Throughoutits long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice,besieged 23 times, captured and recaptured 44 times, and attacked 52 times.[9] The part of Jerusalem called theCity of David shows first signs of settlement in the 4th millennium BCE, in the shape of encampments of nomadic shepherds.[10] During theCanaanite period (14th century BCE) Jerusalem was named asUrusalim onancient Egyptian tablets, probably meaning "City ofShalem" after aCanaanite deity. During theIsraelite period, significant construction activity in Jerusalem began in the 10th century BCE (Iron Age II), and by the 9th century BCE the city had developed into the religious and administrative centre of theKingdom of Judah.[11] In 1538 thecity walls were rebuilt for a last time around Jerusalem underSuleiman the Magnificent of theOttoman Empire. Today those walls define theOld City, which since the 19th century has been divided into four quarters—theArmenian,Christian,Jewish andMuslim quarters.[12][13] The Old City became aWorld Heritage Site in 1981, and is on theList of World Heritage in Danger.[14] Since 1860Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old City's boundaries. In 2023 Jerusalem had apopulation of 1,028,366.[4] In 2022 60% were Jews and almost 40% were Palestinians.[15][note 4] In 2020 the population was 951,100, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353,800 (37.2%), Christians 16,300 (1.7%) and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).[17]
The name "Jerusalem" is variously etymologised to mean "foundation (Semiticyry' 'to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the pagan godShalem";[42][43] the god Shalem was thus the originaltutelary deity of the Bronze Age city.[44]
Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in theCanaanite religion, whose name is based on the same rootS-L-M from which the Hebrew word for "peace" is derived (Shalom inHebrew, cognate withArabicSalam).[45][46] The name thus offered itself to etymologisations such as "The City of Peace",[43][47] "Abode of Peace",[48][49] "Dwelling of Peace" ("founded in safety"),[50] or "Vision of Peace" in some Christian authors.[51]
The ending-ayim indicates thedual, thus leading to the suggestion that the nameYerushalayim refers to the fact that the city initially sat on two hills.[52][53]
The formYerushalem orYerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in theBook of Joshua. According to aMidrash, the name is a combination of two names united by God,Yireh ("the abiding place", the name given byAbraham to the place wherehe planned to sacrifice his son) andShalem ("Place of Peace", the name given by high priestShem).[61]
Oldest written mention ofJerusalem
One of the earliest extra-biblicalHebrew writing of the wordJerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE[62][63] and was discovered inKhirbet Beit Lei nearBeit Guvrin in 1961. Theinscription states: "I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem",[64][65][66] or as other scholars suggest: "Yahweh is the God of the whole earth. The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem".[67][68] An earlier example of the name appears in a papyrus from the 7th century BCE.[69][70]
Close up of theKhirbet Beit Lei inscription, showing the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the wordJerusalem, dated to the seventh or sixth century BCE
In extra-biblical inscriptions, the earliest known example of the-ayim ending was discovered on a column about 3 km west of ancient Jerusalem, dated to the first century BCE.[70]
Jebus, Zion, City of David
An ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as theBronze Age on the hill above theGihon Spring, was, according to the Bible, namedJebus.[71][72][73] Called the "Fortress of Zion" (metsudat Zion), it was renamed as the "City of David",[74] and was known by this name in antiquity.[75][76] Another name, "Zion", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole, and afterwards to represent the whole biblicalLand of Israel.
Greek, Roman and Byzantine names
In Greek and Latin the city's name was transliteratedHierosolyma/Hierosoluma (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greekhieròs,ἱερός, means holy), and was the term used byMatthew andMark in theirgospels instead of the Hebrew term.[77]
Up until the 2010s the consensus amonghistorians was that followingAlexander the Great's conquest, Hierosoluma was set to be incorporated into the larger temple cities of theSeleucid kingdom, and to beHellenised asHierapolis.[77] However, modern historians dispute this as a proper Ancient Greek translation for thepolis would be similar toHierolophos.[77]
TheAramaicApocryphon of Genesis of theDead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen 22:13) equates Jerusalem with the earlier "Salem" (שלם), said to be the kingdom ofMelchizedek in Genesis 14.[78] Other early Hebrew sources,[79] early Christian renderings of the verse[80] andtargumim,[81] however, put Salem in Northern Israel nearShechem (Sichem), nowNablus, a city of some importance in early sacred Hebrew writing.[82] Possibly the redactor of the Apocryphon of Genesis wanted to dissociate Melchizedek from the area of Shechem, which at the time was in possession of theSamaritans.[83] However that may be, later Rabbinic sources also equate Salem with Jerusalem, mainly to link Melchizedek to later Temple traditions.[84]
Originally titled Bayt al-Maqdis, today, Jerusalem is most commonly known inArabic asالقُدس, transliterated asal-Quds and meaning "the holy" or "the holy sanctuary",[48][49] cognate withHebrew:הקדש,romanized: ha-qodesh. The name is possibly a shortened form ofمدينة القُدسMadīnat al-Quds "city of the holy sanctuary" after the Hebrew nickname with the same meaning,Ir ha-Qodesh (עיר הקדש). Theق (Q) is pronounced either with avoiceless uvular plosive (/q/), as inClassical Arabic, or with aglottal stop (ʔ) as inLevantine Arabic.[7] Official Israeli government policy mandates thatأُورُشَلِيمَ, transliterated asŪrušalīm, which is the name frequently used in Christian translations of the Bible into Arabic,[85][86] be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction withالقُدس, givingأُورُشَلِيمَ-القُدس, Ūrušalīm-al-Quds.[87] Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called "Qudsi" (قُدسي) or "Maqdasi" (مقدسي), while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as ademonym.[88]
Jerusalem is one of the world's oldest cities, with a history spanning over 5,000 years. Its origins trace back to around 3000 BCE, with the first settlement near theGihon Spring. The city is first mentioned in EgyptianExecration texts around 2000 BCE as "Rusalimum." By the 17th century BCE Jerusalem had developed into a fortified city underCanaanite rule, with massive walls protecting its water system. During theLate Bronze Age Jerusalem became a vassal ofAncient Egypt, as documented in theAmarna letters.
The city's importance grew during theIsraelite period, which began around 1000 BCE when KingDavid captured Jerusalem and made it the capital of theUnited Kingdom of Israel. David's son KingSolomon built theFirst Temple, establishing the city as a major religious centre. Following the kingdom's split Jerusalem became the capital of theKingdom of Judah until it was captured by theNeo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE. TheBabylonians destroyed the First Temple, leading to theBabylonian exile of the Jewish population. After thePersian conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE,Cyrus the Great allowed the Jews to return and rebuild the city and its temple, marking the start of theSecond Temple period. Jerusalem fell underHellenistic rule after the conquests ofAlexander the Great in 332 BCE, leading to increasing cultural and political influence fromGreece. TheHasmonean revolt in 164 BCE briefly restored Jewish sovereignty, with Jerusalem as the capital of an independent state.
During theCrusades Jerusalem changed hands multiple times, being captured by the Crusaders in 1099 and recaptured bySaladin in 1187. It remained underIslamic control through theAyyubid andMamluk periods, until it became part of theOttoman Empire in 1517. In the modern period Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan after the1948 Arab–Israeli War. Israel capturedEast Jerusalem during theSix-Day War in 1967, uniting the city under Israeli control. Thestatus of Jerusalem remains a highly contentious issue, with both Israelis and Palestinians claiming it as their capital. Historiographically, the city's history is often interpreted through the lens of competing national narratives.Israeli scholars emphasise the ancient Jewish connection to the city, whilePalestinian narratives highlight the city's broader historical and multicultural significance. Both perspectives influence contemporary discussions of Jerusalem's status and future.
An Israeli stamp from 1968, quoting Psalm 122:6; Pray for the peace of Jerusalem!...
From 1923 until 1948 Jerusalem served as the administrative capital ofMandatory Palestine.[89]
From 1949 until 1967 West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognised as such internationally becauseUN General Assembly Resolution 194 envisaged Jerusalem as aninternational city. As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalemcame under Israeli control. On 27 June 1967, the government ofLevi Eshkol extended Israeli law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, but agreed that administration of the Temple Mount compound would be maintained by theJordanian waqf, under the Jordanian Ministry of Religious Endowments.[90]
In 1988 the Israeli government ordered the closure ofOrient House, home of the Arab Studies Society, but also the headquarters of thePalestine Liberation Organization, for security reasons. The building reopened in 1992 as a Palestinian guesthouse.[91][92] TheOslo Accords stated that the final status of Jerusalem would be determined by negotiations with thePalestinian Authority. The accords banned any official Palestinian presence in the city until a final peace agreement, but provided for the opening of a Palestinian trade office in East Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority regards East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.[93][94]
PresidentMahmoud Abbas has said that any agreement that did not include East Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine would be unacceptable.[95] Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has similarly stated that Jerusalem would remain the undivided capital of Israel. Due to its proximity to the city, especially the Temple Mount,Abu Dis, a Palestinian suburb of Jerusalem, has been proposed as the future capital of a Palestinian state by Israel. Israel has not incorporated Abu Dis within its security wall around Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority has built a possible future parliament building for thePalestinian Legislative Council in the town, and its Jerusalem Affairs Offices are all located in Abu Dis.[96]
International status
While the international community regards East Jerusalem, including the entire Old City, as part of theoccupied Palestinian territories, neither part, West or East Jerusalem, is recognised as part of the territory of Israel or theState of Palestine.[97][98][99][100] Under theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestine adopted by theGeneral Assembly of the United Nations in 1947, Jerusalem was envisaged to become acorpus separatum administered by the United Nations. In the war of 1948 the western part of the city was occupied by forces of the nascent state of Israel, while the eastern part was occupied by Jordan. The international community largely considers the legal status of Jerusalem to derive from the partition plan, and correspondingly refuses to recognise Israeli sovereignty over the city.[101]
Status under Israeli rule
Following the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel extended its jurisdiction and administration over East Jerusalem, establishing new municipal borders.
In 2010 Israel approved legislation giving Jerusalem the highest national priority status in Israel. The law prioritised construction throughout the city, and offered grants and tax benefits to residents to make housing, infrastructure, education, employment, business, tourism and cultural events more affordable. Communications MinisterMoshe Kahlon said that the bill sent "a clear, unequivocal political message that Jerusalem will not be divided", and that "all those within the Palestinian and international community who expect the current Israeli government to accept any demands regarding Israel's sovereignty over its capital are mistaken and misleading".[102]
The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The Israeli government has approved building plans in the Muslim Quarter of the Old City[103] in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem, while some Islamic leaders have made claims that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem, alleging that the 2,500-year-old Western Wall was constructed as part of a mosque.[104][105] Palestinians regard Jerusalem as the capital of theState of Palestine,[106] and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks. A team of experts assembled by the then Israeli Prime MinisterEhud Barak in 2000 concluded that the city must be divided, since Israel had failed to achieve any of its national aims there.[107]
However, Israeli Prime MinisterBenjamin Netanyahu said in 2014 that "Jerusalem will never be divided".[108] A poll conducted in June 2013 found that 74% of Israeli Jews reject the idea of a Palestinian capital in any portion of Jerusalem, though 72% of the public regarded it as a divided city.[109] A poll conducted by the Palestinian Centre for Public Opinion and American Pechter Middle East Polls for theCouncil on Foreign Relations among East Jerusalem Arab residents in 2011 revealed that 39% of East Jerusalem Arab residents would prefer Israeli citizenship, while 31% opted for Palestinian citizenship. According to the poll 40% of Palestinian residents would prefer to leave their neighbourhoods if they would be placed under Palestinian rule.[110]
On 5 December 1949 Israel's first prime minister,David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's "eternal" and "sacred" capital, and eight days later specified that only the war had "compelled" the Israeli leadership "to establish the seat of Government in Tel Aviv", while "for the State of Israel there has always been and always will be one capital only—Jerusalem the Eternal", and that after the war, efforts had been ongoing for creating the conditions for "the Knesset... returning to Jerusalem."[111] This indeed took place, and since the beginning of 1950 all branches of theIsraeli government—legislative,judicial andexecutive—have resided there, except for theMinistry of Defense, which is located atHaKirya inTel Aviv.[112][113] At the time of Ben Gurion's proclamations and the ensuing Knesset vote of 24 January 1950,[113] Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan, and thus the proclamation only applied to West Jerusalem.
In July 1980 Israel passed theJerusalem Law asBasic Law. The law declared Jerusalem the "complete and united" capital of Israel.[114] The Jerusalem Law was condemned by the international community, which did not recognise Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. The United Nations Security Council passedResolution 478 on 20 August 1980, which declared that the Jerusalem Law is"a violation of international law", is"null and void and must be rescinded forthwith". Member states were called upon to withdraw their diplomatic representation from Jerusalem.[115]
Following the resolution, 22 of the 24 countries that previously had their embassy in (West) Jerusalem relocated them in Tel Aviv, where many embassies already resided prior to Resolution 478.Costa Rica andEl Salvador followed in 2006.[116] There are five embassies—United States, Guatemala, Honduras, Papua New Guinea and Kosovo—and two consulates located within the city limits of Jerusalem. Paraguay maintains an embassy in theJerusalem Districttown ofMevaseret Zion,[117][118][119][120] in addition to Bolivia whose embassy is nowclosed.[121] There area number of consulates-general located in Jerusalem, which work primarily either with Israel, or the Palestinian authorities.
In 1995 theUnited States Congress passed theJerusalem Embassy Act, which required, subject to conditions, that its embassy be moved from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.[122] On 6 December 2017 theUS president,Donald Trump, officiallyrecognised Jerusalem as Israel's capital and announced his intention to move theAmerican embassy to Jerusalem, reversing decades of United States policy on the issue.[123][124] The move was criticised by many nations.[125] A resolution condemning the US decision was supported by all the 14 other members of the UN Security Council, but was vetoed by the US on 18 December 2017.[126] A subsequent resolution condemning the US decision was passed in theUnited Nations General Assembly.[127][128][129][130] On 14 May 2018 the United States officially opened itsembassy in Jerusalem, transforming its Tel Aviv location into a consulate. Due to the general lack of international recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital, some non-Israeli media outlets use Tel Aviv as ametonym for Israel.[131][132][133][134]
In December 2017, US PresidentDonald Trump made the decision to acknowledge Jerusalem as the capital of Israel and relocate the US embassy fromTel Aviv to that city.[135] This decision faced significant opposition, particularly from leaders within the Arab and Muslim communities. The Palestinians assert that East Jerusalem should serve as the capital of their future state, and its status ought to be resolved through peace negotiations as outlined in the 1993 Israeli-Palestinian peace accords. Palestinian PresidentMahmoud Abbas remarked that Trump's action effectively negated the United States' position as a mediator in the peace process.Ismail Haniyeh, the head of the Islamist Hamas movement, urged for a new "intifada," or uprising. Turkish PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdogan criticized the decision, stating it would "place the region in a ring of fire." Saudi Arabia'sKing Salman described it as "a clear provocation to Muslims globally." Egyptian PresidentAbdel Fattah al-Sisi indicated that this decision would exacerbate the situation in the region.Iran warned that the decision would incite a "new intifada," labeling it a blatant infringement of international resolutions.[136]
In April 2017 the RussianMinistry of Foreign Affairs announced it viewed Western Jerusalem as Israel's capital in the context of UN-approved principles which include the status of East Jerusalem as the capital of the future Palestinian state.[137][138][139] On 15 December 2018 the Australian government officially recognised West Jerusalem as Israel's capital, but said their embassy in Tel Aviv would stay until a two-state resolution was settled.[140] The decision was reversed in October 2022.[141]
Since its capture in 1967, the Israeli government has built 12Israeli settlements inEast Jerusalem, with a population amounting to 220,000 Israeli Jewish settlers as of 2019.[144] The international community consider Israeli settlements to be illegal underinternational law.[145]
The PLO's position is that East Jerusalem, as defined by thepre-1967 municipal boundaries, shall be the capital of Palestine andWest Jerusalem the capital of Israel, with each state enjoying full sovereignty over its respective part of the city and with its own municipality. A jointdevelopment council would be responsible for coordinated development.[147]Orient House in East Jerusalem served as the headquarters of thePLO in the 1980s and 1990s. It was closed by Israel in 2001, two days after theSbarro restaurant suicide bombing.
Some states, such as Russia[148] and China,[149] recognise the Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital.United Nations General Assembly Resolution 58/292 affirmed that the Palestinian people have the right to sovereignty over East Jerusalem.[150]
The JerusalemCity Council is a body of 31 elected members headed by the mayor, who serves a five-year term and appoints eight deputies. The former mayor of Jerusalem,Uri Lupolianski, was elected in 2003.[155] In the November 2008 city elections,Nir Barkat was elected. In November 2018Moshe Lion was elected mayor.[156]
Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor isTeddy Kollek, who spent 28 years—six consecutive terms—in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public.[155] Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.[157]
The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are atSafra Square (Kikar Safra) onJaffa Road. The municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993 when it moved from theold town hall building built by theMandate authorities.[158] The city falls under theJerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital. 37% of the population is Palestinian, but in 2014 not more than 10% of tax revenues were allocated for them. In East Jerusalem, 52% of the land was excluded from development, 35% designated for Jewish settlements, and 13% for Palestinian use, almost all of which was already built upon.[159]
TheTyropoeon Valley commenced in the northwest near theDamascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly through the centre of the Old City down to thePool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west, the lower and the upper cities described byJosephus. Today, this valley is hidden by debris that has accumulated over the centuries.[166] In biblical times Jerusalem was surrounded by forests of almond, olive and pine trees. These were destroyed by centuries of warfare and neglect. Farmers in the Jerusalem region built stone terraces along the slopes to hold back the soil, a feature still very much in evidence in the Jerusalem landscape.[citation needed]
Water supply has always been a major problem in Jerusalem, as attested to by the intricate network of ancientaqueducts, tunnels, pools and cisterns found in the city.[168]
Snow visible on roofs in the Old City of Jerusalem
The city is characterised by ahot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen:Csa), with hot, dry summers, and mild, wet winters. Snow flurries usually occur once or twice a winter, although the city experiences heavysnowfall every three to four years, on average, with short-lived accumulation.
January is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 9.1 °C (48.4 °F); July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of 24.2 °C (75.6 °F), and the summer months are usually rainless. The average annual precipitation is around 537 mm (21 in), with rain occurring almost entirely between October and May.[174] Snowfall is rare, and large snowfalls are even more rare.[175][176] Jerusalem received over 30 cm (12 in) of snow on 13 December 2013, which nearly paralysed the city.[175][176] A day in Jerusalem has on average, 9.3 sunshine hours. With summers averaging similar temperatures as the coastline, the maritime influence from theMediterranean Sea is strong, in particular given that Jerusalem is located on a similar latitude as scorching hot deserts not far to its east.
The highest recorded temperature in Jerusalem was 44.4 °C (111.9 °F) on 28 and 30 August 1881, and the lowest temperature recorded was −6.7 °C (19.9 °F) on 25 January 1907.
Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic.[177] Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and morecarbon monoxide released into the air. Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on theIsraeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city.[177][178]
Most population data before 1905 are based on estimates, often from foreign travellers or organisations, since previous census data usually covered wider areas such as theJerusalem District.[184] These estimates suggest that since the end of theCrusades, Muslims formed the largest group in Jerusalem until the mid-nineteenth century.
Between 1838 and 1876 a number of estimates exist which conflict as to whether Jews or Muslims were the largest group during this period, and between 1882 and 1922 estimates conflict as to exactly when Jews became an absolute majority of the population.
Approximate 2021 population for East/West Jerusalem (UN-recognised 1967 border)
West or East (1967 borders)
Total
Jews and others
Jews and others %
Approx. # of Ultra- Orthodox
Ultra- Orthodox as % of "Jews and Others"
Arabs/ Pale- stinians
Pale- stinian %
East Jerusalem
611,370
240,831
39.4%
111,121
46.1%
370,532
60.6%
West Jerusalem
354,840
349,734
98.6%
166,688
47.7%
5,088
1.4%
Total Jerusalem
966,210
590,565
61%
277,809
47%
375,620
39%
Some sub-quarters straddle theGreen Line and in those cases the sub-quarter is assigned to the sector (East or West) into which most of the area falls. Source: Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem, 2021.[185] Totals do not sum exactly due to the presentation of some ethnoreligious groups as percentages of totals.
In December 2007 Jerusalem had a population of 747,600—63.7% were Jewish, 33.1% Muslim, and 2% Christian.[186]
According to a study published in 2000, the percentage of Jews in the city's population had been decreasing; this was attributed to a higher Muslimbirth rate, and Jewish residents leaving. The study also found that about nine percent of the Old City's 32,488 people were Jews.[187] Of the Jewish population, 200,000 live in East Jerusalem settlements which are considered illegal under international law.[188]
In 2005, 2,850 new immigrants settled in Jerusalem, mostly from the United States, France and the formerSoviet Union. In terms of the local population, the number of outgoing residents exceeds the number of incoming residents. In 2005, 16,000 left Jerusalem and only 10,000 moved in.[189] Nevertheless, the population of Jerusalem continues to rise due to the high birth rate, especially in theHaredi Jewish andArab communities. Consequently, thetotal fertility rate in Jerusalem (4.02) is higher than in Tel Aviv (1.98) and well above the national average of 2.90. The average size of Jerusalem's 180,000 households is 3.8 people.[189]
In 2005 the total population grew by 13,000 (1.8%)—similar to the Israeli national average, but the religious and ethnic composition is shifting. While 31% of the Jewish population is made up of children below the age fifteen, the figure for the Arab population is 42%.[189]
In 1967 Jews accounted for 74% of the population, while the figure for 2006 is down by 9%.[190] Possible factors are the high cost of housing, fewer job opportunities and the increasingly religious character of the city, although proportionally, youngHaredim are leaving in higher numbers.[citation needed] The percentage of secular Jews, or those who 'wear their faith lightly' is dropping, with some 20,000 leaving the city over the past seven years (2012). They now number 31% of the population, the same percentage as the rising Haredi population.
In 2010, 61% of all Jewish children in Jerusalem studied in Haredi (Ultra-Orthodox) schools. This correlates with the high number of children in Haredi families.[191]
While some secular Jews leave Jerusalem for its relative lack of development and religious and political tensions, Jerusalem-born Palestinians cannot leave Jerusalem, or they lose their right to live in the city. Palestinians with a "Jerusalem resident status" are entitled to the subsidised healthcare and social security benefits Israel provides to its citizens, and have the right to vote in municipal elections, but not to be voted in municipal elections, or to vote in national elections. Arabs in Jerusalem can send their children to Israeli-run schools, although not every neighbourhood has one, and universities. Israeli doctors and highly regarded hospitals such asHadassah Medical Centre are available to residents.[192]
Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population divide play a major role in the dispute over Jerusalem. In 1998, theJerusalem Development Authority expanded city limits to the west to include more areas heavily populated with Jews.[16]
Within the past few years, there has been a steady increase in the Jewish birthrate and a steady decrease in the Arab birthrate. In May 2012 it was reported that the Jewish birthrate had overtaken the Arab birthrate. The city's birthrate stands about 4.2 children per Jewish family and 3.9 children per Arab family.[193][194] In addition, increasing numbers of Jewish immigrants chose to settle in Jerusalem. In the last few years, thousands of Palestinians have moved to previously fully Jewish neighbourhoods of East Jerusalem, built after the 1967 Six-Day War. In 2007, 1,300 Palestinians lived in the previously exclusively Jewish neighbourhood ofPisgat Ze'ev and constituted 3% of the population inNeve Ya'akov. In theFrench Hill neighbourhood Palestinians today constitute one-sixth of the overall population.[195]
At the end of 2008 the population of East Jerusalem was 456,300, comprising 60% of Jerusalem's residents. Of these 195,500 (43%) were Jews, (comprising 40% of the Jewish population of Jerusalem as a whole), and 260,800 (57%) were Muslim (comprising 98% of the Muslim population of Jerusalem).[196] In 2008 thePalestinian Central Bureau of Statistics reported the number of Palestinians living in East Jerusalem was 208,000 according to a recently completed census.[197]
Jerusalem's Jewish population is overwhelmingly religious. Only 18% of Jewish residents are secular. In addition,Haredi Jews comprise 35% of the city's adult Jewish population. In a phenomenon seen rarely around the world, the percentage of Jewish women who work, 81%, exceeds the percentage of Jewish men who work, 70%.[198]
Jerusalem had a population of 804,400 in 2011, of which Jews comprised 499,400 (62.1%), Muslims 281,100 (34.9%), Christians 14,700 (1.8%), and 9,000 (1.1%) were not classified by religion.[17]
Jerusalem had a population of 882,700 in 2016, of which Jews comprised 536,600 (60.8%), Muslims 319,800 (36.2%), Christians 15,800 (1.8%), and 10,300 unclassified (1.2%).[17]
Jerusalem had a population of 951,100 in 2020, of whichJews comprised 570,100 (59.9%),Muslims 353.800 (37.2%),Christians 16.300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).[17]
According toPeace Now, approvals for building in Israeli settlements inEast Jerusalem expanded by 60% underDonald Trump's first US presidency.[199] Since 1991, Palestinians, who make up the majority of the residents in East Jerusalem, have only received 30% of the building permits.[200]
Critics of efforts to promote a Jewish majority in Jerusalem say that government planning policies are motivated by demographic considerations and seek to limit Arab construction while promoting Jewish construction.[201] According to aWorld Bank report, the number of recorded building violations between 1996 and 2000 was four and half times higher in Jewish neighbourhoods but four times fewer demolition orders were issued in West Jerusalem than in East Jerusalem; Arabs in Jerusalem were less likely to receive construction permits than Jews, and "the authorities are much more likely to take action against Palestinian violators" than Jewish violators of the permit process.[202] In recent years, private Jewish foundations have received permission from the government to develop projects on disputed lands, such as theCity of David archaeological site in the 60% Arab neighbourhood ofSilwan (adjacent to the Old City),[203] and theMuseum of Tolerance on Mamilla Cemetery (adjacent to Zion Square).[202][204]
Jerusalem has been sacred to Judaism for roughly 3000 years, to Christianity for around 2000 years, and to Islam for approximately 1400 years. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city.[205] Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy. TheTemple Mount is the holiest spot inJudaism and the third holiest site in Islam. Jews venerate it as the site of the two formerTemples andMuslims believe thatMuhammad was transported from theGreat Mosque of Mecca to this location during theNight Journey.
Jerusalem has been theholiest city in Judaism and the ancestral and spiritual homeland of the Jewish people since King David proclaimed it his capital in the 10th century BCE.[note 5][21] Without counting its other names, Jerusalem appears in theHebrew Bible 669 times.[206] The first five books of theTorah (Pentateuch), only mentionsMoriah, but in the rest of the Bible, the city is mentioned explicitly.[207] The Temple Mount, which was the site ofSolomon's Temple and the Second Temple, is the holiest site in Judaism and the place Jews throughout the world turn towards during prayer.[208][209] The Western Wall, a remnant of the wall surrounding the Second Temple, attracts over 10 million visitors each year.[210][211] Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem,[212] and Arks within Jerusalem face theHoly of Holies.[213] As prescribed in theMishna and codified in theShulchan Aruch, daily prayers are recited while facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount.[214][better source needed] Many Jews have "Mizrach" plaques hung on a wall of their homes to indicate the direction of prayer.[213][note 7] Many parts of Jewish liturgy mention Jerusalem, including at the conclusion of thePassover Seder when participants declare "Next Year in Jerusalem!"[215] The fourteenth blessing of theAmidah prayer, said three times per day is a request that the Jerusalem be rebuilt, as well as the "Shechinah" be returned to Zion.[216][better source needed] The "Grace After Meals" which is said after eating a meal including bread, has multiple references to Jerusalem.[217] The entire fast day ofTisha B'Av is dedicated to remembering and mourning the destruction of the first and second temples in Jerusalem.[218]
Jerusalem is generally considered the cradle of Christianity.[219] Christianity reveres Jerusalem for itsOld Testament history, and also for its significance in the life of Jesus. According to theNew Testament, Jesus was brought to Jerusalem soon after his birth[220] and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple.[221] TheCenacle, believed to be the site of Jesus'Last Supper, is located onMount Zion in the same building that houses theTomb of King David.[222][223] Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem isGolgotha, the site of thecrucifixion. TheGospel of John describes it as being located outside Jerusalem,[224] but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.[225] The land occupied by theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past 2000 years.[225][226][227] TheChurch of the Holy Sepulchre is generally considered the most important church inChristendom.[228] It contains the two holiest sites inChristianity: the site whereJesus wascrucified, and Jesus's empty tomb, where he is believed by Christians to have beenburied andresurrected.
Jerusalem is the third-holiest city inSunni Islam.[28] Islamic tradition holds that for approximately a year, before it was permanently switched to theKaaba inMecca, theqibla (direction ofprayer) for Muslims was Jerusalem.[229][230] The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due toMuhammad'sNight Journey (c. 620 CE). Muslims believe that Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from theGreat Mosque of Mecca to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended toHeaven to meet previousprophets of Islam.[231][232][233] The first verse in theQur'an'sSurat al-Isra notes the destination of Muhammad's journey asal-masjid al-aqṣā ("the farthest place of prayer").[234][235] In the earliest days of Islam, this was understood as a reference to a site in the heavens,[236] however, Post-Rashidun Islamic scholars understood it as relating to Jerusalem, and particularly to the site of the former Jewish Temple.[237] Thehadith, a collection of the sayings of Muhammad, mentions that the location of the Al-Aqsa Mosque is in Jerusalem.[238] TheAl-Aqsa Mosque, originally named after the wider compound it sits within,[239] was built on the Temple Mount under the Umayyad CaliphAl-Walid several decades after Muhammad's death to commemorate the place from which Muslims believe he had ascended to Heaven.[240]
Gallery
A view of theTemple Mount it's holiest place by Jews, Christians, and Muslims.
TheWestern Wall, also known as the Wailing Wall and the Kotel, is a remnant of theSecond Temple and the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray.
TheChurch of the Holy Sepulchre it's the holiest site in Christianity and it has been an important pilgrimage site for Christians since the 4th century.
Historically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was far from the major ports ofJaffa andGaza.[241] Jerusalem's religious and cultural landmarks today remain the top draw for foreign visitors, with the majority of tourists visiting the Western Wall and theOld City.[189] In 2010, Jerusalem was named the top leisure travel city in Africa and the Middle East byTravel + Leisure magazine.[242] In 2013, 75% of the 3.5 million tourists to Israel visited Jerusalem.[243]
Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy. The government, centred in Jerusalem, generates a large number of jobs, and offers subsidies and incentives for new business initiatives and start-ups.[241] Although Tel Aviv remains Israel's financial centre, a growing number ofhigh tech companies are moving to Jerusalem, providing 12,000 jobs in 2006.[244] Northern Jerusalem'sHar Hotzvim industrial park and theJerusalem Technology Park in south Jerusalem are home to largeResearch and Development centres of international tech companies, among themIntel,Cisco Systems,Teva Pharmaceutical Industries,IBM,Mobileye,Johnson & Johnson,Medtronic and more.[245] In April 2015Time magazine picked Jerusalem as one of the five emerging tech hubs in the world, proclaiming that "The city has become a flourishing centre for biomed, cleantech, Internet/mobile startups, accelerators, investors and supporting service providers."[246]
Mamilla Mall adorned with upscale shops stands just outside the Old City Walls.Malha Mall
Higher than average percentages are employed in education (17.9% vs. 12.7%); health and welfare (12.6% vs. 10.7%); community and social services (6.4% vs. 4.7%); hotels and restaurants (6.1% vs. 4.7%); and public administration (8.2% vs. 4.7%).[247] During theBritish Mandate, a law was passed requiring all buildings to be constructed ofJerusalem stone in order to preserve the unique historic and aesthetic character of the city.[248] Complementing this building code, which is still in force, is the discouragement ofheavy industry in Jerusalem; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is zoned for "industry and infrastructure". By comparison, the percentage of land in Tel Aviv zoned for industry and infrastructure is twice as high, and in Haifa, seven times as high.[189] Only 8.5% of theJerusalem District work force is employed in the manufacturing sector, which is half the national average (15.8%).
Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967, East Jerusalem has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem.[241] Nevertheless, the percentage of households with employed persons is higher for Arab households (76.1%) than for Jewish households (66.8%). The unemployment rate in Jerusalem (8.3%) is slightly better than the national average (9.0%), although the civilianlabour force accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or older—lower in comparison to that of Tel Aviv (58.0%) andHaifa (52.4%).[189] Poverty remains a problem in the city as 37% of the families in Jerusalem lived in 2011 below the poverty line. According to a report by theAssociation for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI), 78% of Arabs in Jerusalem lived in poverty in 2012, up from 64% in 2006. While the ACRI attributes the increase to the lack of employment opportunities, infrastructure and a worsening educational system, the activist groupIr Amim blames the legal status of Palestinians in Jerusalem.[249]
The increasing number of educated Palestinians in Jerusalem has brought about positive economic changes.[250] Through reforms and initiatives in sectors like technology, tourism, trade, and infrastructure, they have helped drive economic growth, create jobs, and improve living conditions in the city.[251][252] Various joint summits between Israeli and Palestinian entrepreneurs have been held in the city.[253]Palestine Investment Fund have proposed various projects in Jerusalem.[254][255] Palestinian industrialistBashar Masri sought to make heavy investments in the city.[256] PA controlled industrial areas are located outskirts of Jerusalem, primarily inBir Nabala,Abu Dis andEizariya, engaging in manufacture of tires, food products and concretes.[257]
High-tech industry is emerged among Palestinian society of Jerusalem.[258][259] In 2023 Israel opened a technology park in East Jerusalem, known as EasTech. Local Palestinian engineers are employed in the complex by multinational companies, some of which includesAT&T,Natural Intelligence,Nvidia,Unity andSynamedia. Station J, an innovation hub is located in Sheikh Jarrah, which is yet another tech hub for Palestinians in the city. Hani Alami, a Jerusalem-based Palestinian entrepreneur has set up a start-+up accelerator.[260] As a part ofIsraeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts, interaction between Israeli and Palestinian business community, also contributes in growth of Palestinian IT sector in the city.[261][262]
Urban structure
High-rise construction
Jerusalem has traditionally had a low-rise skyline. About 18 tall buildings were built at different times in the downtown area when there was no clear policy over the matter. One of them, Holyland Tower 1, Jerusalem's tallest building, is askyscraper by international standards, rising 32 stories. Holyland Tower 2, which has been approved for construction, will reach the same height.[263][264]
Holyland Tower, Jerusalem's tallest building
A new master plan for the city will see many high-rise buildings, including skyscrapers, built in certain, designated areas of downtown Jerusalem. Under the plan, towers will lineJaffa Road andKing George Street. One of the proposed towers along King George Street, the Migdal Merkaz HaYekum, is planned as a 65-story building, which would make it one of the tallest buildings in Israel. At the entrance to the city, near theJerusalem Chords Bridge and theCentral Bus Station, twelve towers rising between 24 and 33 stories will be built, as part of a complex that will also include an open square and anunderground train station serving a new express line between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, and will be connected by bridges and tunnels. Eleven of the skyscrapers will be either office or apartment buildings, and one will be a 2,000-room hotel. The complex is expected to attract many businesses from Tel Aviv, and become the city's main business hub. In addition, a complex for the city's courts and the prosecutor's office will be built, as well as new buildings for Central Zionist Archives andIsrael State Archives.[265][266][267] The skyscrapers built throughout the city are expected to contain public space, shops, restaurants, and entertainment venues, and it has been speculated that this may lead to a revitalization of downtown Jerusalem.[268][269] In August 2015, the city council approved construction of a 344-foot pyramid-shaped skyscraper designed byDaniel Libeskind and Yigal Levi, in place of a rejected previous design by Libeskind; it was set to break ground by 2019.[270][needs update]
New projects in Jerusalem
In 2021Bashar Masri announced and launched "Lana", a massive mix-used project inEast Jerusalem, which is located in the neighbourhood ofBeit Hanina. The project is in a partnership between Massar International and theOrthodox Church of Jerusalem. It features 400 residential apartments along with a vibrant commercial centre that hosts well-known global brands, cinemas, restaurants, cafés and offices. The project also includes modern educational facilities, such as a school and akindergarten, catering to the needs of residents. In addition to its focus on residential and commercial aspects, the Lana project emphasises the improvement of infrastructure within the project and its surroundings. This involves the construction of three to four floors of underground parking to accommodate the residents' vehicles conveniently. Furthermore, there is a comprehensive plan to expand the road network surrounding the project, ensuring smooth transportation and accessibility for both residents and visitors. It is situated just 15 minutes away from the historicOld City of Jerusalem.[271]
TheJerusalem Light Rail initiated service in August 2011. According to plans, the first rail line will be capable of transporting an estimated 200,000 people daily, and has 23 stops. The route is from Pisgat Ze'ev in the north via the Old City and city centre to Mt. Herzl in the south.
Begin Expressway is one of Jerusalem's major north–south thoroughfares; it runs on the western side of the city, merging in the north withRoute 443, which continues toward Tel Aviv.Route 60 runs through the centre of the city near theGreen Line between East and West Jerusalem. Construction is progressing on parts of a 35 km (22 mi)ring road around the city, fostering faster connection between the suburbs.[278][279] The eastern half of the project was conceptualised decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed.[278]
Airport
In the past, Jerusalem was also served by the localJerusalem International Airport, locally known as Atarot Airport. It was the first airport built in the British Mandate of Palestine. Palestinians considered the Atarot Airport as a "symbol of Palestinian sovereignty".[280] The airport falls beyond Green Line. After the 1948 war it came under control of Jordan. Following the Six Day War of 1967, the airport came under control of Israel.[281] With increase of violence in thesecond intifada, Atarot Airport ceased operation in 2000. Today Jerusalem is served byBen Gurion Airport, some 50 km (30 mi) northwest of the Jerusalem, on the route to Tel Aviv. TheTel Aviv–Jerusalem railway runs non-stop fromJerusalem–Yitzhak Navon railway station to the airport and began operation in 2018.[282]
The Australian businessmanKevin Bermeister proposed a masterplan of Jerusalem, which also includes the development of an airport for Jerusalem in theJordan Valley, nearJericho.[283] The airport is sought to be a joint Israeli-Palestinian airport. Palestinian Prime MinisterMohammad Shtayyeh have also appealed to Israeli authorities to redevelop the airport.[284] In 2021, the Israeli government planned to redevelop Atarot Airport as a joint Israeli–Palestinian airport.[285] The new Atarot Airport will include two separate Israeli and Palestinian terminals.
Education
Universities
Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities offering courses inHebrew,Arabic and English.
TheJerusalem College of Technology, founded in 1969, combines training in engineering and other high-tech industries with a Jewish studies programme.[293] It is one of many schools in Jerusalem, from elementary school and up, that combine secular and religious studies. Numerous religious educational institutions andYeshivot, including some of the most prestigious yeshivas, among them theBrisk,Chevron,Midrash Shmuel andMir, are based in the city, with the Mir Yeshiva claiming to be the largest.[294] There were nearly 8,000 twelfth-grade students in Hebrew-language schools during the 2003–2004 school year.[189] However, due to the large portion of students inHaredi Jewish frameworks, only fifty-five percent of twelfth graders tookmatriculation exams (Bagrut) and only thirty-seven percent were eligible to graduate. Unlikepublic schools, many Haredi schools do not prepare students to take standardised tests.[189] To attract more university students to Jerusalem, the city has begun to offer a special package of financial incentives and housing subsidies to students who rent apartments in downtown Jerusalem.[295]
Al-Quds University was established in 1984[296] to serve as a flagship university for the Arab and Palestinian peoples.[citation needed] It describes itself as the "only Arab university in Jerusalem".[297]Bard College of Annandale-on-Hudson, New York and Al-Quds University agreed to open a joint college in a building originally built to house thePalestinian Legislative Council andYasser Arafat's office. The college givesMaster of Arts in Teaching degrees.[298] Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a 190,000 m2 (47-acre)Abu Dis campus.[296] Other campuses of AQU are located within city limits of Jerusalem. A campus of university inSheikh Jarrah, which is one of the oldest faculties, is known as Hind Al Husseini College for Arts.[299] It was named afterHind al-Husseini, a Palestinian activists known for rescuing orphaned survivors ofDeir Yassin massacre and giving them shelter in a palace of her grandfather, which was converted into an orphanage and later a college, which is a part today's Al Quds University.[300] A joint campus of AQU and Bard College is located inBeit Hanina.Bayt Mal Al Qods Acharif Agency, a Moroccan organisation, is constructing a new campus in the same neighbourhood.[301]
Hand in Hand, a bilingual Jewish-Arab school in Jerusalem
Israel's public schools for Arabs in Jerusalem and other parts of the country have been criticised for offering a lower quality education than those catering to Israeli Jewish students.[305] While many schools in the heavily Arab East Jerusalem are filled to capacity and there have been complaints of overcrowding, the Jerusalem Municipality is building over a dozen new schools in the city's Arab neighbourhoods.[306] Schools inRas el-Amud andUmm Lison opened in 2008.[307] In March 2007 the Israeli government approved a five-year plan to build 8,000 new classrooms in the city, 40 percent in the Arab sector and 28 percent in the Haredi sector. A budget of 4.6 billion shekels was allocated for this project.[308] In 2008, Jewish British philanthropists donated $3 million for the construction of schools for Arabs in East Jerusalem.[307] Arab high school students take theBagrut matriculation exams, so that much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli high schools and includes certain Jewish subjects.[305]
Although Jerusalem is known primarily for itsreligious significance, the city is also home to many artistic and cultural venues. TheIsrael Museum attracts nearly one million visitors a year, approximately one-third of them tourists.[309] The 8 ha (20-acre) museum complex comprises several buildings featuring special exhibits and extensive collections ofJudaica, archaeological findings, and Israeli and European art. TheDead Sea scrolls, discovered in the mid-20th century in theQumran Caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the Museum'sShrine of the Book.[310] The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive art education programme, is visited by 100,000 children a year. The museum has a large outdoor sculpture garden and includes theHolyland Model of Jerusalem, a scale-model of the city during the lateSecond Temple period.[309] TheTicho House in downtown Jerusalem houses the paintings ofAnna Ticho and the Judaica collections of her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912.[311]
Next to the Israel Museum is theBible Lands Museum, nearThe National Campus for the Archaeology of Israel, which includes theIsrael Antiquities Authority offices. A World Bible Centre is planned to be built adjacent toMount Zion at a site called the "Bible Hill". A plannedWorld Kabbalah Centre is to be located on the nearby promenade, overlooking the Old City. TheRockefeller Museum, located in East Jerusalem, was the first archaeological museum in the Middle East. It was built in 1938 during the British Mandate.[312][313] In 2006, a 38 km (24 mi)Jerusalem Trail was opened, a hiking trail that goes to many cultural sites andnational parks in and around Jerusalem. TheJerusalem Biblical Zoo has ranked consistently as Israel's top tourist attraction for Israelis.[314][315] The national cemetery of Israel is located at the city's western edge, near theJerusalem Forest onMount Herzl. The western extension of Mount Herzl is the Mount of Remembrance, where the main Holocaust museum of Israel is located.Yad Vashem, Israel's national memorial to the victims of theHolocaust, houses the world's largest library of Holocaust-related information.[316] It houses an estimated 100,000 books and articles. The complex contains a state-of-the-art museum that explores the genocide of the Jews through exhibits that focus on the personal stories of individuals and families killed in the Holocaust. An art gallery featuring the work of artists who perished is also present. Further, Yad Vashem commemorates the 1.5 million Jewish children murdered by theNazis, and honours theRighteous among the Nations.[317]
TheJerusalem Symphony Orchestra, established in the 1940s,[318] has appeared around the world.[318] TheInternational Convention Centre (Binyanei HaUma) near the entrance to city houses theIsrael Philharmonic Orchestra. The Jerusalem Cinemateque, theGerard Behar Centre (formerly Beit Ha'Am) in downtown Jerusalem, theJerusalem Music Centre inYemin Moshe,[319] and the Targ Music Centre inEin Kerem also present the arts. TheIsrael Festival, featuring indoor and outdoor performances by local and international singers, concerts, plays, and street theatre has been held annually since 1961, and Jerusalem has been the major organiser of this event. TheJerusalem Theatre in theTalbiya neighbourhood hosts over 150 concerts a year, as well as theatre and dance companies and performing artists from overseas.[320] TheKhan Theatre, located in a caravanserai opposite the old Jerusalem train station, is the city's onlyrepertoire theatre.[321] The station itself has become a venue for cultural events in recent years as the site ofShav'ua Hasefer (an annual week-long book fair) and outdoor music performances.[322] TheJerusalem Film Festival is held annually, screening Israeli and international films.[323] In 1974 theJerusalem Cinematheque was founded. In 1981 it was moved to a new building on Hebron Road near theValley of Hinnom and the Old City.
Jerusalem was declared theCapital of Arab Culture in 2009.[324] Jerusalem is home to thePalestinian National Theatre, which engages in cultural preservation as well as innovation, working to rekindle Palestinian interest in the arts.[325]The Edward Said National Conservatory of Music sponsors the Palestine Youth Orchestra[326] which touredArab states of the Persian Gulf and other Middle East countries in 2009.[327] TheIslamic Museum on the Temple Mount, established in 1923, houses many Islamic artefacts, from tinykohl flasks and rare manuscripts to giant marble columns.[328] Al-Hoash, established in 2004, is a gallery for the preservation of Palestinian art.[329] While Israel approves and financially supports some Arab cultural activities,[330] Arab Capital of Culture events were banned because they were sponsored by thePalestine National Authority.[324] In 2009 a four-day culture festival was held in theBeit 'Anan suburb of Jerusalem, attended by more than 15,000 people[331]
Palestinian cinema is based in the city.[332] Jerusalem has been location for "Jerusalem Arab Film Festival", for exhibitingPalestinian films.[333] The city is home to numerous artists, singers, actors, actresses and filmmakers.[334] Established in 1991,Riwaq have been working on various projects to restore cultural and historical sites acrossPalestine.[335] Difficulties to operate in theannexed areas of Palestinian Jerusalem, it have successfully worked across those neighbourhoods, rural and suburban area and Jerusalem Mountains (Jibal al-Quds), where thePalestinian government has control.[336] So far, the organisation have restored a number of sites across the neighbourhoods ofKafr 'Aqab,Al Jib,Jaba andQalandia.[337] Those restored structures serves as local community centres, cultural sites and headquarters of several NGOs and cultural groups.[337] Yabous Cultural Center is the largest cultural centre in the city, opened by Palestinian groups in 1997.[338]Edward Said National Conservatory of Music have a branch in Jerusalem.
Hadassah Medical Center and the Hebrew University have unveiled a "Tree of Peace" statue at theAl Quds University School of Dental Medicine.[339] The Museum on the Seam, which explores issues of coexistence through art, is situated on the road dividing eastern and western Jerusalem.[340] The Abraham Fund and the Jerusalem Intercultural Centre (JICC) promote joint Jewish-Palestinian cultural projects. The Jerusalem Centre for Middle Eastern Music and Dance[341] is open to Arabs and Jews and offers workshops on Jewish-Arab dialogue through the arts.[342] The Jewish-Arab Youth Orchestra performs both European classical and Middle Eastern music.[343] In 2008 theTolerance Monument, an outdoor sculpture byCzesław Dźwigaj, was erected on a hill between JewishArmon HaNetziv and ArabJebl Mukaber as a symbol of Jerusalem's quest for peace.[344]
The two most popular sports arefootball (soccer) and basketball.[346]Beitar Jerusalem Football Club is one of the most well known in Israel. Fans include political figures who often attend its games.[347] Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, isHapoel Jerusalem F.C. Whereas Beitar has beenIsrael State Cup champion seven times,[348] Hapoel has won the Cup only once. Beitar has won the top league six times, while Hapoel has never succeeded. Beitar plays in the more prestigiousLigat HaAl, while Hapoel is in the second divisionLiga Leumit. Since its opening in 1992,Teddy Stadium has been Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with a capacity of 31,733.[349]
TheJerusalem Marathon, established in 2011, is an international marathon race held annually in Jerusalem in the month of March. The full 42-kilometre race begins at the Knesset, passes through Mount Scopus and the Old City's Armenian Quarter, and concludes at Sacher Park. In 2012, the Jerusalem Marathon drew 15,000 runners, including 1,500 from fifty countries outside Israel.[353][354][355][356][357]
A popular non-competitive sports event is theJerusalem March,[358] held annually during theSukkot festival.
^The State of Palestine (according to the Basic Law of Palestine, Title One: Article 3) regards Jerusalem as its capital.[1] However, the documents of thePLO's Negotiations Affairs Department (NAD) often refer toEast Jerusalem (rather than the whole of Jerusalem) as a future capital, and sometimes as the current capital. One of its 2010 documents, described as "for discussion purposes only", says that Palestine has a "vision" for a future in which "East Jerusalem [...] shall be the capital of Palestine, and West Jerusalem shall be the capital of Israel."[2] One of its 2013 documents refers to "Palestine's capital, East Jerusalem", and states that "Occupied East Jerusalem is the natural socio-economic and political center for the future Palestinian state", while also stating that "Jerusalem has always been and remains the political, administrative and spiritual heart of Palestine" and that "The Palestinian acceptance of the 1967 border, which includes East Jerusalem, is a painful compromise".[3]
^Jerusalem is the capital underIsraeli law. The presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) are there. The State of Palestine (according to the Basic Law of Palestine, Title One: Article 3) regards Jerusalem as its capital.[1] The UN and most countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, taking the position that the final status of Jerusalem is pending future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Most countries maintain their embassies inTel Aviv and its suburbs or suburbs of Jerusalem, such asMevaseret Zion(see"Map of Israel"(PDF).Archived(PDF) from the original on 1 June 2020. Retrieved28 June 2017. (319 KB)) SeeStatus of Jerusalem for more information.
^Statistics regarding the demographics of Jerusalem refer to the unified and expanded Israeli municipality, which includes the pre-1967 Israeli andJordanian municipalities as well as several additionalPalestinian villages and neighborhoods to the northeast. Some of the Palestinian villages and neighborhoods have been relinquished to theWest Bankde facto by way of theIsraeli West Bank barrier,[16] but their legal statuses have not been reverted.
^abMuch of the information regarding King David's conquest of Jerusalem comes fromBiblical accounts, but some modern-day historians have begun to give them credit due to a 1993 excavation.[18]
^West Jerusalem comprises approximately one third of the municipal area of Jerusalem, withEast Jerusalem comprising approximately two-thirds. On the annexation of East Jerusalem, Israel also incorporated an area of the West Bank into the Jerusalem municipal area which represented more than ten times the area of East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule.[35][36][37]
^The Jewish injunction to pray toward Jerusalem comes in theOrach Chayim section ofShulchan Aruch (94:1)—"When one rises to pray anywhere in the Diaspora, he should face towards the Land of Israel, directing himself also toward Jerusalem, the Temple, and the Holy of Holies."[citation needed]
^"Jerusalem Non-Paper"(PDF).PLO-NAD. June 2010. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 6 February 2012. Retrieved16 January 2025.This paper is for discussion purposes only. Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed. [...] Pursuant to our vision, East Jerusalem, as defined by its pre-1967 occupation municipal borders, shall be the capital of Palestine, and West Jerusalem shall be the capital of Israel, with each state enjoying full sovereignty over its respective part of the city.
^A-Z Guide to the Qur'an: A Must-have Reference to Understanding the Contents of the Islamic Holy Book by Mokhtar Stork (1999): "JERUSALEM: Referred to in Arabic as Baitul Muqaddas (The Holy House) or Baitul Maqdis (The House of the Sanctuary)".
^Pan-Islamism in India & Bengal by Mohammad Shah (2002), p. 63: "... protector of Mecca, Medina and Baitul Muqaddas, the sacred places of pilgrimage of the Muslim world"
^abElihay, Yohanan (2011).Speaking Arabic: a course in conversational Eastern (Palestinian) Arabic. Rothberg International School ([2009 ed.], reprinted with corr. 2011 ed.). Jerusalem: Minerva. p. 36.ISBN978-965-7397-30-5.OCLC783142368.
^Greenberg, Raphael; Mizrachi, Yonathan (10 September 2013)."From Shiloah to Silwan—A Visitor's Guide". Emek Shaveh. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved25 July 2018.
^abTeller, Matthew (2022).Nine Quarters of Jerusalem: A New Biography of the Old City.Profile Books. p. Chapter 1.ISBN978-1-78283-904-0.Archived from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved30 May 2023.What wasn't corrected, though—and what, in retrospect, should have raised much more controversy than it did (it seems to have passed completely unremarked for the last 170-odd years)—was[Aldrich and Symonds's] map's labelling. Because here, newly arcing across the familiar quadrilateral of Jerusalem, are four double labels in bold capitals. At top leftHaret En-Nassara and, beneath it,Christian Quarter; at bottom leftHaret El-Arman andArmenian Quarter; at bottom centreHaret El-Yehud andJews' Quarter; and at top right—the big innovation, covering perhaps half the city—Haret El-Muslimin andMohammedan Quarter, had shown this before. Every map has shown it since. The idea, in 1841, of a Mohammedan (that is, Muslim) quarter of Jerusalem is bizarre. It's like a Catholic quarter of Rome. A Hindu quarter of Delhi. Nobody living there would conceive of the city in such a way. At that time, and for centuries before and decades after, Jerusalem was, if the term means anything at all, a Muslim city. Many people identified in other ways, but large numbers of Jerusalemites were Muslim and they lived all over the city. A Muslim quarter could only have been dreamt up by outsiders, searching for a handle on a place they barely understood, intent on asserting their own legitimacy among a hostile population, seeing what they wanted to see. Its only purpose could be to draw attention to what it excludes.
^Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
"Israel was first forged into a unified nation from Jerusalem some 3,000 years ago, whenKing David seized the crown and united thetwelve tribes from this city... For a thousand years Jerusalem was the seat of Jewish sovereignty, the household site of kings, the location of its legislative councils and courts. In exile, the Jewish nation came to be identified with the city that had been the site of its ancient capital. Jews, wherever they were, prayed for its restoration." Roger Friedland, Richard D. Hecht.To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, 2000, p. 8.ISBN978-0-520-22092-8
"The centrality of Jerusalem to Judaism is so strong that even secular Jews express their devotion and attachment to the city, and cannot conceive of a modern State of Israel without it.... For Jews Jerusalem is sacred simply because it exists... Though Jerusalem's sacred character goes back three millennia...". Leslie J. Hoppe.The Holy City: Jerusalem in the theology of the Old Testament, Liturgical Press, 2000, p. 6.ISBN978-0-8146-5081-3
"Ever since King David made Jerusalem the capital of Israel 3,000 years ago, the city has played a central role in Jewish existence." Mitchell Geoffrey Bard,The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Middle East Conflict, Alpha Books, 2002, p. 330.ISBN978-0-02-864410-3
"Jerusalem became the center of the Jewish people some 3,000 years ago" Moshe Maoz, Sari Nusseibeh,Jerusalem: Points of Friction—and Beyond, Brill Academic Publishers, 2000, p. 1.ISBN978-90-411-8843-4
^"Basic Facts you should know: Jerusalem".Anti-Defamation League. 2007. Archived fromthe original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved28 March 2007.The Jewish people are inextricably bound to the city of Jerusalem. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, politics, culture, religion, national life and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Since King David established the city as the capital of the Jewish state circa 1000 BCE, it has served as the symbol and most profound expression of the Jewish people's identity as a nation."
^Shalom M. Paul,Isaiah 40–66, p. 306, atGoogle Books The 'holiness' (qodesh) arises from the temple in its midst, the rootq-d-š referring to a sanctuary. The concept is attested in Mesopotamian literature, and the epithet may serve to distinguish Babylon, the city of exiles, from the city of the Temple, to where they are enjoined to return.
^Golb, Norman (1997)."Karen Armstrong's Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived fromthe original on 11 October 2013. Retrieved10 July 2013.The available texts of antiquity indicate that the concept was created by one or more personalities among the Jewish spiritual leadership, and that this occurred no later than the 6th century B.C.
^Joseph T. Lienhard,The Bible, the Church, and Authority: The Canon of the Christian Bible in History and Theology, Liturgical Press, 1995 pp. 65–66: 'The Septuagint is a Jewish translation and was also used in the synagogue. But at the end of the first century C.E. many Jews ceased to use the Septuagint because the early Christians had adopted it as their own translation, and it began to be considered a Christian translation.'
Brown, Leon Carl (2000). "Setting the Stage: Islam and Muslims".Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. Columbia University Press. p. 11.ISBN978-0-231-12038-8.The third holiest city of Islam—Jerusalem—is also very much in the center...
Hoppe, Leslie J. (2000).The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p. 14.ISBN978-0-8146-5081-3.Jerusalem has always enjoyed a prominent place in Islam. Jerusalem is often referred to as the third holiest city in Islam...
^Middle East peace plans by Willard A. Beling: "The Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam after Mecca and Medina".
^Lewis, Bernard; Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann, eds. (1986).Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press.
^Kollek, Teddy (1977). "Afterword". In John Phillips (ed.).A Will to Survive—Israel: The Faces of the Terror 1948-the Faces of Hope Today. Dial Press/James Wade.about 91 hectares (225 acres)
^Walid Khalidi (1996) Islam, the West and Jerusalem. Center for Contemporary Arab Studies & Center for Muslim–Christian Understanding, Georgetown University, quotes the breakdown as follows: West Jerusalem in 1948: 16,261 dunums (14%); West Jerusalem added in 1967: 23,000 dunums (20%); East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 6,000 dunums (5%); West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 67,000 dunums (61%)
^Aronson, Geoffrey (1995). "Settlement Monitor: Quarterly Update on Developments".Journal of Palestine Studies.25 (1). University of California Press, Institute for Palestine Studies:131–40.doi:10.2307/2538120.ISSN0377-919X.JSTOR2538120.West Jerusalem: 35%; East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 4%; West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 59%
^Benvenisti, Meron (1976).Jerusalem, the Torn City. Books on Demand. p. 113.ISBN978-0-7837-2978-7.East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 6,000 dunums; West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 67,000
^"Resolution 298 September 25, 1971".United Nations. 25 September 1971. Archived fromthe original on 19 August 2013. Retrieved25 July 2018.Recalling its resolutions... concerning measures and actions by Israel designed to change the status of the Israeli-occupied section of Jerusalem,...
^"The status of Jerusalem"(PDF).The Question of Palestine & the United Nations. United Nations Department of Public Information. 2003. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 8 August 2019.East Jerusalem has been considered, by both the General Assembly and the Security Council, as part of the occupied Palestinian territory.
^"Israel plans 1,300 East Jerusalem Jewish settler homes".BBC News. 9 November 2010.Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved20 June 2018.East Jerusalem is regarded as occupied Palestinian territory by the international community, but Israel says it is part of its territory.
^Meir Ben-Dov,Historical Atlas of Jerusalem, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2002, p. 23.
^G. Johannes Bottereck, Helmer Ringgren, Heinz-Josef Fabry, (eds.)Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, tr. David E. Green, vol. XV, pp. 48–49 William B. Eeerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge UK 2006, pp. 45–46
^Elon, Amos (1996).Jerusalem. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd.ISBN978-0-00-637531-9. Archived fromthe original on 10 March 2003. Retrieved26 April 2007.The epithet may have originated in the ancient name of Jerusalem–Salem (after the pagan deity of the city), which is etymologically connected in the Semitic languages with the words for peace (shalom in Hebrew, salam in Arabic).
^Ringgren, H.,Die Religionen des Alten Orients (Göttingen, 1979), 212.
^abDenise DeGarmo (9 September 2011)."Abode of Peace?".Wandering Thoughts. Center for Conflict Studies. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved17 December 2011.
^Marten H. Wouldstra,The Book of Joshua, William B. Eerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan (1981) 1995, p. 169 n.2
^Wallace, Edwin Sherman (August 1977).Jerusalem the Holy. New York: Arno Press. p. 16.ISBN978-0-405-10298-1.A similar view was held by those who give the Hebrew dual to the word
^Sethe, Kurt (1926) "Die Ächtung feindlicher Fürsten, Völker und Dinge auf altägyptischen Tongefäßscherben des Mittleren Reiches nach den Originalen im Berliner Museum herausgegeben und erklärt" inAbhandlungen der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1926 issue, philosophisch-historische Klasse, number 5, page 53
^Hoch, James E (1994).Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
^G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (eds.)Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, (tr. David E. Green) William B. Eerdmann, Grand Rapids Michigan, Cambridge, UK 1990, Vol. VI, p. 348
^Shalem, Yisrael (3 March 1997)."History of Jerusalem from its Beginning to David".Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University, Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Archived fromthe original on 17 January 2007. Retrieved18 January 2007.
^Blessing and Curse in Syro-Palestinian Inscriptions by T. G Crawford p. 137
^Joseph Naveh (2001). "Hebrew Graffiti from the First Temple Period".Israel Exploration Journal.51 (2):194–207.
^Discovering the World of the Bible by LaMar C. Berrett p. 178
^Ahituv, S., Klein, E. and Ganor, A. 2016. To Jerusalem: A Seventh Century BCE Shipping Certificate. In: Stiebel, G.D., Uziel, J., Citryn-Silverman, K., Re’em, A. and Gadot, Y., eds. New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region 10: 239–251 (In Hebrew)
^Mazar, Eilat (2002).The Complete Guide to the Temple Mount Excavations. Jerusalem: Shoham Academic Research and Publication. p. 1.ISBN978-965-90299-1-4.
and possibly the Masoretic text ofGenesis 33:18 (see KJV and the margin translation of the Revised Version).
^E.g., theVulgate andPeshitta versions. J.A. Emerton, "The site of Salem: the City of Melchizedek (Genesis xiv 18)," pp. 45–72 ofStudies in the Pentateuch ed. by J.A. Emerton, vol. 41 ofSupplements to Vetus Testamentum (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1990) ("Emerton"), p. 45.See alsoJohn 3:23 where "Salim" or "Sylem" (Συχὲμ) is said to be nearÆnon, thought to be in the valley ofMount Ebal, one of two mountains in the vicinity of Nablus.
^Sonbol, Amira (1996).Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History. p. 133.
^Jerusalem as administrative capital of the British Mandate:
Orfali, Jacob G. (1995).Everywhere You Go, People Are the Same. Ronin Publishing. p. 25.ISBN978-0-914171-75-1.In the year 1923, [Jerusalem] became the capital of the British Mandate in Palestine
Oren-Nordheim, Michael; Ruth Kark (2001).Ruth Kark. Wayne State University Press. p. 36.ISBN978-0-8143-2909-2. Archived fromthe original on 16 December 2007. Retrieved17 April 2007.The three decades of British rule in Palestine (1917/18–1948) were a highly significant phase in the development, with indelible effects on the urban planning and development of the capital—Jerusalem. is a professor in the Department of Geography at theHebrew University of Jerusalem.
Dumper, Michael (1996).The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967. Columbia University Press. p. 59.ISBN978-0-231-10640-5.the city that was to become the administrative capital of Mandate Palestine...
^Klein, Menachem (2001). "The PLO and the Palestinian Identity of East Jerusalem".Jerusalem: The Future of a Contested City. New York University Press. p. 189.ISBN978-0-8147-4754-4.
^Segal, Jerome M. (Fall 1997)."Negotiating Jerusalem". The University of Maryland School of Public Policy. Archived fromthe original on 14 May 2006. Retrieved25 February 2007.
^Whither Jerusalem (Lapidot) page 17: "Israeli control in west Jerusalem since 1948 was illegal and most states have not recognized its sovereignty there"
^TheJerusalem Law states that "Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel" and the city serves as the seat of the government, home to the President's residence, government offices, supreme court, andparliament.United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 (20 August 1980; 14–0, U.S. abstaining) declared the Jerusalem Law "null and void" and called on member states to withdraw their diplomatic missions from Jerusalem (seeKellerman 1993, p. 140). SeeStatus of Jerusalem for more information.
^"UN General Assembly Resolution 181 recommended the creation of an international zonea, or corpus separatum, in Jerusalem to be administered by the UN for a 10-year period, after which there would be referendum to determine its future. This approach applies equally to West and East Jerusalem and is not affected by the occupation of East jerusalem in 1967. To a large extent it is this approach that still guides the diplomatic behaviour of states and thus has greater force in international law" (Susan M. Akram, Michael Dumper, Michael Lynk, Iain Scobbie (eds.), International Law and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A Rights-Based Approach to Middle East Peace, Routledge, 2010 p.119. )
^Mosheh ʻAmirav,Jerusalem Syndrome: The Palestinian-Israeli Battle for the Holy City, Sussex University Press, 2009 p. 27: 'In the summer of 2006, these two countries also announced the adoption of a new policy whereby they would no longer recognize Israel's sovereignty in Jerusalem, and transferred their embassies out of the city'.
^Times Online Style Guide—JArchived 21 September 2011 at theWayback Machine "Jerusalem must not be used as a metonym or variant for Israel. It is not internationally recognised as the Israeli capital, and its status is one of the central controversies in the Middle East."
^"Population".Peace Now.Archived from the original on 11 June 2022. Retrieved1 June 2022.
^Roberts, Adam (1990)."Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories Since 1967"(PDF).The American Journal of International Law.84 (1):85–86.doi:10.2307/2203016.JSTOR2203016.S2CID145514740. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 15 February 2020.The international community has taken a critical view of both deportations and settlements as being contrary to international law. General Assembly resolutions have condemned the deportations since 1969, and have done so by overwhelming majorities in recent years. Likewise, they have consistently deplored the establishment of settlements, and have done so by overwhelming majorities throughout the period (since the end of 1976) of the rapid expansion in their numbers. The Security Council has also been critical of deportations and settlements; and other bodies have viewed them as an obstacle to peace, and illegal under international law... Although East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have been brought directly under Israeli law, by acts that amount to annexation, both of these areas continue to be viewed by the international community as occupied, and their status as regards the applicability of international rules is in most respects identical to that of the West Bank and Gaza.
^"Jerusalem".PLO-Negotiations Affairs Department (NAD). Archived fromthe original on 18 April 2016. Retrieved20 May 2013.
^abBergsohn, Sam (15 May 2006)."Geography". Cornell University. Archived fromthe original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved9 February 2007.
^Walvoord, John; Zachary J. Hayes; Clark H. Pinnock; William Crockett; Stanley N. Gundry (1996). "The Metaphorical View".Four Views on Hell. Zondervan. p. 58.ISBN978-0-310-21268-3.
^Rosen-Zvi, Issachar (2004).Taking Space Seriously: Law, Space and Society in Contemporary Israel. Ashgate Publishing. p. 37.ISBN978-0-7546-2351-9.Thus, for instance, the distance between the four large metropolitan regions are—39 miles
^Teller, Matthew (2022).Nine Quarters of Jerusalem: A New Biography of the Old City.Profile Books. p. Chapter 1.ISBN978-1-78283-904-0.Archived from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved30 May 2023.But it may not have been Aldrich and Symonds. Below the frame of their map, printed in italic script, a single line notes that 'The Writing' had been added by 'theRevd. G. Williams' and 'the Revd. Robert Willis'… Some sources suggest [Williams] arrived before[Michael] Alexander, in 1841. If so, did he meet Aldrich and Symonds? We don't know. But Williams became their champion, defending them when the Haram inaccuracy came up and then publishing their work. The survey the two Royal Engineers did was not intended for commercial release (Aldrich had originally been sent toSyria under 'secret service'), and it was several years before their military plan of Jerusalem came to public attention, published first in 1845 by their senior officer Alderson in plain form, without most of the detail and labelling, and then in full in 1849, in the second edition of Williams's book The Holy City. Did Aldrich and/or Symonds invent the idea of four quarters in Jerusalem? It's possible, but they were military surveyors, not scholars. It seems more likely they spent their very short stay producing a usable street-plan for their superior officers, without necessarily getting wrapped up in details of names and places. The 1845 publication, shorn of street names, quarter labels and other detail, suggests that… Compounding his anachronisms, and perhaps with an urge to reproduce Roman urban design in this new context, Williams writes how two main streets, north-south and east-west, 'divide Jerusalem into four quarters.' Then the crucial line: 'The subdivisions of the streets and quarters are numerous, but unimportant.' Historians will, I hope, be able to delve more deeply into Williams's work, but for me, this is evidence enough. For almost two hundred years, virtually the entire world has accepted the ill-informed, dismissive judgementalism of a jejune Old Etonian missionary as representing enduring fact about the social make-up of Jerusalem. It's shameful… With Britain's increased standing in Palestine after 1840, and the growth of interest in biblical archaeology that was to become an obsession a few decades later, it was vital for the Protestant missionaries to establish boundaries in Jerusalem… Williams spread his ideas around.Ernst Gustav Schultz [de;he], who came to Jerusalem in 1842 as Prussian vice-consul, writes in his 1845 book Jerusalem:Eine Vorlesung ('A Lecture'): 'It is with sincere gratitude I must mention that, on my arrival in Jerusalem, Mr Williams ... willingly alerted me to the important information that he [and] another young Anglican clergyman, Mr Rolands, had discovered about the topography of [Jerusalem].' Later come the lines: 'Let us now divide the city into quarters,' and, after mentioning Jews and Christians, 'All the rest of the city is the Mohammedan Quarter.' Included wasa map, drawn byHeinrich Kiepert, that labelled the four quarters, mirroring Williams's treatment inThe Holy City.
^Usiel Oskar Schmelz, in Ottoman Palestine, 1800–1914: studies in economic and social history, Gad G. Gilbar, Brill Archive, 1990Ottoman Palestine 1800–1940 atGoogle Books
^Rivka, Gonen (2003).Contested Holiness: Jewish, Muslim, and Christian Perspectives on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Jersey City, NJ: KTAV Publishing House, Inc. p. 4.ISBN978-0-88125-798-4.OCLC1148595286.To the Jews the Temple Mount is the holiest place on Earth, the place where God manifested himself to King David and where two Jewish temples—Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple—were located.
^Marshall J., Breger; Ahimeir, Ora (2002).Jerusalem: A City and Its Future. Syracuse University Press. p. 296.ISBN978-0-8156-2912-2.OCLC48940385.
^Goldberg, Monique Susskind."Synagogues".Ask the Rabbi. Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies. Archived fromthe original on 31 January 2008. Retrieved10 March 2007.
^Beckles Willson, Rachel (2013).Orientalism and Musical Mission: Palestine and the West. Cambridge University Press. p. 146.ISBN978-1-107-03656-7.
^From theKing James Version of the Bible: "And when the days of her purification according to the law of Moses were accomplished, they brought [Jesus] to Jerusalem, to present him to the Lord;" (Luke 2:22)
^From theKing James Version of the Bible: "And they come to Jerusalem: and Jesus went into the temple, and began to cast out them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the tables of the moneychangers, and the seats of them that sold doves;" (Mark 11:15)
^Boas, Adrian J. (2001). "Physical Remains of Crusader Jerusalem".Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades. Routledge. p. 112.ISBN978-0-415-23000-1.The interesting, if not reliable illustrations of the church on the round maps of Jerusalem show two distinct buildings on Mount Zion: the church of St Mary and the Cenacle (Chapel of the Last Supper) appear as separate buildings.
^From theKing James Version of the Bible: "This title then read many of the Jews: for the place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city: and it was written in Hebrew, and Greek, and Latin." (John 19:20)
^abStump, Keith W. (1993)."Where Was Golgotha?". Worldwide Church of God. Archived fromthe original on 2 April 2007. Retrieved11 March 2007.
^Ray, Stephen K. (2002).St. John's Gospel: A Bible Study Guide and Commentary for Individuals and Groups. San Francisco, CA: Ignatius Press. p. 340.ISBN978-0-89870-821-9.
^O'Reilly, Sean; James O'Reilly (30 November 2000).PilgrFile: Adventures of the Spirit (1st ed.). Travelers' Tales. p. 14.ISBN978-1-885211-56-9.The general consensus is that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre marks the hill called Golgotha, and that the site of the Crucifixion and the last five Stations of the Cross are located under its large black domes.
^Holt, Andrew (2019).The World of the Crusades: A Daily Life Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 57.ISBN978-1-4408-5462-0.was housed in the most important church in Christendom, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
^Cordesman, Anthony H. (2005). "The Final Settlement Issues: Asymmetric Values & Asymmetric Warfare".The Israeli-Palestinian War: Escalating to Nowhere. Praeger Security International. p. 62.ISBN978-0-275-98758-9.
^"Sahih Bukhari".Compendium of Muslim Texts. University of Southern California. Archived fromthe original on 27 November 2008. Retrieved9 September 2011. (from an English translation ofSahih Bukhari, Volume IX, Book 93, Number 608)
^FromAbdullah Yusuf Ali's English translation of theQur'an: "Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things)." (17:1)
^The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 7 (New ed. 2006 ed.). Brill. 2006. pp. 97–105.
^Colby, Frederick S. (6 August 2008).Narrating Muhammad's Night Journey: Tracing the Development of the Ibn 'Abbas Ascension Discourse. SUNY Press. p. 15.ISBN978-0-7914-7788-5.From the earliest extant Muslim texts, it becomes clear that a group of Muslims from the beginning interpreted the 'furthest place of prayer' (al-masjid al-aqṣā) with the city of Jerusalem in general and its Herodian/Solomonic Temple in particular... Eventually, a general consensus formed around the idea that Muhammad's journey did indeed take him to Jerusalem.
^Hughes, Aaron W. (2014).Theorizing Islam: Disciplinary Deconstruction and Reconstruction. Religion in Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 45.ISBN978-1-317-54594-1.Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved15 July 2022.Although later commentators would debate whether or not this journey was a physical one or took place at an internal level, it would come to play a crucial role in establishing Muhammad's prophetic credentials. In the first part of this journey, referred to as the isra, he traveled from the Kaba in Mecca to "the farthest mosque" (al-masjid al-aqsa), identified with the Temple Mount in Jerusalem: the al-Aqsa mosque that stands there today eventually took its name from this larger precinct, in which it was constructed.
^Eisenstadt, David (26 August 2002)."The British Mandate".Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Archived fromthe original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved10 February 2007.
^ab"Summary".Second Class Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools. Human Rights Watch. September 2001.Archived from the original on 8 December 2012. Retrieved27 March 2007.
^"Yad Vashem". The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Archived fromthe original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved28 February 2007.
^"About Yad Vashem". The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Archived fromthe original on 17 February 2007. Retrieved28 February 2007.
^ab"History". Jerusalem Orchestra. Archived fromthe original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved4 March 2007.
^Pletcher, Kenneth; Levy, Michael; Augustyn, Adam; Etheredge, Laura; Tikkanen, Amy; McKenna, Amy; Tesch, Noah; Lotha, Gloria; Zeidan, Adam; et al. (27 April 2023)."Israel—The arts".Encyclopedia Britannica.Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved3 May 2023.
^Torstrick, Rebecca L. (2004).Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood Press. p. 141.ISBN978-0-313-32091-0.The two most popular spectator sports in Israel are football and basketball.
^"Home" (in Hebrew). Hapoel Migdal Jerusalem. Archived fromthe original on 2 January 2008. Retrieved7 March 2007. (The listing of championship wins are located at the bottom after the completion of the Flash intro.)
^"Lei Nº 5919 DE 17/07/2015".legisweb.com.br (in Portuguese). Legisweb. 19 May 2017.Archived from the original on 10 July 2016. Retrieved1 November 2023.
^"Ciudades Hermanas de Cusco".aatccusco.com (in Spanish). Asociación de Agencias de Turismo del Cusco.Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved1 November 2023.
Cline, Eric (2004).Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.ISBN978-0-472-11313-2.
Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988).O Jerusalem!. New York: Simon & SchusterISBN978-0-671-66241-7.
The Holy Cities: Jerusalem produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006
Gold, Dore (2007).The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, The West, and the Future of the Holy City. International Publishing Company J-M, Ltd.ISBN978-1-59698-029-7.
Hosler, John D. (2022).Jerusalem Falls: Seven Centuries of War and Peace. London and New Haven: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-25514-0.
Klein, Konstantin M.; Wienand, Johannes, eds. (2022).City of Caesar, City of God: Constantinople and Jerusalem in Late Antiquity. De Gruyter, Berlin 2022,ISBN978-3-11-071720-4.doi:10.1515/9783110718447.
Köchler, Hans (1981).The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem Vienna: BraumüllerISBN978-3-7003-0278-0.
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