by Stalin only as an effort to strengthen the Far Eastern border region with an outpost, not as a favour to the Jews. The area was constantly penetrated by Chinese and White Russian resistance groups, and the idea was to shield the territory by establishing a settlement whose inhabitants would be hostile towhite Russian émigrés, especially the Cossacks. The status of this region was defined shrewdly as an autonomous district, not an autonomous republic, which meant that no local legislature, high court, or government post of ministerial rank was permitted. It was an autonomous area, but a bare frontier, not a political center."[24]
On 28 March 1928, the Presidium of the General Executive Committee of the USSR passed the decree "On the attaching for Komzet of free territory near the Amur River in the Russian Far East for settlement of the working Jews."[25] The decree meant "a possibility of establishment of a Jewish administrative territorial unit on the territory of said region".[12][25]
The new territory was initially called theBirobidzhan Jewish National Raion.[15]
Birobidzhan had a harsh geography and climate: it was mountainous, covered with virgin forests of oak, pine and cedar, and also swamplands, and any new settlers would have to build their lives from scratch. To make colonization more enticing, the Soviet government allowed private land ownership. This led to many non-Jews settling in the oblast to get a free farm.[26]
In the spring of 1928, 654 Jews arrived to settle in the area; however, by October 1928, 49.7% of them had left because of the severe conditions.[15] In the summer of 1928, there were torrential rains that flooded the crops and an outbreak ofanthrax that killed the cattle.[16]
On 7 May 1934, the Presidium of the General Executive Committee accepted the decree on its transformation into the Jewish Autonomous Region within theRussian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.[12] In 1938, with the formation of theKhabarovsk Territory, the Jewish Autonomous Region (JAR) was included in its structure.[25]
A menorah dominates the front of Birobidzhan's railway station.
Vladimirovka village.
In the 1930s, a Soviet promotional campaign was created to entice more Jewish settlers to move there. The campaign partly incorporated the standard Soviet promotional tools of the era, including posters and Yiddish-language novels describing a socialist utopia there. In one instance, leaflets promoting Birobidzhan were dropped from an airplane over a Jewish neighborhood in Belarus. In another instance, a government-produced Yiddish film calledSeekers of Happiness told the story of a Jewish family from overseas making a new life for itself in Birobidzhan.[12]
Early Jewish settlements includedValdgeym, dating from 1928, which included the firstcollective farm established in the oblast,[27]Amurzet, which was the center of Jewish settlement south of Birobidzhan from 1929 to 1939,[28] andSmidovich.
As the Jewish population grew, so did the impact ofYiddish culture on the region. The settlers established a Yiddish newspaper, theBirobidzhaner Shtern; a theatre troupe was created; and streets being built in the new city were named after prominent Yiddish authors such asSholom Aleichem andI. L. Peretz.[30]
The Jewish population of JAO reached a pre-war peak of 20,000 in 1937.[31] According to the 1939 population census, 17,695 Jews lived in the region (16% of the total population).[25][32]
After the war ended in 1945, there was renewed interest in the idea of Birobidzhan as a potential home for Jewish refugees. The Jewish population in the region peaked at around 46,000–50,000 Jews in 1948, around 25% of the entire population of the JAO.[9]
The census of 1959 found that the Jewish population of the JAO had declined by approximately 50%, down to 14,269 people.[32]
A synagogue was opened at the end of World War II, but it closed in the mid-1960s after a fire left it severely damaged.[33]
In 1980, a Yiddish school was opened inValdgeym.[34]
In 1987, the reformist Soviet government led byMikhail Gorbachev pardoned many political prisoners and told the American Jewish community that it would allow the emigration of 11,000 Jewishrefuseniks.[35] According to the 1989 Soviet Census, there were 8,887 Jews living in the JAO, or 4% of the total JAO population of 214,085.[15]
In 1991, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast became thefederal subject of Russia and thus was no longer subordinated toKhabarovsk Krai. However, by that time, most of the Jews had emigrated from the Soviet Union and the remaining Jews constituted fewer than 2% of the local population.[30] In early 1996, 872 people, or 20% of the Jewish population at that time, emigrated toTel Aviv via chartered flights.[36] As of 2002, 2,357 Jews were living in the JAO.[32] A 2004 article stated that the number of Jews in the region "was now growing".[37] As of 2005,Amurzet had a small active Jewish community.[38] An April 2007 article inThe Jerusalem Post claimed that the Jewish population had grown to about 4,000. The article citedMordechai Scheiner, theChief Rabbi of the JAO from 2002 to 2011, who said that, at the time the article was published, Jewish culture was enjoying a religious and cultural resurgence.[39] By 2010, according to data provided by the Russian Census Bureau, there were only approximately 1,600 people of Jewish descent remaining in the JAO (1% of the total population), while ethnic Russians made up 93% of the JAO population.[40]
According to an article published in 2000, Birobidzhan has several state-run schools that teach Yiddish, a Yiddish school for religious instruction and a kindergarten. The five- to seven-year-olds spend two lessons a week learning to speak Yiddish, as well as being taught Jewish songs, dance, and traditions.[41] A 2006 article inThe Washington Times stated that Yiddish is taught in the schools, a Yiddish radio station is in operation, and theBirobidzhaner Shtern newspaper includes a section in Yiddish.[42]
In 2002,L'Chayim, Comrade Stalin!, a documentary on Stalin's creation of the Jewish Autonomous Region and its settlement, was released byThe Cinema Guild. In addition to being a history of the creation of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, the film features scenes of contemporary Birobidzhan and interviews with Jewish residents.[43]
According to an article published in 2010, Yiddish is the language of instruction in only one of Birobidzhan's 14 public schools. Two schools, representing a quarter of the city's students, offer compulsory Yiddish classes for children aged 6 to 10.[44][45]
As of 2012, theBirobidzhaner Shtern continues to publish 2 or 3 pages per week in Yiddish and one local elementary school still teaches Yiddish.[44]
According to a 2012 article, "only a very small minority, mostly seniors, speak Yiddish", a newChabad-sponsored synagogue opened at the 14a Sholom-Aleichem Street, and theSholem Aleichem Amur State University offers a Yiddish course.[33]
According to a 2015 article,kosher meat arrives by train fromMoscow every few weeks, a Sunday school functions, and there is also aminyan on Friday night andShabbat.[46]
A November 2017 article inThe Guardian, titled, "Revival of a Soviet Zion: Birobidzhan celebrates its Jewish heritage", examined the current status of the city and suggested that, even though the Jewish Autonomous Region in Russia's far east is now barely 1% Jewish, officials hope to woo back people who left after Soviet collapse.[47]
2013 proposals to merge the JAO with adjoining regions
In 2013, there were proposals to merge the JAO withKhabarovsk Krai or withAmur Oblast.[12] The proposals led to protests,[12] and were rejected by residents,[48] as well as the Jewish community of Russia. There were also questions as to whether a merger would be allowed pursuant to theConstitution of Russia and whether a merger would require a national referendum.[12]
JAO and its history have been portrayed in the documentary filmL'Chayim, Comrade Stalin!.[43] Released in 2002, the film tells the story ofJoseph Stalin's creation of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast and its partial settlement by thousands ofRussian- andYiddish-speakingJews. As well as relating the history of the creation of the proposedJewish homeland, the film features scenes of life in contemporary Birobidzhan and interviews with Jewish residents.
The northern and western section of the oblast is mountainous, with theLesser Khingan and theBureya Range, among others. At 1,421 metres (4,662 ft)Mount Studencheskaya, located in the Bureya Range, is the highest point of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast. The southern and eastern section is part of theAmur valley, with only a few small residual ridges.[49]
Agriculture is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast's main economic sector owing to fertile soils and amoist climate.
The largest companies in the region include Kimkano–Sutarsky Mining and Processing Plant (with revenues of $116.55 million in 2017), Teploozersky Cement Plant ($29.14 million) and Brider Trading House ($24 million).[51]
The region's well-developed transportation network consists of 530 km (330 mi) of railways, including the Tsarist-era Trans-Siberian Railway; 600 km (370 mi) of waterways along the Amur and Tunguska rivers; and 1,900 km (1,200 mi) of roads, including 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of paved roads. The most important road is the Khabarovsk-Birobidzhan-Obluchye-Amur Region highway with ferry service across the Amur. TheBirobidzhan Yuzhniy Airfield, in the center of the region, connects Birobidzhan with Khabarovsk and outlying district centers.
The Tongjiang-Nizhneleninskoye railway bridge is a 2.215 km (1.38 mi) long, $355 million bridge that linksNizhneleninskoye in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast withTongjiang in theHeilongjiang Province ofChina. The bridge opened in 2021[52] and transports more than 3 million tonnes (3.3 million short tons; 3.0 million long tons) of cargo and 1.5 million passengers per year.[53]
The population of JAO has declined by over 40% since 1989 due to massive exodus in 1989–1996, with the numbers recorded being215,937 (1989 Soviet census)[54] and150,453 (2021 census);[55]
In the late 1940s, theJewish population in the region peaked around 46,000–50,000, approximately 25% of its population.[9] The census of 1959 found that the Jewish population of the JAO had declined by approximately 50%, down to 14,269 persons.[32] In 1987, the reformist Soviet government led byMikhail Gorbachev pardoned many political prisoners and told the American Jewish community that it would allow the emigration of 11,000 Jewishrefuseniks.[35] According to the 1989 Soviet Census, there were 8,887 Jews living in the JAO, or 4% of the total JAO population of 214,085.[15] In 1991, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast became thefederal subject of Russia and thus was no longer subordinated toKhabarovsk Krai. However, by that time, most of the Jews had emigrated from the Soviet Union and the remaining Jews constituted fewer than 2% of the local population.[30][57] In early 1996, 872 people, or 20% of the Jewish population at that time, emigrated to Israel.[36] As of 2002, 2,357 Jews were living in the JAO.[32] A 2004 article stated that the number of Jews in the region "was now growing".[37] An April 2007 article inThe Jerusalem Post claimed that the Jewish population had grown to about 4,000. The article citedMordechai Scheiner, theChief Rabbi of the JAO from 2002 to 2011, who said that, at the time the article was published, Jewish culture was enjoying a religious and cultural resurgence.[39] However, the2021 Russian census indicated (see the table above) a population of only 837 ethnic Jews, or 0.6% of the JAO population were Jewish.
In the Soviet Union there was an attempt to make Yiddish an official language within Birobidzhan.[61]According to the statute of JAO (1997), Yiddish is one of the recognizedminority languages.[11]
Yiddish is taught in three of the region's schools, but the community is almost exclusively Russian-speaking.[62]
According to an article published in 2000, Birobidzhan has several state-run schools that teach Yiddish, a Yiddish school for religious instruction and a kindergarten. The five- to seven-year-olds spend two lessons a week learning to speak Yiddish, as well as being taught Jewish songs, dance, and traditions.[41] A 2006 article inThe Washington Times stated that Yiddish is taught in the schools, a Yiddish radio station is in operation, and theBirobidzhaner Shtern newspaper includes a section in Yiddish.[42]
According to a 2012 survey, 23% of the population of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast adhere toRussian Orthodoxy, 6% areOrthodox Christians of other church jurisdictions or Orthodox believers who are not members of any church, and 9% areunaffiliated or generic Christians.[63]Judaism, despite being the associated religion of the oblast's titular ethnoreligious group, is practiced by just 1% of the population, which is only slightly higher than the national average and is close to that of communities in other federal subjects. In addition, 35% of the population identify as "spiritual but not religious", and 22% professatheism, making the Jewish Autonomous Oblast one of the least religious regions in Russia. A total of 5% of the population follows other religions or declined to answer the question.[63]
Archbishop Ephraim (Prosyanka) (2015) is the head of the Russian Orthodox Eparchy (Diocese) of Birobidzhan (established 2002).
^"Jewish Autonomous Region".Kommersant Moscow. Kommersant. Publishing House. March 5, 2004. Archived fromthe original on November 4, 2011. RetrievedDecember 22, 2011.
№40-ОЗ 8 октября 1997 г. «Устав Еврейской автономной области», в ред. Закона №819-ОЗ от 25 ноября 2015 г. «О внесении изменений в статью 19 Устава Еврейской автономной области». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Биробиджанская звезда", №125 (15577), 4 ноября 1997 г. (#40-OZ October 8, 1997Charter of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, as amended by the Law #819-OZ of November 25, 2015On Amending Article 19 of the Charter of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast. Effective as of the official publication date.).
Melech Epstein,The Jew and Communism: The Story of Early Communist Victories and Ultimate Defeats in the Jewish Community, USA, 1919–1941. New York: Trade Union Sponsoring Committee, 1959.
Henry Frankel,The Jews in the Soviet Union and Birobidjan. New York: American Birobidjan Committee, 1946.
Ber Boris Kotlerman and Shmuel Yavin,Bauhaus in Birobidzhan. Tel Aviv: Bauhaus Center, 2009.
Nora Levin,The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival: Volume 1. New York: New York University Press, 1988.
James N. Rosenberg,How the Back-to-the-Soil Movement Began: Two Years of Blazing the New Jewish "Covered Wagon" Trail Across the Russian Prairies. Philadelphia: United Jewish Campaign, 1925.
Anna Shternshis,Soviet and Kosher: Jewish Popular Culture in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2006.
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