Jean Gerson | |
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.jpg) Posthumous engraving, byBernard Picart, 1714 | |
| Born | (1363-12-13)13 December 1363 |
| Died | 12 July 1429(1429-07-12) (aged 65) Lyon, Kingdom of France |
| Occupation(s) | Scholar, educator, reformer, poet |
Jean Charlier de Gerson (13 December 1363[1] – 12 July 1429) was a French scholar, educator, reformer, and poet,Chancellor of the University of Paris, a guiding light of theconciliar movement and one of the most prominent theologians at theCouncil of Constance. He was one of the first thinkers to develop what would later come to be callednatural rights theory, and was also one of the first individuals to defendJoan of Arc and proclaim her supernatural vocation as authentic.[2][3]
Aged fourteen, he left Gerson-lès-Barby to study at thecollege of Navarre in Paris under prominent magiciansGilles Deschamps, (Aegidius Campensis) andPierre d'Ailly (Petrus de Alliaco), who became his life-long friend.[4]
Gerson was born at Gerson-lès-Barby,Gerson (paroisse de Barby) a hamlet in the present municipality ofBarby, Ardennes in thebishopric of Reims[5] inChampagne.
His parents, Arnulphe Charlier and Élisabeth de la Chardenière, "a secondMonica," were pious peasants, and seven of their twelve children, four daughters and three sons, devoted themselves to a religious life. The eldest, young Gerson was sent toParis to the famouscollege of Navarre when fourteen years of age.[6] After a five years' course he obtained the degree of licentiate of arts, and then began his theological studies under two very celebrated teachers,Gilles Deschamps (Aegidius Campensis) andPierre d'Ailly (Petrus de Alliaco), rector of the college of Navarre,chancellor of the university, and afterwardsbishop of Puy,archbishop of Cambrai andcardinal. Pierre d'Ailly remained his lifelong friend, and in later life the pupil seems to have become the teacher (see preface toLiber de vita Spir. Animae).[4]
Gerson attracted the notice of the university. He was elected procurator for the French 'nation' (the French-born Francophone students at the University) in 1383, and again in 1384, in which year he graduated bachelor oftheology. Three years later a still higher honour was bestowed upon him; he was sent along with the chancellor and others to represent the university in a case of appeal taken to the pope.John of Montson (Monzón, de Montesono), anAragoneseDominican who had recently graduated as doctor of theology at Paris, had in 1387 been condemned by the faculty of theology because he had taught that theVirgin Mary, like other ordinary descendants ofAdam, was born in original sin; and the Dominicans, who were fierce opponents of the doctrine of theImmaculate Conception, were expelled from the university.[6][7]
John of Montson appealed toPope Clement VII atAvignon, and Pierre d'Ailly, Gerson and the other university delegates, while they personally supported the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, were content to rest their case upon the legal rights of the university to test in its own way its theological teachers. It is certain that from this time onwards he was zealous in his endeavours to spiritualize the universities, to reform the morals of the clergy, and to put an end to theschism which then divided the church.[7]
He first gained fame as a popular preacher in Paris in the early 1390s. In 1392 Gerson was awarded licentiate, receiving his doctorate of theology in 1394; and in 1395, when Pierre d'Ailly was made bishop of Puy, he was, at the early age of thirty-two, electedChancellor of the University of Paris,[8] and made a canon ofNotre-Dame. The university was then at the height of its fame, and its chancellor was necessarily a man prominent not only in France but in Europe, sworn to maintain the rights of his university against both king and pope, and entrusted with the conduct and studies of a vast crowd of students attracted from almost every country in Europe. Gerson's writings bear witness to his deep sense of the responsibilities, anxieties and troubles of his position. He was all his days a man of letters, and an analysis of his writings is his best biography. His work has three periods, in which he was engaged in reforming the university studies, maturing plans for overcoming the schism (a task which after 1404 absorbed all his energies), and in the evening of his life writing books of devotion.[7]
AsEtienne Gilson refers, in his speech before KingCharles VI of France on November 7, 1405, entitledLong Live the King, Gerson recalled the origins of the Wisdom of the University of Paris, in order: from the first man in the Earthly Paradise to the Hebrews and then to the Egyptians throughAbraham (cf. the writings ofPatriarch Joseph), thenAthens,Rome andParis.[9]
Gerson wished to banish the more counter-productive scholastic ideas from the studies of the university, and at the same time to put some evangelical warmth into the studies, giving them a more spiritual and practical focus. He was called at this period of his lifeDoctor Christianissimus; later his devotional and pastoral writings brought him the titleDoctor Consolatorius. His method was a clear exposition of the principles of "scientific" theology where clearness was possible, with a due recognition of the place of mystery in the Christian system of doctrine.[5]
As Chancellor, he worked to establish academic theology as a unified discipline (Latin:communis schola): a single school (Thomistic), with a single master (Aquinas), with a single methodology (questions), all conducted in a single language (Latin), taught by authorized masters (university theologians), examined by universities, and avoidingcurositas (idle speculations.)[10]: 636et seq. This approach marginalized Scotist and Ockhamist theology at the time, and humanist philology a century later. His plans for the reformation of university studies may be learned from hisEpistolae de reform. theol. (i. I 21),Epistolae ad studentes Coligii Navarrae, quid et qualiter studere debeat novus ideologiae auditor, et contra curiositatem studentium (i. 106),Lectiones duae contra vanam curiositatem in negotio fidei (i. 86), andDe mystica theologia, speculativa et practica. A historian has written "Gerson proposed two basic remedies: first, he would require students to read less of book 1 of Lombard’sSentences, where the nature of God is dealt with, and to give more attention to books 2 through 4, where they would learn about Jesus, the church, the sacraments, and the life to come—topics assumed less likely to occasion flights of fancy and bitter argument; second, he would forbid the discussion of sophistical questions (Latin:sophismata) and all topics declared suspect and scandalous by the church."[13]
He saved himself from rationalism by laying hold onmysticism[7]—theChristian mysticism ofPseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, the school of (Augustinian canon regular)Richard of St. Victor, (Cistercian)Bernard of Clairvaux, (Franciscan)Saint Bonaventure, and the newBrethren of the Common Life. He thought that, by laying hold of mysticism, he would equally guard against speculative scholasticism, and the seductions ofAverroisticpantheism such as was preached by heretics likeAmalric of Bena. Mystical theology was not academic: "even young girls and simple people" could become experts in mystical theology.[12]
In hisTract. contra romantiam de rosa (iii. 297) he warns against the irreverentRoman de la Rose ofGuillaume de Lorris andJean de Meun—a position in which he was joined byChristine de Pizan. He was often weary of the chancellorship—it involved him in strife and in money difficulties; he grew tired of public life, and longed for learned leisure. To obtain it he accepted the deanery ofBruges from the duke of Burgundy, but after a short sojourn he returned to Paris and to thechancellorship.[6][7]
In Catholic circles, Gerson's theology is usually held in high esteem, while his ecclesiastical doctrines are sometimes viewed as suspect due to his support forconciliarism.[14]
While scholars have contended that Gerson adopted several nominalist tenets, others have maintained that he was anti-nominalist in his basic outlook.[15]
Gerson's 1402 treatiseDe Vita Spirituali Animae was one of the first attempts at developingnatural rights theory.[3] He thought that freedom could be exchanged in the same way as property.[16]
Gerson's chief work was toward reconciling thegreat schism.Gregory XI had died in 1378 in Rome, one year after Gerson went to the college of Navarre, and since his death there were two claimants to the papacy,[7] both elected by the cardinals, one in Rome and one in Avignon. This caused great confusion, as theChurch could, at one time, only have one legitimate successor of St. Peter.
As the popes had been under French influence so long that it appeared to France a political necessity to have the pope reside in a French area, the French monarchy was quick to side with the Avignon pope, thus helping the schism take root. Due to this, pious Frenchmen felt themselves somewhat responsible for the sins and scandals of the schism. Hence the melancholy piety of Gerson, Pierre d'Ailly and their companions, and the energy with which they strove to bring the schism to an end. During the lifetime ofClement VII, the University of Paris, led by Pierre d'AiIly, Gerson andNicholas of Clémanges, met in deliberation about the state of Christendom, and resolved that the schism could be ended in three ways; by cession, if both popes renounced the office unconditionally, by arbitration, or by a general council. When Clement died, the king of France, urged by the university, sent orders that no new pope should be elected. But, the cardinals held their election first, and only then opened the king's letter. In the new elections, however, both at Rome and Avignon, the influence of Paris was so much felt that each of the new popes swore to cede if his rival would do likewise.[7]
Meanwhile in 1395, theFrench Estates General and the French clergy adopted the programme of the university — cession or a general council. The movement gathered strength. By 1398, most of the cardinals and most of the crowned heads in Europe supported the plan. During this period Gerson's literary activity was untiring, and the throb of public expectancy, of hope and fear, is revealed in his multitude of pamphlets. At first there were hopes of a settlement by way of cession. These come out inProtest. super statuni ecclesiae (ii. I),Tractatus de modo habendi se tempore schismatis,De schismate, etc. But soon the popes' intransigence strengthened the movement for a council—seeDe concilio generali unius obedientiae (ii. 24).[7]
A council was resolved upon, to meet at Pisa, and Gerson poured forth tract after tract for its guidance. The most important areTrilogus in materia schismatis (ii. 83), andDe unitate Ecclesiae (ii. 113), in which, following Pierre d'Ailly (seePaul Tschackert,Peter von Ailli, p. 153), Gerson demonstrates that the ideal unity of the church, based upon Christ, destroyed by the popes, can only be restored by a general council, supreme and legitimate, though unsummoned by a pope. The council met, deposed both antipopes, and electedAlexander V. Gerson officially addressed the new pope on his duties inSermo coram Alexandro Papa in die ascensionis in concilio Pisano (ii. 131).[7]
All hopes of reformation, however, were crushed by the conduct of the new pope, especially his immoderate partiality toward theFranciscan Order, of which he had been a monk. He issued a bull which laid the parish clergy and the universities at the mercy of the mendicants. The University of Paris rose in revolt, headed by its chancellor Gerson, who wrote the fierce pamphletCensura professorum in theologia circa bullam Alexandri V (ii. 442). The pope died soon after, andJohn XXIII (Baldassare Cossa), was elected his successor. Instead of peace, the council of Pisa had produced only a third papacy. Pierre d'Ailly despaired of general councils (see hisDe difficultate reformationis in concilio universali), but Gerson struggled on.[7]
Gerson also fought against the murderous discords and cynicism of royal politics. The feuds between the houses ofOrleans andBurgundy were ruining France. The king's brotherLouis I, Duke of Orléans, had been murdered by followers ofJohn the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. This had been publicly justified by a theologian,Jean Petit (c. 1360-1411). Gerson had Petit's "eight verities" — apologias for the murder — condemned by the University of Paris, the archbishop, and the grand inquisitor, and the book was publicly burned beforeNotre Dame. Gerson wished a council to confirm this sentence. His literary labours were as untiring as ever: he wrote that a general council could depose a pope; he drew up indictments against the reigning pontiffs, reiterated the charges against Jean Petit, and exposed the sin of schism—in short, he did all he could to direct the public mind toward healing the evils in the church.[17]
His efforts were powerfully seconded byEmperor Sigismund, and the result was theCouncil of Constance. Gerson's influence at the council was supreme up to the election of a new pope. It was he who dictated the form of submission and cession made by John XXIII, and directed the condemnation ofJan Hus. Many of Gerson's biographers have found it difficult to reconcile his proceedings against Hus with his own opinions upon the supremacy of the pope; but the difficulty has arisen partly from misunderstanding Gerson's position, partly from supposing him to be the author of a famous tractDe modis uniendi et reformandi Ecclesiam in concilio universali. This, and the treatisesDe modis uniendi et reformandi Ecclesiam, andDe difficultate reformationis in concilio universali, long ascribed to Gerson, were proved byJohann Baptist Schwab in hisJohannes Gerson not to be his work, and have since been ascribed to AbbotAndreas of Randuf, and with more reason toDietrich of Nieheim.All Gerson's high-sounding phrases about the supremacy of a council were meant to apply only in times of emergency. He was essentially a trimmer, not a reformer, and he hated Hus with all his heart.[18]
The council of Constance, which raised Gerson's prestige to its height, in the end became his downfall. The council, overawed by the duke of Burgundy, would not affirm the censure of Jean Petit. The justification of murder was declared a mere opinion, not a doctrine, and only one of Petit's "verities" was condemned; and even this censure was annulled by the new pope,Martin V. Gerson dared not return to France for fear of Burgundy, who had taken power. He lived in unofficial exile in Constance, then at Rattenberg in Tirol, where he wrote his famous bookDe consolatione theologiae.[18]
In 1407,Louis I, Duke of Orléans was assassinated in the streets ofParis, on orders of the Duke of BurgundyJohn the Fearless. His defense counsel, Jean Petit, argued that it was a justifiable act of "tyrannicide". Gerson denounced Petit's propositions openly and often, and attempted to have his theory of tyrannicide condemned. In doing so, he gained the enmity of the powerful Duke of Burgundy. During theCabochien revolt of spring 1413, his house in Paris was plundered and he only escaped assassination by taking refuge for two months up under the vaulted roofs ofNotre-Dame.[5] Gerson believed he had escaped the mob through the protection of St. Joseph.[6]
When Gerson emerged from his cathedral refuge in 1413 he began to promote devotion to St. Joseph. He wrote a lengthy treatise in French titledConsideration sur Saint Joseph, and his long poem in Latin, theJosephina, promoted the saint and his virtues across western Europe. Contrary to popular iconography which depicted the saint as an elderly man, Gerson argued that Joseph must have been a young, strong man, well able to support and protect theHoly Family. He described Jesus on theFlight into Egypt as "fugitive and a foreigner". In 1416 at theCouncil of Constance, Gerson urged the establishment of a feast day honoring theBetrothal of Mary and Joseph, for which he wrote anoffice.[19]
On returning to France he went toLyon, where his brother was prior of theCelestine monastery. Although Gerson was retired from active university life, the decade at Lyon was a time of great literary productivity. He produced a harmony of the gospels (theMonotesseron), works on the poems of the bible climaxing in a massive collection of twelve treatises on theMagnificat (Lk. 1:46-55), a commentary on theSong of Songs, as well as an extensive literary correspondence with members of theCarthusian order and others on mysticism and other issues of spiritual life. Shortly before his death he produced a tract in support ofJoan of Arc.[citation needed] It is said that he taught a school of boys and girls in Lyon, and his only fee was to make the children promise to repeat the prayer, "Lord, have mercy on thy poor servant Gerson"[18] (though this story has been questioned by Gerson's most recent biographer)[who?]. He died at Lyon on the 12 July 1429.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)On the relationship between Gerson and D'Ailly seePaul Tschackert,Peter von Ailli (Gotha, 1877). On Gerson's public life, see also accounts of the councils of Pisa and constance, especiallyHermann von der Hardt,Con. Constantiensis libn IC. (1695–1699).
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Lindsay, Thomas Martin; Anonymous (1911). "Gerson, John". InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 904–906.| International | |
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