| Javanese script ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦗꦮ | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Script type | |
Period | c. 1500s CE – present |
| Direction | Left-to-right  |
| Languages | Javanese Sundanese Madurese Sasak Malay Indonesian Kawi Sanskrit |
| Related scripts | |
Parent systems | |
Sister systems | Balinese alphabet Batak alphabet Baybayin scripts Lontara alphabet Makasar Sundanese script Rencong alphabet Rejang alphabet Sasak script |
| ISO 15924 | |
| ISO 15924 | Java(361), Javanese |
| Unicode | |
Unicode alias | Javanese |
| U+A980–U+A9DF | |
| This article containsphonetic transcriptions in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. For the distinction between[ ],/ / and ⟨ ⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters. | |
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| TheBrahmi script and its descendants |
Javanese script (Javanese:ꦄꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦗꦮ,romanized: aksara Jawa), also known ashanacaraka,carakan, anddentawyanjana[1] is one ofIndonesia's traditional scripts developed on the island ofJava. The script is primarily used to write theJavanese language and has also been used to write several other regional languages such asSundanese andMadurese, the regionallingua francaMalay, as well as the historical languagesKawi andSanskrit. It heavily influenced theBalinese script from which thewriting system forSasak developed. Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary texts from at least the mid-16th centuryCE until the mid-20th century CE, before it was gradually supplanted by the Latin alphabet. Today, the script is taught in theYogyakarta Special Region as well as the provinces ofCentral Java andEast Java as part of the local curriculum, but with very limited function in everyday use.[2][3]
Javanese script is anabugida writing system which consists of 20 to 33 basic letters, depending on the language being written. Like otherBrahmic scripts, each letter (called anaksara) represents a syllable with theinherent vowel /a/ or /ɔ/ which can be changed with the placement ofdiacritics around the letter. Each letter has a conjunct form calledpasangan, which nullifies the inherent vowel of the previous letter. Traditionally, the script is written without spaces between words (scriptio continua) but is interspersed with a group of decorativepunctuation.
Javanese script's evolutionary history can be traced fairly well because significant amounts of inscriptional evidence left behind allowed forepigraphical studies to be carried out. The oldest root of Javanese script is theTamil-Brahmi script which evolved into thePallava script in Southern and Southeast Asia between the 6th and 8th centuries. The Pallava script, in turn, evolved into Kawi script, which was actively used throughout Indonesia's Hindu-Buddhist period between the 8th and 15th centuries. In various parts of Indonesia, Kawi script would then evolve into Indonesia's various traditional scripts, one of them being Javanese script.[4] The modern Javanese script seen today evolved from Kawi script between the 14th and 15th centuries, a period in which Java began to receive significant Islamic influence.[5][6][7]
From the 15th until the mid-20th centuries, Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary texts spanning a wide range of themes. Javanese script was used throughout the island at a time when there was no easy means of communication between remote areas and no impulse towards standardization. As a result, there is a huge variety of historical and local styles of Javanese writing throughout the ages. The great differences between regional styles make the "Javanese script" appear like a family of scripts.[8] Javanese writing traditions were especially cultivated in theKraton environment in Javanese cultural centers, such asYogyakarta andSurakarta. However, Javanese texts are known to be made and used by various layers of society with varying usage intensities between regions. InWest Java, for example, the script was mainly used by the Sundanese nobility (ménak) due to the political influence of theMataram kingdom.[9] However, most Sundanese people within the same time period more commonly used thePegon script which was adapted from theArabic alphabet.[10] Javanese writing tradition also relied on periodic copying due to the deterioration of writing materials in the tropical Javanese climate; as a result, many physical manuscripts that are available now are 18th or 19th century copies, though their contents can usually be traced to far older prototypes.[7]
Javanese script has been written with numerous media that have shifted over time. Kawi script, which is ancestral to Javanese script, is often found on stone inscriptions and copper plates. Everyday writing in Kawi was done inpalm leaf form (ocally known aslontar), which are processed leaves of the tal palm (Borassus flabellifer). Eachlontar leaf has the shape of a slim rectangle 2.8 to 4 cm in width and varies in length between 20 and 80 cm. Each leaf can only accommodate around 4 lines of writing, which are incised horizontally with a small knife and then blackened with soot to increase readability. This media has a long history of attested use all over South and Southeast Asia.[11]
In the 13th century,paper began to be used in theMalay Archipelago. As Java began to receive significant Islamic influence in the 15th century, coinciding with the period in which Kawi script began to transition into the modern Javanese script, paper became widespread in Java while the use oflontar only persisted in a few regions.[12] There are two kinds of paper that are commonly used in Javanese manuscript: locally produced paper calleddaluang, and imported paper.Daluang (also spelleddluwang) is a paper made from the beaten bark of thesaéh tree (Broussonetia papyrifera). Visually,daluang can be easily differentiated from regular paper by its distinctive brown tint and fibrous appearance. A well madedaluang has a smooth surface and is quite durable against manuscript damage commonly associated with tropical climates, especially insect damage. Meanwhile, a coarsedaluang has a bumpy surface and tends to break easily.Daluang is commonly used in manuscripts produced by Javanesekraton (palaces) andpesantren (Islamic boarding schools) between the 16th and 17th centuries.[13]
Most imported paper in Indonesian manuscripts came from Europe. In the beginning, only a few scribes were able to use European paper due to its high price—paper made using European methods at the time could only be imported in limited numbers.[a] In colonial administration, the use of European paper had to be supplemented with Javanesedaluang and imported Chinese paper until at least the 19th century. As the paper supply increased due to growing imports from Europe, scribes in palaces and urban settlements gradually opted to use European paper as the primary medium for writing, whiledaluang paper was increasingly associated withpesantren and rural manuscripts.[12] Alongside the increase of European paper supply, attempts to create Javanese printing type began, spearheaded by several European figures. With the establishment of printing technology in 1825, materials in Javanese script could be mass-produced and became increasingly common in various aspects of pre-independence Javanese life, from letters, books, and newspapers, to magazines, and even advertisements and paper currency.[14]
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From the 15th century until the mid-20th century, Javanese script was used by all layers of Javanese society for writing day-to-day and literary texts with a wide range of theme and content. Due to the significant influence of oral tradition, reading in pre-independence Javanese society was usually a performance; Javanese literature texts are almost always composed in metrical verses that are designed to be recited, thus Javanese texts are not only judged by their content and language, but also by the merit of their melody and rhythm during recitation sessions.[15] Javanese poets are not expected to create new stories and characters; instead the role of the poet is to rewrite and recompose existing stories into forms that cater to local taste and prevailing trends. As a result, Javanese literary works such as thePanji tales do not have a single authoritative version referenced by all others; instead, theCerita Panji is a loose collection of numerous tales with various versions bound together by the common thread of the Panji character.[16] Literature genres with the longest attested history are Sanskrit epics such as theRamayana and theMahabharata, which have been recomposed since the Kawi period and introduced hundreds of familiar characters in Javanesewayang stories today, includingArjuna,Srikandi,Ghatotkacha and many others. Since the introduction of Islam, characters of Middle-Eastern provenance such asAmir Hamzah and theProphet Joseph have also been frequent subjects of writing. There are also local characters, usually set in Java's semi-legendary past, such asPrince Panji,Damar Wulan, andCalon Arang.[17]
When studies of Javanese language and literature began to attract European attention in the 19th century, an initiative to create a Javanesemovable type began to take place in order to mass-produce and quickly disseminate Javanese literary materials. One of the earliest attempts to create a movable Javanese type was by Paul van Vlissingen. His typeface was first put in use in theBataviasche Courant newspaper's October 1825 issue.[18] While lauded as a considerable technical achievement, many at the time felt that Vlissingen's design was a coarse copy of the fine Javanese hand used in literary texts, and so this early attempt was further developed by numerous other people to varying degrees of success as the study of Javanese developed over the years.[19] In 1838, Taco Roorda completed his typeface, known asTuladha Jejeg, based on the hand ofSurakartan scribes[b] with some European typographical elements mixed in. Roorda's font garnered positive feedback and soon became the main choice to print any Javanese text. From then, reading materials in printed Javanese using Roorda's typeface became widespread among the Javanese populace and were widely used in materials other than literature. The establishment of print technology gave rise to a printing industry which, for the next century, produced various materials in printed Javanese, from administrative papers and school books, to mass media such as theKajawèn [id] magazine which was entirely printed in Javanese in all of its articles and columns.[14][21] Javanese script was part of the multilingual legal text on theNetherlands Indies gulden banknotes circulated by theBank of Java.[22]
As literacy rates and the demand for reading materials increased at the beginning of the 20th century, Javanese publishers paradoxically began to decrease the amount of Javanese script publication due to a practical and economic consideration: printing any text in Javanese script at the time required twice the amount of paper compared to the same text rendered inthe Latin alphabet, making Javanese texts more expensive and time-consuming to produce. In order to lower production costs and keep book prices affordable to the general populace, many publishers gradually prioritized publications in the Latin alphabet.[24][c] However, the Javanese population at the time maintained the use of Javanese script in various aspects of everyday life. It was, for example, considered more polite to write a letter using Javanese script, especially one addressed toward an elder or superior. Many publishers, including Balai Pustaka, continued to print books, newspapers, and magazines in Javanese script due to sufficient, albeit declining, demand. The use of Javanese script only started to drop significantly during theJapanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies beginning in 1942.[25] Some writers attribute this sudden decline to prohibitions issued by the Japanese government banning the use of native script in the public sphere, though no documentary evidence of such a ban has yet been found. Nevertheless, the use of Javanese script did decline significantly during the Japanese occupation and it never recovered its previous widespread use in post-independence Indonesia.
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In contemporary usage, Javanese script is still taught as part of the local curriculum inYogyakarta,Central Java, and theEast Java Province. Several local newspapers and magazines have columns written in Javanese script, and the script can frequently be seen on public signage. However, many contemporary attempts to revive Javanese script are symbolic rather than functional; there are no longer, for example, periodicals like theKajawèn magazine that publish significant content in Javanese script. Most Javanese people today know the existence of the script and recognize a few letters, but it is rare to find someone who can read and write it meaningfully.[26][27] Therefore, as recently as 2019, it is not uncommon to see Javanese script signage in public places with numerous misspellings and basic mistakes.[28][29] Several hurdles in revitalizing the use of Javanese script includes information technology equipment that does not support correct rendering of Javanese script, lack of governing bodies with sufficient competence to consult on its usage, and lack of typographical explorations that may intrigue contemporary viewers. Nevertheless, attempts to revive the script are still being conducted by several communities and public figures who encourage the use of Javanese script in the public sphere, especially with digital devices.[30]
Aksara are base letters that represent a single syllable. Javanese script has approximately 45 baseaksara (letters), but not all of them are equally used. Over time, someaksara have fallen out of use, while others are only employed in specific contexts. Therefore, theaksara in Javanese script are classified into several types based on their function and usage.
Aksara wyanjana (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ) are consonants with an inherent vowel sound of /a/ or /ɔ/. As a descendant of the Brahmi script, Javanese script originally had 33wyanjana characters to write the 33 consonant sounds used in Sanskrit and Kawi. Their forms can be seen as follows:[31][32]
| Unvoiced | Voiced | Nasal | Semivowel | Sibilant | Fricative | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unaspirated | Aspirated | Unaspirated | Aspirated | |||||
| Velar | ꦏ ka | ꦑ kha | ꦒ ga | ꦓ gha | ꦔ ṅa | ꦲ ha/a | ||
| Palatal | ꦕ ca | ꦖ cha | ꦗ ja | ꦙ jha | ꦚ ña | ꦪ ya | ꦯ śa | |
| Retroflex | ꦛ ṭa | ꦜ ṭha | ꦝ ḍa | ꦞ ḍha | ꦟ ṇa | ꦫ ra | ꦰ ṣa | |
| Dental | ꦠ ta | ꦡ tha | ꦢ da | ꦣ dha | ꦤ na | ꦭ la | ꦱ sa | |
| Labial | ꦥ pa | ꦦ pha | ꦧ ba | ꦨ bha | ꦩ ma | ꦮ wa | ||
Modern Javanese only uses 20 consonant sounds, represented by 20 of the original 33aksara wyanjana, which are then referred to asꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦔ꧀ꦭꦼꦒꦺꦤ,aksara nglegéna. They are commonly arranged in thehanacaraka sequence, apangram whose name is derived from its first five letters, similar to the word "alphabet" which comes from the first two letters of theGreek alphabet,alpha andbeta.[34] This sequence has been used at least the 15th century, when the island of Java started to receive significant Islamic influence.[35] There are numerous interpretations on the supposed philosophical and esoteric qualities of thehanacaraka sequence,[36] and it is often linked to the myth ofAji Saka.[37][38]
ꦲ ha | ꦤ na | ꦕ ca | ꦫ ra | ꦏ ka | Javanese:ꦲꦤꦕꦫꦏ,romanized: hana caraka,lit. 'There were (two) emissaries.' |
ꦢ da | ꦠ ta | ꦱ sa | ꦮ wa | ꦭ la | Javanese:ꦢꦠꦱꦮꦭ,romanized: data sawala,lit. 'They began to fight.' |
ꦥ pa | ꦝ dha | ꦗ ja | ꦪ ya | ꦚ ña | Javanese:ꦥꦝꦗꦪꦚ,romanized: padha jayanya,lit. 'Their valor was equal' |
ꦩ ma | ꦒ ga | ꦧ ba | ꦛ tha | ꦔ ṅa | Javanese:ꦩꦒꦧꦛꦔ,romanized: maga bathanga,lit. 'They both fell dead.' |
Some of the remaining characters were repurposed asꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦩꦸꦂꦢ,aksara murda.Aksara murda are used to write the names of both respected individuals and legendary figures (for exampleJavanese:ꦨꦶꦩ,romanized: Bima) and real individuals. The use ofmurda differs from the use of capital letters in Latin script, in that[39] not every letter has a corresponding murda and if there is nomurda for the first syllable of a name, a murda form can be used for whichever succeeding syllabledoes one. A name of great respect can be written entirely inmurda. In traditional writing, the application ofmurda was essentially optional and not consistent. So, a name likeGani could be written as ꦒꦤꦶ (withoutmurda), ꦓꦤꦶ (withmurda at the beginning), or ꦓꦟꦶ (entirely inmurda).The remaining characters that are not included innglegena ormurda aremahaprana characters.Mahaprana characters have no function in modern Javanese writing and are only used in writing Sanskrit-Kawi.[31]
| Aksara murda | ꦟ na | ꦖ ca | ꦬ ra | ꦑ ka | ꦡ ta | ꦯ sa | ꦦ pa | ꦘ nya | ꦓ ga | ꦨ ba |
|---|
The Javanese script includes additional letters (Javanese:ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦫꦺꦏꦤ꧀,romanized: aksara rékan used to write foreign sounds.[40] Initially developed to transcribe loanwords fromArabic, they were later adapted for loanwords fromDutch, and in contemporary use, they are also used to write words fromIndonesian andEnglish. Mostrékan characters are formed by adding thececak telu diacritic to the character whose sound is considered closest to the foreign sound. For example, therékan character fa (ꦥ꦳) is formed by adding thececak telu to thewyanjana character pa (ꦥ). The combination ofwyanjana and the foreign sound equivalent for eachrékan may vary among writers due to the lack of a unified standard. According to Padmasusastra[41] and Dwijasewaya,[42] there are fiverékan characters:kha,dza,fa,za, andgha. However, according to Hollander, there are nine.[43]
| Javanese | ḥa ꦲ꦳ | kha ꦏ꦳ | qa ꦐ | dza ꦢ꦳ | sya ꦱ꦳ | fa/va ꦥ꦳ | za ꦗ꦳ | gha ꦒ꦳ | ʾa ꦔ꦳ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arabic | ح | خ | ق | ذ | ش | ف | ز | غ | ع |
Diacritics (sandhangan ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦔꦤ꧀) are marks attached to characters to modify the inherent vowel of the respective character. Similar to the characters themselves, Javanese diacritics can also be divided into several groups depending on their function and usage.
Aksara swara (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ) are characters used to write independent vowels. Javanese script has 14 vowel characters inherited from the Sanskrit writing tradition.[32] Modern Javanese no longer uses the entire set ofswara, so now only the short vowel characters are generally taught. In modern writing,aksara swara is used to replace theaksara wyanjana ha ꦲ (whose pronunciation can be ambiguous as it serves a dual function as the phoneme /ha/ and /a/) in foreign names or terms whose pronunciation needs clarification.[44]
Sandhangan swara (ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ) are diacritics used to change a consonant's inherent vowel /a/ to other vowels, as shown below:[45]
| Short | Long | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ꦄ IPA:/a/ | ꦆ IPA:/i/ | ꦈ IPA:/u/ | ꦌ IPA:/e/ | ꦎ IPA:/o/ | ꦄꦴ IPA:/aː/ | ꦇ IPA:/iː/ | ꦈꦴ IPA:/uː/ | ꦍ IPA:/aj/ | ꦎꦴ IPA:/au/ | ||
- | wulu ꦶ | suku ꦸ | taling ꦺ | taling-tarung ꦺꦴ | pepet ꦼ | tarung ꦴ | wulu melik ꦷ | suku mendut ꦹ | dirga muré ꦻ | dirga muré-tarung ꦻꦴ | pepet-tarung ꦼꦴ |
ꦲ a | ꦲꦶ i | ꦲꦸ u | ꦲꦺ é | ꦲꦺꦴ o | ꦲꦼ e | ꦲꦴ ā | ꦲꦷ ī | ꦲꦹ ū | ꦲꦻ ai | ꦲꦻꦴ au | ꦲꦼꦴ eu |
ꦏ ka | ꦏꦶ ki | ꦏꦸ ku | ꦏꦺ ké | ꦏꦺꦴ ko | ꦏꦼ ke | ꦏꦴ kā | ꦏꦷ kī | ꦏꦹ kū | ꦏꦻ kai | ꦏꦻꦴ kau | ꦏꦼꦴ keu |
Just likeaksara swara, only short vowel diacritics are generally taught and used in contemporary Javanese, while long vowel diacritics are used in writing Sanskrit and Kawi.
Pa cerek ꦉ,pa cerek dirgha ꦉꦴ,nga lelet ꦊ, andnga lelet raswadi ꦋ aresyllabic consonants that are considered vowels in Sanskrit-Kawi.[46][47] When used in languages other than Sanskrit, the pronunciation of these four characters often varies. In modern Javanese, onlypa cerek is pronounced /rə/ andnga lelet is pronounced /lə/. In modern teaching, these characters are often separated fromaksara swara and known asaksara gantèn (replacement characters). They are used to replace every combination of ra + pepet (ꦫꦼ → ꦉ) and la + pepet (ꦭꦼ → ꦊ).[48].Pa cerek dirgha andnga lelet raswadi are not used in modern Javanese.
Diacritics (Javanese:ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦥꦚꦶꦒꦼꦒꦶꦁꦮꦤ꧀ꦢ,romanized: sandhangan panyigeging vanda) are used to close a syllable with a consonant.
panyangga ꦀ | cecek ꦁ -ng | layar ꦂ -r | wignyan ꦃ -h | pangkon ꧀ |
|---|---|---|---|---|
ꦏꦀ kam | ꦏꦁ kang | ꦏꦂ kar | ꦏꦃ kah | ꦏ꧀ k |
Consonant clusters containing asemivowel are written by adding a diacritic (Javanese:ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ,romanized: sandhangan wyanjana) to the base syllable.[49]
keret ꦽ -re- | pèngkal ꦾ -y- | cakra ꦿ -r- | panjingan la ꧀ꦭ -l- | gembung ꧀ꦮ -w- |
|---|---|---|---|---|
ꦏꦽ kre | ꦏꦾ kya | ꦏꦿ kra | ꦏ꧀ꦭ kla | ꦏ꧀ꦮ kwa |
The inherent vowel of each base character can be nullified using the diacriticpangkon. However, thepangkon is generally not used in the middle of words or sentences. Instead, to write a closed syllable in the middle of a word or sentence, thepasangan form (ꦥꦱꦔꦤ꧀) is used. Unlike thepangkon, thepasangan not only nullifies the preceding consonant but also indicates the subsequent consonant. For example, the characterma (ꦩ) followed by thepasangan form ofpa (꧀ꦥ) becomesmpa (ꦩ꧀ꦥ). Thepasangan forms in this table are those used in modern Javanese writing. Some characters have differentpasangan forms in Sanskrit-Kawi writing.
| ha/a | na | ca | ra | ka | da | ta | sa | wa | la | pa | dha | ja | ya | nya | ma | ga | ba | tha | nga |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
꧀ꦲ | ꧀ꦤ | ꧀ꦕ | ꧀ꦫ | ꧀ꦏ | ꧀ꦢ | ꧀ꦠ | ꧀ꦱ | ꧀ꦮ | ꧀ꦭ | ꧀ꦥ | ꧀ꦝ | ꧀ꦗ | ꧀ꦪ | ꧀ꦚ | ꧀ꦩ | ꧀ꦒ | ꧀ꦧ | ꧀ꦛ | ꧀ꦔ |
꧀ꦟ | ꧀ꦖ | ꧀ꦬ | ꧀ꦑ | ꧀ꦡ | ꧀ꦯ | ꧀ꦦ | ꧀ꦘ | ꧀ꦓ | ꧀ꦨ | ||||||||||
꧀ꦣ | ꧀ꦰ | ꧀ꦞ | ꧀ꦙ | ꧀ꦜ |
Javanese script has its own numerals (Javanese:ꦲꦁꦏ,romanized: angka) that behave similarly toArabic numerals. Some of their forms closely resemble other Javanese characters. For instance, the numeral 1⟨꧑⟩ resembles thewyanjana character ga⟨ꦒ⟩, and the numeral 8⟨꧘⟩ resembles themurda character pa⟨ꦦ⟩. To avoid confusion, numerals that are used in the middle of sentences must be surrounded bypada pangkat⟨꧇ ꧇⟩ orpada lingsa⟨꧈ ꧈⟩.[50][51] For example,tanggal 17 Juni ("the date 17 June") is written
ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀꧇꧑꧗꧇ꦗꦸꦤꦶ
or
ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀꧈꧑꧗꧈ꦗꦸꦤꦶ.
These enclosures can be omitted when the numeral's function is clear from context, such as page numbers in the corner of a page. The forms are as follows:[50][51]
0 ꧐ | 1 ꧑ | 2 ꧒ | 3 ꧓ | 4 ꧔ | 5 ꧕ | 6 ꧖ | 7 ꧗ | 8 ꧘ | 9 ꧙ |
Traditional Javanese text is written without spaces between words (scriptio continua) and uses a set of punctuation marks known aspada (ꦥꦢ). To separate sentences, Javanese script employspada lungsi (꧉) when the last syllable is open (without apangkon) but usespada lingsa (꧈) when the last syllable is closed (using apangkon). Conversely, to separate clauses,pada lingsa (꧈) is used if the last syllable is closed, while a space is used if the last syllable is open. This punctuation system differs from the use of periods and commas in Latin script and is often not well understood by contemporary Javanese script users.
Additionally, Javanese script lacks equivalents forquestion marks,exclamation marks,hyphens, mathematical symbols (including slashes), andsemicolons. Consequently, whether a sentence in Javanese script is interrogative (question) or imperative (command) can only be inferred from the context. The various forms ofpada are as follows:
꧈ lingsa | ꧉ lungsi | ꧊ adeg | ꧋ adeg-adeg | ꧌...꧍ pisélèh | ꧁...꧂ rerenggan | ꧇ pangkat | ꧏ rangkap |
In modern teaching, the most commonly used punctuation marks in Javanese script arepada adeg-adeg,pada lingsa, andpada lungsi, which function similarly to a paragraph mark (like apilcrow), acomma, and afull stop, respectively.Pada adeg-adeg opens a paragraph,pada lingsa separates clauses or sentences andpada lungsi ends a sentence. Other punctuation marks includepada adeg andpada pisèlèh, which are used to enclose inserts in the text, similar toparentheses orquotation marks.Pada pangkat functions similarly to acolon.Pada rangkap is sometimes used as a repetition marker, similar to the use of the number "2" in informal Indonesian (e.g. kata-kata ꦏꦠꦏꦠ → ꦏꦠꧏ = kata2).[52]
Some punctuation marks, likererenggan, have no direct Latin script equivalents and are often purely decorative. They are frequently used to frame titles or sections of text, with considerable variation among writers. In correspondence, certain punctuation marks indicate the sender’s social status.Pada andhap denotes low status,pada madya denotes middle status,pada luhur denotes high status, andpada guru is neutral, without social connotations.Pada pancak is used to end a letter. However, these distinctions are generalized. The actual forms and functions of these punctuation marks are highly variable, with specific regional and personal styles.[52]
In traditional manuscripts, some royal scribes used specific correction marks instead of crossing out errors.Tirta tumétès is found in Yogyakarta manuscripts, whileisèn-isèn is found in Surakarta manuscripts.[53]
Aside from regular punctuation, one of the distinctive features in Javanese script writing ispepadan (ꦥꦼꦥꦢꦤ꧀), a series of highly ornate verse marks.
Behrend (1996) categorizespepadan into two general groups: smallpada, which are single punctuation marks, and largepada, which are often composed of several marks arranged in a sequence. Smallpada are used to indicate stanza breaks, typically appearing every 32 to 48 syllables depending on the meter used. Largepada mark a change intembang, orcanto, and usually appear every 5 to 10 pages, depending on the structure of the text.[54] Javanese writing guides often identify three types of large padapurwa pada used at the beginning of the firsttembang,madya pada used attembang transitions, andwasana pada used at the end of the text.[52] However, these three marks are often merged and treated as one in many Javanese texts.[55]
꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅ purwa pada | ꧅ ꦟ꧀ꦢꦿ ꧅ madya pada | ꧅ ꦆ ꧅ wasana pada |
Pepadan is a visually prominent element in Javanese manuscripts and may be rendered in color or even gilded.[56] In some luxurious manuscripts, the form of pepadan can even serve as a clue to the song being used; for instance, pepadan featuring wings or crow-like birds (dhandhang in Javanese) refers to thedhandhanggula tembang, while those featuring goldfish allude to themaskumambang ("gold floating in water") tembang. One of the key centers for producing manuscripts with exceptional pepadan designs was thescriptorium ofPakualaman in Yogyakarta.[55][57]
Excerpt from theTreatise on Cats (Javanese:ꦱꦼꦫꦠ꧀ꦏꦠꦸꦫꦁꦒꦤ꧀ꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ,romanized: Serat Katuranggan Kucing), printed in 1871 with modern Javanese language and spelling.[58]
Aja sira ngingu kucing, lurik ireng buntut panjang, punika awon lamaté, sekelan sring tukaran, aran ḍaḍang sungkawa, pan adoh rijeki nipun, yèn buṇḍel nora ngapa.
In the Madurese, the Javanese script is referred to ascarakan Madhurâ or carakan Jhâbân (script from Javanese). While in Javanese, each consonant includes an inherent /a/ or /ɔ/, in Madurese, the inherent vowel is /a/ or /ɤ/.[59][60][61][62][63] Another difference is the use of thewignyan, which adds aspiration to a syllable in Javanese but indicates a glottal stop in Madurese.
Only fiveaksara rèka'an (additional letters) are taught in Madurese schools.
Below is the use ofcarakan inBab oreng megha djhoeko e'tana Djhaba sareng Madhoera (Chapter on people catching fish in the land of Java and Madura), accompanied by the modern Madurese spelling.
꧑꧇ ꦥꦫꦲꦺꦴ꧈ ꦱꦺꦲꦺꦧꦝꦶꦝꦫꦶꦏꦗꦸꦧꦸꦁꦏꦺꦴꦭ꧀ꦱꦺꦲꦺꦭꦺꦴꦧꦔꦺ꧉ ꦧꦝꦱꦺꦲꦺꦱꦺ ꦩ꧀ꦧꦸꦏꦗꦸꦥꦺꦴꦭꦺꦲꦺꦥꦺꦁꦒꦶꦂ꧈ ꦧꦝꦱꦺꦧꦸꦤ꧀ꦠꦼꦤ꧀꧈
꧒꧇ ꦥꦫꦲꦺꦴꦱꦺꦲꦺꦧꦝꦶꦝꦫꦶꦥꦥꦤ꧀ꦫꦧ꧀ꦠꦼꦤ꧀ꦧꦤ꧀ꦱꦢꦗ꧉In Sundanese, the Javanese script is referred to asaksara Sunda cacarakan,[64]aksara Sunda Basisir Kalér,[65]aksara Sunda Jawa,[66] or simplycacarakan.[67]
Cacarakan is nearly identical to Javanesehanacaraka, consisting of consonants (Sundanese:nglagenacode: sun promoted to code: su),gedécode: sun promoted to code: su (murda, honorific letters), andpanambahcode: sun promoted to code: su (vowels, swara),sandangancode: sun promoted to code: su (diacritics) andpadacode: sun promoted to code: su (punctuation).[68]
There are minor differences between the Javanese and Sundanese alphabets. The Sundanese language does not have dental da and retroflex ta, so thedha letter is used to replace theda letter. The shape of thenya letter is derived from thena letter, with thenya pair positioned as a subscript.[68]
| da | nya | |
|---|---|---|
| Javanese | ꦢ꧀ꦢ da | ꦚ꧀ꦚ nya |
| Sundanese | ꦝ꧀ꦝ da | ꦤ꧀ꦚ꧀ꦚ nya |
—Dongéng-dongéng Pieunteungeun (Stories as Reflections), Moehamad Moesa[69]
The closest relative of the Javanese script is theBalinese script. As a direct descendant of theKawi script, Javanese and Balinese scripts still share many similarities in the basic structure of each letter. One striking difference between Javanese and Balinese scripts is the writing system; the Balinese writing system tends to be more conservative and retains many aspects of Kawi orthography that are no longer used in Javanese script. For example, the word "desa" in Javanese script is now written as ꦢꦺꦱ.
ha ꦲ | na ꦤ | ca ꦕ | ra ꦫ | ka ꦏ | a ꦄ | ā ꦄ | i ꦆ | ī ꦇ | u ꦈ | ū ꦈꦴ |
ᬳ | ᬦ | ᬘ | ᬭ | ᬓ | ᬅ | ᬆ | ᬇ | ᬈ | ᬉ | ᬊ |
Javanese script was added to theUnicode Standard in October, 2009 with the release of version 5.2. The Unicode block for Javanese is U+A980–U+A9DF. There are 91 code points for Javanese script: 53 letters, 19 punctuation marks, 10 numbers, and 9 vowels:
| Javanese[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
| U+A98x | ꦀ | ꦁ | ꦂ | ꦃ | ꦄ | ꦅ | ꦆ | ꦇ | ꦈ | ꦉ | ꦊ | ꦋ | ꦌ | ꦍ | ꦎ | ꦏ |
| U+A99x | ꦐ | ꦑ | ꦒ | ꦓ | ꦔ | ꦕ | ꦖ | ꦗ | ꦘ | ꦙ | ꦚ | ꦛ | ꦜ | ꦝ | ꦞ | ꦟ |
| U+A9Ax | ꦠ | ꦡ | ꦢ | ꦣ | ꦤ | ꦥ | ꦦ | ꦧ | ꦨ | ꦩ | ꦪ | ꦫ | ꦬ | ꦭ | ꦮ | ꦯ |
| U+A9Bx | ꦰ | ꦱ | ꦲ | ꦳ | ꦴ | ꦵ | ꦶ | ꦷ | ꦸ | ꦹ | ꦺ | ꦻ | ꦼ | ꦽ | ꦾ | ꦿ |
| U+A9Cx | ꧀ | ꧁ | ꧂ | ꧃ | ꧄ | ꧅ | ꧆ | ꧇ | ꧈ | ꧉ | ꧊ | ꧋ | ꧌ | ꧍ | ꧏ | |
| U+A9Dx | ꧐ | ꧑ | ꧒ | ꧓ | ꧔ | ꧕ | ꧖ | ꧗ | ꧘ | ꧙ | ꧞ | ꧟ | ||||
| Notes | ||||||||||||||||
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Sanskrit and Kawi
Sundanese
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