TheJerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus), also calledsunroot,sunchoke,wild sunflower,[3]topinambur,[3] orearth apple, is a species ofsunflower native to centralNorth America.[4][5] It is cultivated widely across the temperate zone for itstuber, which is used as aroot vegetable.[6]
Helianthus tuberosus is aherbaceousperennial plant growing to 1.5–3 m (4 ft 11 in – 9 ft 10 in) tall with oppositeleaves on the lower part of the stem but alternate towards the top.[7] The leaves have a rough, hairy texture. Larger leaves on the lower stem arebroad ovoid-acute and can be up to 30 cm (12 in) long. Leaves higher on the stem are smaller and narrower.[8]
Theflowers are yellow and produced in capitateflowerheads, which are 5–10 cm (2–4 in) in diameter, with 10–20ray florets and 60 or more smalldisc florets. The flowers are briefly fragrant, giving off a light, vanilla-chocolate perfume.[8]
Thetubers are often elongated and uneven, typically 7.5–10 cm (3–3+7⁄8 in) long and 3–5 cm (1–2 in) thick, and vaguely resembling aginger root in appearance, with a crisp and crunchy texture when raw. They vary in color from pale brown to white, red, or purple.[6][9]
A bowl of Jerusalem artichoke soup at a French restaurant in California
The tubers can be eaten raw, cooked, or pickled.[10]
Before the arrival of Europeans,indigenous peoples cultivatedH. tuberosus as a food source. The tubers persist for years after being planted, so the species expanded its range from centralNorth America to the eastern and western regions.[citation needed] Early European colonists learned of this and sent tubers back toEurope, where they became a popular crop and naturalized there. It later gradually fell into obscurity in North America, but attempts to market it commercially were successful in the late 1900s and early 2000s.[8][11]
The tuber contains about 2% protein, no oil, and littlestarch. It is rich in the carbohydrateinulin (8 to 13%[12]), which is apolymer of themonosaccharidefructose. Tubers stored for any length of time convert their inulin into its component, fructose. Jerusalem artichokes have an underlying sweet taste because of the fructose, which is about one and a half times as sweet assucrose.[11]
Wasps feeding on the stems of Jerusalem artichokes
It has also been reported as afolk remedy fordiabetes:[11] sinceinulin is not assimilated in the intestine, it does not cause a glycemic spike as potatoes would. Temperature variances have been shown to affect the amount of inulin the Jerusalem artichoke can produce. It makes less inulin in a colder region than when it is in a warmer region.[13]
Despite its name, the Jerusalem artichoke has no relationship toJerusalem, and it is not a type ofartichoke,[14][15] though the two are distantly related as members of thedaisy family. The most probable explanation is that Italian settlers in theUnited States called the plantgirasole, the Italian word forsunflower, because of its familial relationship to the garden sunflower (both plants are members of the genusHelianthus). Over time, the namegirasole (pronounced closer to[dʒiraˈsuːlə] inNeapolitan) was corrupted by English-speakers to Jerusalem.[16][17][18][19] Various other names have been applied to the plant, such as the French or Canada potato,topinambour, and lambchoke.Sunroot is a literal translation of theVirginia Algonquian termkaishucpenauk reported in 1588,[20] this naming is similarly reflected inOjibwe asᑮᓯᓲᒌᐱᒃgiizisoojiibik.[21]Sunchoke, a name by which it is still known today, was invented in the 1960s byFrieda Caplan, a produce wholesaler trying to revive the plant's appeal.[11]
The artichoke part of the Jerusalem artichoke's name comes from the taste of its edible tuber.Samuel de Champlain, the French explorer, sent the first samples of the plant to France, noting its taste was similar to that of anartichoke.[22][23]
The nametopinambur, in one account, is attributed to the Brazilian coastal tribe called theTupinambá, several members of which were brought to France in 1613 at the same time that the tubers were beginning to make an appearance on French tables. The New World connections were conflated, the plant being misattributed to Brazil, resulting in the nametoupinambeaux (earliest known use 1618) being applied to the tubers in French. By 1658,topinambour is found. From there, the word made its way into other European languages.[24][25][26]
The French explorerSamuel de Champlain discovered that the native people of Nauset Harbor inMassachusetts had cultivated roots that tasted like artichoke. The following year, Champlain returned to the same area to discover that the roots had a flavor similar tochard[29] and was responsible for bringing the plant back to France. Sometime later, Petrus Hondius, aDutchbotanist, planted a shriveled Jerusalem artichoke tuber in his garden atTerneuzen and was surprised to see the plant proliferate.[29] Jerusalem artichokes are so well-suited for the European climate and soil that the plant multiplies quickly. By the mid-1600s, the Jerusalem artichoke had become a very common vegetable for human consumption in Europe and the Americas and was also used for livestock feed in Europe and colonial America.[11] The French were particularly fond of the vegetable, which reached its peak popularity at the turn of the 19th century.[11] The Jerusalem artichoke was titled 'best soup vegetable' in the 2002 Nice Festival for the Heritage of French Cuisine.
The French explorer and Acadia's first historianMarc Lescarbot described Jerusalem artichokes as being "as big as turnips or truffles," suitable for eating and taste "like chards, but more pleasant." In 1629, the English herbalist and botanistJohn Parkinson wrote that the widely grown Jerusalem artichoke had become very common and cheap in London, so much so "that even the most vulgar begin to despise them." In contrast, when they had first arrived in England, the tubers had been "dainties for the Queen."[29]
Its rapid growth and its ability to reproduce from buried rhizomes and tubers facilitates the Jerusalem artichoke's uncontrolled spread.[32] The vegetative propagules can be transported via rivers and water streams and begin a new population on riverbanks.[33] Dispersal by animal is also possible, as animals feed on tubers and rhizomes and excrete the propagules in new areas.[34] With humans' cultivation, there is also a risk of the plant's unintended escape into the wild.[35] It can also be propagated by seed. Its relatively long flower period enables the Jerusalem artichoke to increase its reproductive potential.[36]
Originating in North America,[37] the Jerusalem artichoke can now be found in several countries in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Australia.[38] In Central Europe it is one of the most expanding invasive plant species.[39] It can grow in many geo-climatic regions and different types of soils.[40] However, Jerusalem artichoke prefers moist habitats[40] and seems to be less tolerant of dry conditions.[41]
Because of its ecological and biological attributes, the Jerusalem artichoke is highly competitive with other plant species.[42] For instance, the carbohydrates in the tubers serve as an energy source for rapid growth in spring.[40] The plant expands rapidly and creates shading, which has a suppressing effect on neighbouring plants.[43] Therefore, the risk of outcompeting and repressing the growth of native plants is increased.
Young plants in a gardenJerusalem artichoke tuber collage
Unlike most tubers, but in common with many other members of theAsteraceae (including the artichoke), Jerusalem artichoke tubers store their carbohydrate asinulin (not to be confused withinsulin) rather than as starch. This has made them an important source of inulin used as adietary fiber in food manufacturing.[44]
Jerusalem artichoke can propagate withseeds andtubers but the use of tubers leads to higher yields.[45] For planting, the tubers are cut into pieces with three to five buds[46] that are placed in 5–10 centimetres (2–4 in) depth in the soil.[47][48][49] Jerusalem artichoke has low nutrient requirements and needs less nitrogen than otherenergy crops.[50] The competitiveness against weeds is high, makingweed control easier but also making it harder to grow a different culture afterward, since some small tubers usually remain in the ground after harvest.[51] The plant's high competitiveness may be due toallelopathic effects,[52] high plant size,[53] and rapid growth rate.[54]
Crop yields are high, typically 16–20 tonnes per hectare (7–9 short ton/acre) for tubers, and 18–28 tonnes per hectare (8–12 short ton/acre) green weight for foliage. Tubers remaining in the ground lie dormant over winter and can handle temperatures as low as −30 °C (−22 °F).[55] Jerusalem artichoke also has potential for production ofethanol fuel, using inulin-adapted strains ofyeast for fermentation.[6]
The tubers are used for cooking and baking in the same ways as potatoes,[56] but unlike the potato, they can also be eaten raw.[55] They have a similar consistency and, in their raw form, have a similar texture but a sweeter, nuttier flavor. When raw and sliced thinly, they are fit for a salad. Their inulin form of carbohydrates give the tubers a tendency to become soft and mushy if boiled, but they retain their texture better when steamed. The inulin cannot be broken down by the human digestive system[57] but bacteria metabolize it in the colon. This can cause flatulence and, in some cases, gastric pain.John Gerard'sHerbal, printed in 1621, quotes the English botanistJohn Goodyer on Jerusalem artichokes:[58]
which way soever they be dressed and eaten, they stir and cause a filthy loathsome stinking wind within the body, thereby causing the belly to be pained and tormented, and are a meat more fit for swine than men.
Jerusalem artichokes have 650 mgpotassium per 1cup (150 g) serving. They are also high in iron and contain 10–12% of theUSRDA of fiber, niacin, thiamine, phosphorus, and copper.[59]
In former times, Jerusalem artichoke was used as forage for domesticated cattle, horses, and pigs.[60] The plant has valuable nutrient contents and various bioactive compounds,[61] and so is used today as an animal feed source or for the health of several animal species.[62] Pigs, for example, can eat the tuber either dried or directly from the ground or the green plant biomass (stalks and leaves) from the pasture.[63] Washed Jerusalem artichoke tubers can be fed to many animals, andsilage produced from the harvested stalks and leaves.[64] The silage has high nutrient values and satisfactory digestion performance for ruminants. Its highinulin content beneficially affects the rumen metabolism and microflora.[61][65] However, cutting the tops to produce silage greatly reduces the harvest of the tubers. There are also many other Jerusalem artichoke products on the market, such as supplementary feed for horses, dogs, and small animals.[66]
InBaden-Württemberg,Germany, over 90% of the Jerusalem artichoke crop is used to produce a spirit calledTopinambur, the German word for Jerusalem artichoke.[69] By the end of the 19th century, the tubers were being used in Baden to make a spirit called "Topinambur-Branntwein" (Jerusalem artichoke brandy), "Topinambur" (Jerusalem artichoke), "Topi", "Erdäpfler", "Rossler", or "Borbel".Topinambur produced in the European Union and Switzerland must be made exclusively from Jerusalem artichokes, contain at least 38%alcohol by volume, and contain neither added alcohol nor flavorings.[70][71]Caramel color is the only permitted additive.[70][71]
Jerusalem artichoke brandy smells fruity and has a slight nutty-sweet flavor. An intense, pleasant, earthy note characterizes it. The tubers are washed and dried in an oven before being fermented and distilled. It can be further refined to make "Red Rossler" by adding the roots of thecommon tormentil, giving it a bitter and astringent taste and a red color. Red Rossler contains other ingredients such as currants, producing aschnapps with about 50% alcohol used asdigestif and as a folk remedy fordiarrhea or abdominal pain.[citation needed]
In the 1980s, the Jerusalem artichoke also gained some notoriety when its seeds were planted byMidwestern US farmers at the prodding of an agricultural attempt to save the family farm. This effort aimed to teach independent farmers to raise their own food, feed, and fuel. Little market existed for the tuber in that part of the US then, but contacts were made with sugar producers, oil and gas companies, and the fresh food market for markets to be developed. Fructose had not yet been established as a mainstay, nor was ethanol used as a main fuel additive as it is today. The only real profit in this effort was realized by a few first-year growers (who sold some of their seed to other farmers individually as well as with the help of the company attempting this venture). As a result, many of the farmers who had planted large quantities of the crop lost money.[72][73]
Stem rot disease is caused by the fungusAgroathelia rolfsii (akaSclerotium rolfsii orAthelia rolfsii), which is one of the most important pathogens causing tuber and stem rot and up to 60% loss in Jerusalem artichoke yield.[74] Growing resistant varieties is an important method of controllingAgroathelia rolfsii.[75][76]
Main diseases and pests that infest Jerusalem artichoke[77]
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^Flamm G, Glinsmann W, Kritchevsky D, Prosky L, Roberfroid M (2001). "Inulin and oligofructose as dietary fiber: a review of the evidence".Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr.41 (5):353–62.doi:10.1080/20014091091841.PMID11497328.S2CID24828352.
^Peter Barham.The Science of Cooking. p. 14.we do not possess any enzymes that are capable of breaking down larger sugars, such as raffinose, etc. These three-, four-, and five-ring sugars are made by plants, especially as part of the energy storage system in seeds and beans. These sugars[ cannot be broken down in the intestines, so] they travel down into thecolon where variousbacteria digest them - and in the process produce copious amounts of carbon dioxide gas
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^"Jerusalem ArtichokeArchived 2009-11-28 at theWayback Machine", Commercial Vegetable Production Guides,Oregon State University The effort to save the family farm, however, was not a part of our nation's goal to control the farm market, so falsifications and inaccurate understandings forced the closure of this effort. In a phone call from then Sec. of Agriculture, John Block, it was stated, "We don't want to save the family farm, but need to eliminate a certain percentage of them." Later, a book was published,
^Joseph Anthony Amato,The Great Jerusalem Artichoke Circus: The Buying and Selling of the Rural American Dream, University of Minnesota Press, 1993,ISBN0-8166-2345-7ISBN978-0-8166-2345-7
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