Japanese cuisine encompasses the regional and traditional foods ofJapan, which have developed through centuries of political, economic, and social changes. The traditional cuisine of Japan (Japanese:washoku) is based on rice withmiso soup and other dishes with an emphasis on seasonal ingredients. Side dishes often consist of fish,pickled vegetables,tamagoyaki, and vegetables cooked in broth. Common seafood is often grilled, but it is also sometimes served raw assashimi or assushi. Seafood and vegetables are also deep-fried in a light batter, astempura. Apart from rice, a staple includes noodles, such assoba andudon. Japan also has many simmered dishes, such as fish products in broth calledoden, or beef insukiyaki andnikujaga.
Historically influenced byChinese cuisine, Japanese cuisine has also opened up to influence fromWestern cuisines in the modern era. Dishes inspired by foreign food—in particular Chinese food—likeramen andgyōza, as well as foods likespaghetti,curry andhamburgers, have been adapted to Japanese tastes and ingredients. Traditionally, the Japaneseshunned meat as a result of adherence toBuddhism, but with the modernization of Japan in the 1880s, meat-based dishes such astonkatsu andyakiniku have become common. Since this time, Japanese cuisine, particularly sushi and ramen, has become popular globally.
Rice is a staple in Japanese cuisine. Wheat and soybeans were introduced shortly after rice. All three act as staple foods in Japanese cuisine today. At the end of theKofun Period and beginning of theAsuka Period, Buddhism became the official religion of the country. Therefore, eating meat and fish was prohibited. In 675 AD,Emperor Tenmu prohibited the eating of horses, dogs, monkeys, and chickens.[3] In the 8th and 9th centuries, many emperors continued to prohibit killing many types of animals. The number of regulated meats increased significantly, leading to the banning of all mammals except whale, which were categorized as fish.[4] During the Asuka period, chopsticks were introduced to Japan. Initially, they were used only by the nobility.[5] The general population used their hands, as utensils were quite expensive.
Due to the lack of meat products, Japanese people minimized spice utilization. Spices were rare to find at the time. Spices, like pepper and garlic, were used only in a minimalist amount. In the absence of meat, fish was served as the main protein, as Japan is an island nation. Fish has influenced many iconic Japanese dishes today. In the 9th century, grilled fish and sliced raw fish were widely popular.[6] Japanese people who could afford it would eat fish at every meal; others would have to make do without animal protein for many of their meals. In traditional Japanese cuisine, oil and fat are usually avoided during the cooking process in order to maintain a healthy lifestyle.[6]
Preserving fish became a sensation;sushi originated as a means of preserving fish by fermenting it in boiled rice. Fish that are salted and then placed in rice are preserved bylactic acid fermentation, which helps prevent the proliferation of the bacteria that bring about putrefaction.[7] During the 15th century, advancement and development helped shorten the fermentation of sushi to about one to two weeks. Sushi thus became popular both as a main meal and as a snack food, combining fish with rice. During the lateEdo period (early 19th century), sushi without fermentation was introduced. Sushi was still being consumed with and without fermentation till the 19th century when the hand-rolled and nigiri-type sushi was invented.[8]
In 1854, Japan started to enter new trade deals with Western countries.[9] WhenEmperor Meiji took power in 1868 as part of theMeiji Restoration, the government began to adopt Western customs, including the use of animal products in food.[10] The new ruler staged a New Year’s feast designed to embrace the Western world and countries in 1872. The feast contained food that reflected European cuisine.[11][12] For the first time in a thousand years, people were allowed to consume meat in public, and the general population started to include meat in their regular diets.[13]
A Japanese meal including tempura, sashimi, and miso soup
The wordwashoku (和食) is now the common word for traditional Japanese cooking. The termkappō [ja] (割烹,lit. "cutting and boiling (meats)") is synonymous with "cooking", but became a reference to mostly Japanese cooking, or restaurants, and was much used in theMeiji andTaishō eras.[14][15] It has come to connote a certain standard, perhaps even of the highest caliber, a restaurant with the most highly trained chefs.[16] However,kappō is generally seen as an eating establishment which is slightly more casual or informal compared to thekaiseki.[17]
Thekaiseki (懐石, lit. "warming stone") is tied with the Japanesetea ceremony.[18] Thekaiseki is considered a (simplified) form ofhonzen-ryōri (本膳料理, lit. "main tray cooking"),[19] which was formal banquet dining where several trays of food were served.[20] Thehomophone termkaiseki ryōri (会席料理, lit. "gathering + seating") originally referred to a gathering of composers ofhaiku orrenga, and the simplified version of thehonzen dishes served at the poem parties becamekaiseki ryōri.[21] However, the meaning ofkaiseki ryōri degenerated to become just another term for a sumptuous carousing banquet, orshuen (酒宴).[22]
The traditional Japanesetable setting has varied considerably over the centuries, depending primarily on the type of table common during a given era. Before the 19th century, small individual box tables (hakozen, 箱膳) or flat floor trays were set before each diner. Larger low tables (chabudai, ちゃぶ台) that accommodated entire families were gaining popularity by the beginning of the 20th century, but these gave way to Western-style dining tables and chairs by the end of the 20th century.
The traditional Japanese table setting is to place a bowl of rice on the diner’s left and to place a bowl of miso soup on the diner’s right side at the table. Behind these, eachokazu is served on its own individual plate. Based on the standard threeokazu formula, behind the rice and soup are three flat plates to hold the threeokazu; one to far back left, one at far back right, and one in the center. Pickled vegetables are often served on the side but are not counted as part of the threeokazu.Chopsticks are generally placed at the very front of the tray near the diner with pointed ends facing left and supported by achopstick rest, orhashioki.[23]
Many restaurants and homes in Japan are equipped with Western-style chairs and tables. However, traditional Japanese low tables and cushions, usually found ontatami floors, are also very common. Tatami mats, which are made of straw, can be easily damaged and are hard to clean, thus shoes or any type of footwear are always taken off when stepping on tatami floors.[24]
When dining in a traditional tatami room, sitting upright on the floor is common. In a casual setting, men usually sit with their feet crossed and women sit with both legs to one side. Only men are supposed to sit cross-legged. The formal way of sitting for both sexes is a kneeling style known asseiza. To sit in aseiza position, one kneels on the floor with legs folded under the thighs and the buttocks resting on the heels.[24]
When dining out in a restaurant, the customers are guided to their seats by the host. The honored or eldest guest will usually be seated at the center of the table farthest from the entrance. In the home, the most important guest is also seated farthest away from the entrance. If there is atokonoma, or alcove, in the room, the guest is seated in front of it. The host sits next to or closest to the entrance.[25]
In Japan, it is customary to sayitadakimasu ("I [humbly] receive") before starting to eat a meal.[26] When sayingitadakimasu, both hands are put together in front of the chest or on the lap.Itadakimasu is preceded by complimenting the appearance of food. Another customary and important etiquette is to saygo-chisō-sama deshita ("It was a feast") to the host after the meal and the restaurant staff when leaving.[27]
Japanese cuisine is based on combining thestaple food, which is steamedwhite rice orgohan (御飯), with one or moreokazu (おかず) , "main" or "side" dishes. This may be accompanied by a clear or miso soup andtsukemono (pickles). The phraseichijū-sansai (一汁三菜, "one soup, three sides") refers to the makeup of a typical meal served but has roots in classickaiseki,honzen, andyūshoku cuisine. The term is also used to describe the first course served in standardkaiseki cuisine nowadays.[22]
The origin of Japanese "one soup, three sides" cuisine is a dietary style called Ichiju-Issai (一汁一菜, "one soup, one dish"),[28] tracing back to the Five Great Zen Temples of the 12-century Kamakura period (Kamakura Gozan), developed as a form of meal that emphasized frugality and simplicity.
Rice is served in its own small bowl (chawan), and each main course item is placed on its own small plate (sara) or bowl (hachi) for each individual portion. This is done even in Japanese homes. This contrasts with Western-style home dinners in which each individual takes helpings from large serving dishes of food placed in the middle of the dining table. Japanese style traditionally abhors different flavored dishes touching each other on a single plate, so different dishes are given their own individual plates as mentioned or are partitioned using, for example, leaves. Placing main dishes on top of rice, thereby "soiling" it, is also frowned upon by traditional etiquette.[29]
Although this tradition of not placing other foods on rice originated from classical Chinese dining formalities, especially after the adoption of Buddhist tea ceremonies; it became most popular and common during and after theKamakura period, such as in thekaiseki (懐石). Although present-day Chinese cuisine has abandoned this practice, Japanese cuisine retains it. One exception is the populardonburi, in which toppings are directly served on rice.
The small rice bowl (茶碗,chawan), literally "tea bowl", doubles as a word for the large tea bowls in tea ceremonies. Thus in common speech, the drinking cup is referred to asyunomi-jawan oryunomi for the purpose of distinction. Among the nobility, each course of a full-course Japanese meal would be brought on serving napkins calledzen (膳), which were originally platformed trays or small dining tables. In the modern age,faldstool trays or stackup-type legged trays may still be seen used inzashiki (座敷), i.e.tatami-mat rooms, for large banquets or at aryokan type inn. Some restaurants might use the suffix-zen (膳) as a more sophisticated thoughdated synonym to the more familiarteishoku (定食), since the latter basically is a term for acombo meal served at ataishū-shokudō, akin to adiner.[30]Teishoku means a meal of fixed menu (for example, grilled fish with rice and soup), a dinnerà prix fixe[31] served atshokudō (食堂, "dining hall") orryōriten (料理店, "restaurant"), which is somewhat vague (shokudō can mean a diner-type restaurant or a corporate lunch hall); writer on Japanese popular culture Ishikawa Hiroyoshi[32] defines it as fare served atteishoku dining halls (定食食堂,teishoku-shokudō), and comparable diner-like establishments.
Emphasis is placed onseasonality of food orshun (旬),[33][34] and dishes are designed to herald the arrival of the four seasons or calendar months.
Seasonality means taking advantage of the "fruit of the mountains" (山の幸,yama no sachi, alt. "bounty of the mountains") (for example,bamboo shoots in spring,chestnuts in the autumn) as well as the "fruit of the sea" (海の幸,umi no sachi, alt. "bounty of the sea") as they come into season. Thus the first catch ofskipjack tunas (初鰹,hatsu-gatsuo) that arrives with theKuroshio Current has traditionally been greatly prized.[35]
If something becomes available rather earlier than what is usual for the item in question, the first crop or early catch is calledhashiri.[36]
Use of tree leaves and branches as decor is also characteristic of Japanese cuisine. Maple leaves are often floated on water to exude coolness orryō (涼); sprigs ofnandina are popularly used. Theharan (Aspidistra) and sasa bamboo leaves were often cut into shapes and placed underneath or used as separators.[37]
In February 2012, theAgency for Cultural Affairs recommended that 'Washoku(和食) : Traditional Dietary Cultures of the Japanese' be added to theUNESCORepresentative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[38] On December 4, 2013, "Washoku, traditional dietary cultures [sic] of the Japanese, notably for the celebration of New Year" was added to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage, bringing the number of Japanese assets listed on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list to 22.[39][40]
A characteristic of traditional Japanese food is the sparing use ofred meat, oils and fats, and dairy products.[41] Use of ingredients such assoy sauce,miso, andumeboshi tends to result in dishes with high salt content, though there are low-sodium versions of these available.
As Japan is anisland nation surrounded by an ocean, its people have always taken advantage of the abundant seafood supply.[33] It is the opinion of some food scholars that the Japanese diet always relied mainly on "grains with vegetables or seaweeds as main, with poultry secondary, andred meat in slight amounts" even before the advent of Buddhism which placed an even stronger taboo.[33] The eating of "four-legged creatures" (四足,yotsuashi) was spoken of as taboo,[42] unclean or something to be avoided by personal choice through theEdo period.[43] The consumption ofwhale andterrapin meat were not forbidden under this definition. Despite this, the consumption of red meat did not completely disappear in Japan. Eating wild game—as opposed to domesticated livestock—was tolerated; in particular, trappedhare was counted using themeasure wordwa (羽), a term normally reserved for birds.
Beef hot pot being made at a party in Japan
In 1872 of the Meiji restoration, as part of the opening up of Japan to Western influence,Emperor Meiji lifted the ban on the consumption ofred meat.[44] The removal of the ban encountered resistance and in one notable response, ten monks attempted to break into the Imperial Palace. The monks asserted that due to foreign influence, large numbers of Japanese had begun eating meat and that this was "destroying the soul of the Japanese people." Several of the monks were killed during the break-in attempt, and the remainder were arrested.[44][13] On the other hand, the consumption of meat was accepted by the common people.Gyūnabe (牛鍋, beef hot pot), the prototype ofsukiyaki, became the rage of the time. Western restaurants moved in, and some of them changed their form toYōshoku (洋食, western foods).
Vegetable consumption has dwindled while processed foods have become more prominent in Japanese households due to the rising costs of general foodstuffs.[45] Nonetheless, Kyoto vegetables, orKyoyasai, are rising in popularity and different varieties of Kyoto vegetables are being revived.[46]
Generally speaking, traditional Japanese cuisine is prepared with little cooking oil. A major exception is thedeep-frying of foods. This cooking method was introduced during theEdo period due to influence from Western (formerly callednanban-ryōri (南蛮料理)) and Chinese cuisine,[47] and became commonplace with the availability of cooking oil due to increased productivity.[47] Dishes such astempura,aburaage, andsatsuma age[47] are now part of established traditional Japanese cuisine. Words such astempura orhiryōzu (synonymous withganmodoki) are said to be of Portuguese origin.
Also, certain rustic sorts of traditional Japanese foods such askinpira,hijiki, andkiriboshi daikon usually involvestir-frying in oil before stewing in soy sauce. Some standardosōzai orobanzai dishes feature stir-fried Japanese greens with eitherage orchirimen-jako [ja], dried sardines.
The use ofsoy sauce is prevalent in Japanese cuisine.
Traditional Japanese food is typically seasoned with a combination ofdashi,soy sauce,sake andmirin, vinegar, sugar, and salt. A modest number of herbs and spices may be used during cooking as a hint or accent, or as a means of neutralizing fishy or gamy odors present. Examples of such spices includeginger,perilla andtakanotsume [ja] (鷹の爪) red pepper.[48]
Intense condiments, such aswasabi or Japanesemustard, are provided as condiments to raw fish, due to their effect on the mucous membrane which paralyze the sense of smell, particularly from fish odors.[49] A sprig ofmitsuba or a piece ofyuzu rind floated on soups are calledukimi. Mincedshiso leaves andmyoga often serve asyakumi, a type of condiment paired withtataki ofkatsuo orsoba.Shichimi is also a very popular spice mixture often added to soups, noodles and rice cakes. Shichimi is a chilli-based spice mix which contains seven spices: chilli, sansho, orange peel, black sesame, white sesame, hemp, ginger, and nori.[50]
Once a main dish has been cooked, spices such as minced ginger and various pungent herbs may be added as a garnish, calledtsuma. Finally, a dish may be garnished with minced seaweed in the form of crumplednori or flakes ofaonori.[citation needed]
Inedible garnishes are featured in dishes to reflect a holiday or the season. Generally these include inedible leaves, flowers native to Japan or with a long history of being grown in the country, as well as their artificial counterparts.[51]
Theo-hitashi orhitashi-mono (おひたし)[31] is boiled green-leaf vegetables bunched and cut to size, steeped indashi broth,[52][53] eaten with dashes of soy sauce. Another item issunomono (酢の物, "vinegar item"), which could be made withwakame seaweed,[54] or be something like akōhakunamasu (紅白なます, "red white namasu")[55] made from thin toothpick slices of daikon and carrot. The so-called vinegar that is blended with the ingredient here is oftensanbaizu [ja] (三杯酢, "three cupful/spoonful vinegar")[54] which is a blend of vinegar, mirin, and soy sauce. Atosazu [ja] (土佐酢, "Tosa vinegar") adds katsuo dashi to this.
Anaemono [ja] (和え物) is another group of items, describable as a sort of "tossed salad" or "dressed" (thoughaemono also includes thin strips of squid or fish sashimi (itozukuri) etc. similarly prepared). One type isgoma-ae (胡麻和え)[56] where usually vegetables such as green beans are tossed with white or blacksesame seeds ground in asuribachi mortar bowl, flavored additionally with sugar and soy sauce.Shira-ae (白和え) addstofu (bean curd) in the mix.[56] Anaemono is tossed with vinegar-white miso mix and useswakegi[56]scallion andbaka-gai (バカガイ / 馬鹿貝, atrough shell,Mactra chinensis) as standard.
Rice has historically been the staple food of the Japanese people. Its fundamental importance is evident from the fact that the word for cooked rice,gohan ormeshi, also stands for a "meal".[57] While rice has an ancient history of cultivation in Japan, its use as a staple has not been universal. Notably, in northern areas (northern Honshū and Hokkaidō), other grains such as wheat were more common into the 19th century.
In most of Japan, rice used to be consumed for almost every meal, and although a 2007 survey showed that 70% of Japanese still eat it once or twice a day, its popularity is now declining. In the 20th century there has been a shift in dietary habits, with an increasing number of people choosing wheat-based products (such as bread and noodles) over rice.[58]
Japanese rice is short-grained and becomes sticky when cooked. Most rice is sold ashakumai (白米, "white rice"), with the outer portion of the grains (糠,nuka) polished away. Unpolishedbrown rice (玄米,genmai) is considered less desirable, but its popularity has been increasing.[58]
Japanese noodles often substitute for a rice-based meal.Soba (thin, grayish-brown noodles containingbuckwheat flour) andudon (thick wheat noodles) are the main traditional noodles, while ramen is a modern import and now very popular. There are also other, less common noodles, such assomen (thin, white noodles containing wheat flour).
Japanese noodles, such as soba and udon, are eaten as a standalone, and usually not with a side dish, in terms of general custom. It may have toppings, but they are calledgu (具). The fried battered shrimp tempura sitting in a bowl of tempura-soba would be referred to as "the shrimp" or "the tempura", and not so much be referred to as a topping (gu). The identical toppings, if served as a dish to be eaten with plain white rice could be calledokazu, so these terms are context-sensitive. Some noodle dishes derive their name from Japanese folklore, such askitsune andtanuki, reflecting dishes in which the noodles can be changed, but the broth and garnishes correspond to their respective legend.[59]
Hot noodles are usually served in a bowl already steeped in their broth and are calledkakesoba orkakeudon. Cold soba arrive unseasoned and heaped atop azaru orseiro, and are picked up with a chopstick and dunked in their dipping sauce. The broth can consist of many ingredients but is generally based on dashi; the sauce, called tsuyu, is usually more concentrated and made from soy sauce, dashi and mirin, sake or both.
In the simple form,yakumi (薬味, condiments and spices) such asshichimi, nori, finely chopped scallions, wasabi, etc. are added to the noodles, besides the broth/dip sauce.
Udon may also be eaten inkama-age style, piping hot straight out of the boiling pot, and eaten with plain soy sauce and sometimes with raw egg also.
Japanese noodles are traditionally eaten by bringing the bowl close to the mouth, and sucking in the noodles with the aid ofchopsticks. The resulting loud slurping noise is considered normal in Japan, although in the 2010s concerns began to be voiced about the slurping being offensive to others, especially tourists. The wordnuuhara (ヌーハラ, from "nuudoru harasumento", noodle harassment) was coined to describe this.[60]
Traditional Japanese sweets are known aswagashi. Ingredients such asred bean paste andmochi are used. More modern-day tastes includesgreen tea ice cream, a very popular flavor. Almost all manufacturers produce a version of it.Kakigōri (かき氷) is ashaved ice dessert flavored with syrup or condensed milk. It is usually sold and eaten at summer festivals. A dessert very popular amongst children in Japan isdorayaki. They are sweetpancakes filled with a sweet red bean paste. They are mostly eaten at room temperature but are also considered very delicious hot.
Green tea may be served with most Japanese dishes. It is produced in Japan and prepared in various forms, such asmatcha, the tea used in theJapanese tea ceremony.[61]
Beer production started in Japan in the 1860s. The most commonly consumed beers in Japan are pale-coloured lightlagers, with an alcohol strength of around 5.0% ABV. Lager beers are the most commonly producedbeer style in Japan, but beer-like beverages, made with lower levels of malts calledHapposhu (発泡酒, literally, "bubbly alcohol") or non-malt Happousei (発泡性, literally "effervescence") have captured a large part of the market as tax is substantially lower on these products. Beer and its varieties have a market share of almost 2/3 of alcoholic beverages.
Small localmicrobreweries have also gained increasing popularity since the 1990s, supplying distinct tasting beers in a variety of styles that seek to match the emphasis on craftsmanship, quality, and ingredient provenance often associated with Japanese food.
Sake is a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 15–17%alcohol and is made by multiplefermentation of rice. At traditional formal meals, it is considered an equivalent to rice and is not simultaneously taken with other rice-based dishes, although this notion is typically no longer applied to modern, refined, premium ("ginjo") sake, which bear little resemblance to the sakes of even 100 years ago. Side dishes for sake are particularly calledsakana orotsumami.
Sake is brewed in a highly labor-intensive process more similar to beer production than winemaking, hence, the common description of sake as rice "wine" is misleading.Sake is made with, by legal definition, strictly just four ingredients:special rice, water,koji, and specialyeast.
As of 2014, Japan had some 1500 registered breweries,[62] which produce thousands of different sakes. Sake characteristics and flavor profiles vary with regionality, ingredients, and the styles (maintained by brewmaster guilds) that brewery leaders want to produce.
Sake flavor profiles lend extremely well to pairing with a wide variety of cuisines, including non-Japanese cuisines.
Japanese whisky began commercial production in the early 20th century, and is now extremely popular, primarily consumed inhighballs (ハイボール,haibōru). It is produced in the Scottish style, with malt whisky produced since the 1980s, and has won top international awards since the 2000s.
Adomestic wine production has existed since the 1860s, yet most wine is imported. The total market share of wine on alcoholic beverages is about 3%.[64]
Wagyu is the collective name for the four principalJapanese breeds ofbeef cattle. All wagyū cattle derive fromcross-breeding in the early twentieth century of native Japanese cattle with imported stock, mostly from Europe.In several areas of Japan, Wagyu beef is shipped carrying area names. Some examples areMatsusaka beef,Kobe beef,Yonezawa beef,Ōmi beef, andSanda beef. In recent years, Wagyu beef has increased in fat percentage due to a decrease in grazing and an increase in using feed, resulting in larger, fattier cattle.
Yubari
Specialty eggs – compared to ordinary eggs, eggs produced with special feed and poultry-raising.
Square orcube watermelons arewatermelons grown into the shape of acube. Cube watermelons are commonly sold in Japan, where they are essentially ornamental and are often very expensive, with prices as high asUS$200.
Inichijū-sansai (一汁三菜,"one soup, three sides"), the wordsai (菜) has the basic meaning of "vegetable", but secondarily means any accompanying dish (whether it uses fish or meat),[65] with the more familiar combined formsōzai [ja] (惣菜),[65] which is a term for any side dish, such as the vast selections sold at Japanese supermarkets ordepachikas [ja].[66]
It figures in the Japanese word for appetizer,zensai (前菜); main dish,shusai (主菜); orsōzai (惣菜) (formal synonym forokazu), but the latter is considered somewhat of a ladies' term ornyōbō kotoba.[67]
Tempura battered and deep fried seafood and vegetablesYakitori grilled chicken
Below are listed some of the most common categories for prepared food:
Kaiseki, closely associated with tea ceremony (chanoyu), is a high form of hospitality through cuisine. The style is minimalist, extolling the aesthetics ofwabi-sabi. Like the tea ceremony, appreciation of the diningware and vessels is part of the experience. In the modern standard form, the first course consists ofichijū-sansai (one soup, three dishes), followed by the serving of sake accompanied by dish(es) plated on a square wooden bordered tray of sorts calledhassun (八寸). Sometimes another element calledshiizakana (強肴) is served to complement the sake, for guests who are heavier drinkers.
Kaiseki set at a Ryokan in Isehara prefecture, Ooyama
Strictly vegetarian food is rare since even vegetable dishes are flavored with the ubiquitous dashi stock, usually made withkatsuobushi (driedskipjack tuna flakes), and are thereforepescetarian more often than carnivorous. An exception isshōjin-ryōri (精進料理), vegetarian dishes developed by Buddhist monks. However, the advertisedshōjin-ryōri at public eating places includes some non-vegetarian elements. Vegetarianism,fucha-ryōri [ja] (普茶料理) was introduced from China by theŌbaku sect (a sub-sect of Zen Buddhism), and which some sources still regard as part of "Japanese cuisine".[33] The sect in Japan was founded by the priestIngen (d. 1673), and is headquartered inUji, Kyoto. The Japanese name for thecommon green bean takes after this priest who allegedly introduced the New World crop via China. One aspect of the fucha-ryōri practiced at the temple is the wealth ofmodoki-ryōri (もどき料理,"mock foods"), one example being mock-eel, made from strainedtofu, withnori seaweed used expertly to mimic the black skin.[68] The secret ingredient used is gratedgobō (burdock) roots.[69][70]
Masakazu Tada, Honorary Vice-President of theInternational Vegetarian Union for 25 years from 1960, stated that "Japan was vegetarian for 1,000 years". The taboo against eating meat was lifted in 1872 by the Meiji Emperor as part of an effort towards westernizing Japan.[13] British journalistJ. W. Robertson Scott reported in the 1920s that the society was still 90% vegetarian, and 50–60% of the population ate fish only on festive occasions, probably due to poverty more than for any other reason.
Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties known askyōdo-ryōri (郷土料理), many of them originating from dishes prepared using traditional recipes with local ingredients. Foods from theKantō region taste very strong. For example, thedashi-based broth for servingudon noodles is heavy on darksoy sauce, similar tosoba broth. On the other hand,Kansai region foods are lightly seasoned, with clear udon noodles.[71] made with light soy sauce.[23]
red rice, which is served for any celebratory occasion. It is usually sticky rice cooked with azuki, or red bean, which gives the rice its distinctive red colour.[73]
Japan has a long history of importing food from other countries, some of which are now part of Japan's most popular cuisine.Ramen is considered an important part to their culinary history, to the extent where in survey of 2,000 Tokyo residents,instant ramen came up many times as a product they thought was an outstanding Japanese invention.[75] Believed to have originated in China, ramen became popular in Japan after theSecond Sino-Japanese war (1937–1945), when many Chinese students were displaced to Japan.[76]
Curry is another popular imported dish and is ranked near the top of nearly all Japanese surveys for favorite foods.[78] The origins of curry, as well many other foreign imports such aspan or bread, are linked to the emergence ofyōshoku, or western cuisine.Yōshoku can be traced as far back as the lateMuromachi period (1336–1573) during a culinary revolution callednamban ryori (南蛮料理), which means "Southern barbarian cooking", as it is rooted in European cuisine.[76] This cuisine style was first seen inNagasaki, which served as the point of contact between Europe and Japan at that point in time. Food items such as potatoes, corn, dairy products, as well as the hard candykompeito (金平糖), spread during this time.[76] This cuisine became popular in theMeiji period, which is considered by many historians to be when Japan first opened itself to the outside world.
Bread was not a traditional food in Japan, butshokupan, orJapanese milk bread, was developed and came into broad use after the American response to post-World War II Japaneserice shortages includedrelief shipments ofwheat.[79]
Today, many of these imported items still hold a heavy presence in Japan.[citation needed]
Japan today abounds with home-grown, loosely Western-style food. Many of these were invented in the wake of the 1868Meiji Restoration and the end ofnational seclusion, when the sudden influx of foreign (in particular, Western) culture led to many restaurants serving Western food, known asyōshoku (洋食), a shortened form ofseiyōshoku (西洋食, "Western cuisine"), opening up in cities. Restaurants that serve these foods are calledyōshokuya (洋食屋, "Western cuisine restaurants").[80]
Manyyōshoku items from that time have been adapted to a degree that they are now considered Japanese and are an integral part of any Japanese family menu. Many are served alongside rice and miso soup, and eaten with chopsticks. Yet, due to their origins these are still categorized asyōshoku as opposed to the more traditionalwashoku (和食, "Japanese cuisine").[81]
Chinese cuisine is one of the oldest and most common foreign cuisines in Japan, predating the introduction of Western food dishes into the country. Many Chinese dishes have been altered to suit Japanese palates in a type of cuisine known as "chuka ryori". Iconic dishes of chuka ryori includeramen,gyoza, andchukaman.
Curry was introduced byAnglo-Indian officers of theRoyal Navy fromIndia who brought curry powder to Japan in theMeiji period.[84] TheImperial Japanese Navy adopted curry to preventberiberi. Overtime it was reinvented and adapted to suit Japanese tastes that it became uniquely Japanese.[84] It is consumed so much that it is considered anational dish.[77] Many recipes are on the menu of theJMSDF.[85] A variety of vegetables and meats are used to makeJapanese curry, usually vegetables like onions, carrots, and potatoes. The types of meat used are beef, pork, and chicken. A popular dish isKatsu-karē which is abreaded deep-fried cutlet (tonkatsu; usually pork or chicken) with Japanese curry sauce.[86]Japanese curry can be found in foods such as curryudon,curry bread, andkatsukarē,tonkatsu served with curry. It's very commonly made with rice beside the curry on the dish called "curry" (カレー,karē). This can be eaten during dinner.
High-class Japanese chefs have preserved many Italian seafood dishes that are forgotten in other countries. These include pasta withprawns,lobster (a specialty known in Italy as pasta all'aragosta),crab (an Italian specialty; in Japan it is served with a different species of crab), and pasta withsea urchin sauce (sea urchin pasta being a specialty of thePuglia region).[88]
California roll, a fusion makizushi created outside of Japan
Many countries have imported portions of Japanese cuisine. Some may adhere to the traditional preparations of the cuisines, but in some cultures the dishes have been adapted to fit the palate of the local populace. In 1970s sushi travelled from Japan to Canada and the United States, it was modified to suit the American palate, and re-entered the Japanese market as "American Sushi".[89] An example of this phenomenon is theCalifornia roll, which was created in North America in the 1970s, rose in popularity across the United States through the 1980s, and thus sparked Japanese food's – more precisely, sushi's – global popularity.
In 2014, Japanese Restaurant Organization has selected potential countries where Japanese food is becoming increasingly popular, and conducted research concerning the Japanese restaurants abroad. These key nations or region areTaiwan, Hong Kong, China, Singapore,Thailand andIndonesia.[90] This was meant as an effort to promote Japanese cuisine and to expand the market of Japanese ingredients, products and foodstuffs. Numbers of Japanese foodstuff and seasoning brands such asAjinomoto,Kikkoman,Nissin andKewpie mayonnaise, are establishing production base in other Asian countries, such as China, Thailand and Indonesia.
Japanese cuisine is very popular in Australia, and Australians are becoming increasingly familiar with traditional Japanese foods.[91] Restaurants serving Japanese cuisine feature prominently in popular rankings, including Gourmet Traveller and The Good Food Guide.[92]
Sushi in particular has been described as being "as popular as sandwiches", particularly in large cities like Melbourne, Sydney, or Brisbane.[93] As such, sushi bars are a mainstay in shopping centre food courts, and are extremely common in cities and towns all over the country.[93]
In Brazil, Japanese food is widespread due to the largeJapanese-Brazilian population living in the country, which represents the largest Japanese community living outside Japan. Over the past years, many restaurant chains such asKoni Store[94] have opened, selling typical dishes such as the populartemaki.Yakisoba, which is readily available in all supermarkets, and often included in non-Japanese restaurant menus.[95]
In Canada, Japanese cuisine has become quite popular.Sushi,sashimi, and instant ramen are highly popular at opposite ends of the income scale, with instant ramen being a common low-budget meal. Sushi and sashimi takeout began inVancouver andToronto, and is now common throughout Canada. The largest supermarket chains all carry basic sushi and sashimi, and Japanese ingredients and instant ramen are readily available in most supermarkets. Most mid-sized mall food courts feature fast-food teppan cooking.Izakaya restaurants have surged in popularity. Higher-end ramen restaurants (as opposed to instant ramen noodles of variable quality) are increasingly common.[96]
In theASEAN region, Indonesia is the second largest market for Japanese food, after Thailand. Japanese cuisine has been increasingly popular as a result of the growing Indonesian middle-class expecting higher quality foods.[90] This has also contributed to the fact that Indonesia has large numbers ofJapanese expatriates. The main concern is the issue of many traditional Japanese recipes not beinghalal. As aMuslim majority country, Indonesians expect that Japanese foods served there are halal according to Islamic dietary law, which means no pork or alcohol are allowed. Japanese restaurants in Indonesia often offer a set menu which includes rice served with an array of Japanese favourites in a single setting. A set menu might include a choice of yakiniku or sukiyaki, including a sample of sushi, tempura, gyoza and miso soup. Authentic Japanese styleizakaya andramen shops can be found in the Little Tokyo (Melawai) area inBlok M, South Jakarta, serving both Japanese expats and local clienteles.[98] Today, Japanese restaurants can be found in most major Indonesian cities, with a high concentration inGreater Jakarta area,Bandung,Surabaya andBali.
In some cases, Japanese cuisine in Indonesia is often altered to suit Indonesian taste.Hoka Hoka Bento in particular is an Indonesian-owned Japanese fast food restaurant chain that caters to the Indonesian clientele. As a result, the foods served there have been adapted to suit Indonesians' taste. Examples of the change include stronger flavours compared to the authentic subtle Japanese taste, the preference for fried food, as well as the addition ofsambal to cater to the Indonesians' preference for hot and spicy food.
Japanese food popularity also has penetratedstreet food culture, as modestWarjep orWarung Jepang (Japanese food stall) offer Japanese food such as tempura, okonomiyaki and takoyaki, at moderately low prices.[99] Today, okonomiyaki and takoyaki are popular street fare in Jakarta and other Indonesian cities.[100][101] This is also pushed further by the Japanese convenience stores operating in Indonesia, such as7-Eleven andLawson offering Japanese favourites such asoden, chicken katsu (deep-fried chicken cutlet), chicken teriyaki andonigiri.[102]
Some chefs in Indonesian sushi establishments have created a Japanese-Indonesian fusion cuisine, such as krakatau roll,gado-gado roll,rendang roll andgulai ramen.[103] The idea of fusion cuisine melding spicy IndonesianPadang and Japanese cuisine was combined because both cuisine traditions are well-liked by Indonesians.[104] Nevertheless, some of these Japanese eating establishments might strive to serve authentic Japanese cuisine abroad.[105] Numbers of Japanese chain restaurants has established their business in Indonesia, such asYoshinoya gyūdon restaurant chain,[106]Gyu-Kaku yakiniku restaurant chain andAjisen Ramen restaurant chain.
InMexico, certain Japanese restaurants have created what is known as "sushi Mexicano", in which spicy sauces and ingredients accompany the dish or are integrated in sushi rolls. Thehabanero andserrano chiles have become nearly standard and are referred to as chiles toreados, as they are fried, diced and tossed over a dish upon request.
In thePhilippines, Japanese cuisine is also popular among the local population.[107] The Philippines have been exposed to the influences from the Japanese,Indian andChinese.[108] The cities ofDavao andMetro Manila probably have the most Japanese influence in the country.[109][110] The popular dining spots for Japanese nationals are located inMakati, which is called as "Little Tokyo", a small area filled with restaurants specializing in different types of Japanese food. Some of the best Japanese no-frills restaurants in the Philippines can be found in Makati's "Little Tokyo" area.[111] In the Philippines,Halo-halo is derived from JapaneseKakigori. Halo-halo is believed to be an indigenized version of the Japanesekakigori class of desserts, originating from pre-war Japanese migrants into the islands. The earliest versions were composed only of cookedred beans ormung beans in crushed ice with sugar and milk, a dessert known locally as "mongo-ya". Over the years, more native ingredients were added, resulting in the development of the modernhalo-halo.[112][113] Some authors specifically attribute it to the 1920s or 1930s Japanese migrants in theQuinta Market ofQuiapo, Manila, due to its proximity to the now defunctInsular Ice Plant, which was the source of the city's ice supply.[114] InCebu City, the Little Kyoto district let's you experience the feel of being inKyoto,Japan with a statue of the recliningBuddha overlooking the city. The Little Kyoto district also features Japanese food stalls serving various Japanese dishes likeTakoyaki,Tempura, and various other Japanese cuisine that is enjoyed by the people of Cebu City, Philippines.[115]Odong, also calledpancit odong, is aVisayannoodle soup made withodong noodles,canned smoked sardines (tinapa) in tomato sauce,bottle gourd (upo),loofah (patola),chayote, ginger, garlic,red onions, and various other vegetables. It is garnished and spiced withblack pepper,scallions, toasted garlic,calamansi, orlabuyo chilis.[116][117][118][119] The dish is usually prepared as a soup, but it can also be cooked with minimal water, in which case, it is known asodong guisado.[120]
It is named after the round flour noodles calledodong which are closest in texture and taste to theOkinawa soba. These noodles are characteristically sold dried into straight sticks around 6 to 8 in (15 to 20 cm) long.[122] The name is derived from theJapaneseudon noodles, although it does not useudon noodles or bear any resemblance toudon dishes. It originates from theDavao Region ofMindanao[123] which had a large Japanese migrant community in the early 1900s.[124] Theodong noodles were previously locally manufactured byOkinawans, but modernodong noodles (which are distinctly yellowish) are imported fromChina.[123] Becauseodong noodles are difficult to find in other regions, they can be substituted with other types of noodles; includingmisua,miki (egg noodles),udon, and eveninstant noodles.[118][120]
Japan and Taiwan have sharedclose historical and cultural relations. Dishes such as sushi, ramen, and donburi are very popular among locals. Japanese chain restaurants such as Coco Ichibanya, Ippudo, Kura Sushi, Marugame Seimen, Mister Donut, MOS Burger, Ootoya, Ramen Kagetsu Arashi, Saizeriya, Sukiya, Sushiro, Tonkatsu Shinjuku Saboten, Yayoi Ken, and Yoshinoya, can all be found in Taiwan, among others. Taiwan has adapted many Japanese food items. Tianbula ("Taiwanese tempura") is actually satsuma-age and was introduced to Taiwan duringJapanese rule by people from Kyushu, where the wordtempura is commonly used to refer to satsuma-age.[125][126][127] It is popular as a night market snack and as an ingredient for oden, hot pot and lu wei. Taiwanese versions of oden are sold locally as olen or, more recently, as guandongzhu (from Japanese Kantō-ni) in convenience stores.
In Southeast Asia, Thailand is the largest market for Japanese food. This is partly because Thailand is a populartourist destination, having large numbers ofJapanese expatriates, as well as the local population having developed a taste for authentic Japanese cuisine. According to the Organisation that Promote Japanese Restaurants Abroad (JRO), the number of Japanese restaurants in Thailand jumped about 2.2-fold from 2007's figures to 1,676 in June 2012. InBangkok, Japanese restaurants accounts for 8.3 percent of all restaurants, following those that serveThai.[128] Numbers of Japanese chain restaurants has established their business in Thailand, such as Yoshinoya gyūdon restaurant chain, Gyu-Kakuyakiniku restaurant chain and Kourakuen ramen restaurant chain.
Japanese food Inspired restaurant chains in the UK includeWagamama,YO! Sushi, Nudo Sushi Box,Wasabi, Bone Daddies and Kokoro, often localising the food and mixing in other ingredients originating fromSoutheast Asia andIndia.
TheCalifornia roll has been influential in sushi's global popularity; its invention often credited to a Japanese-born chef working in Los Angeles, with dates assigned to 1973, or even 1964.[129][130] The dish has been snubbed by some purist sushi chefs,[129] and also likened to the American-bornchop suey by one scholar.[130]
As of 2015[update] the country has about 4,200 sushi restaurants.[131] It is one of the most popular styles of sushi in the US market. Japanese cuisine is an integral part of food culture in Hawaii as well as in other parts of the United States. Popular items are sushi, sashimi, and teriyaki.Kamaboko, known locally as fish cake, is a staple ofsaimin, a noodle soup that is a local favorite in Hawaii.[132] Sushi, long regarded as quite exotic in the west until the 1970s, has become a popular health food in parts of North America, Western Europe and Asia.
Two of the first Japanese restaurants in the United States were Saito and Nippon. Restaurants such as these popularized dishes such as sukiyaki and tempura, while Nippon was the first restaurant in Manhattan to have a dedicated sushi bar.[133] Nippon was also one of the first Japanese restaurants in the U.S. to grow and process their own soba[134] and responsible for creation of the now standardbeef negimayaki dish.[135]
In the U.S., theteppanyaki "iron hot plate" cooking restaurant took foothold. Such restaurants featured steak, shrimp and vegetables (includingbean sprouts), cooked in front of the customer on a "teppanyaki grill" (teppan) by a personal chef who turns cooking into performance art, twirling and juggling cutting knives like batons. The meal would be served with steamed rice and Japanese soup. This style of cooking was made popular in the U.S. whenRocky Aoki founded his popular restaurant chainBenihana in 1964.[136][137] In Japan this type of cooking is thought to be American food, but in the U.S. it is thought to be Japanese. Aoki thought this would go over better in the U.S. than traditional Japanese cuisine because he felt that Americans enjoyed "eating in exotic surroundings, but are deeply mistrustful of exotic foods".[138]
Japanese cuisine is heavily dependent on seafood products. About 45 kilograms of seafood are consumed per capita annually in Japan, more than most other developed countries.[140] An aspect of environmental concern is Japanese appetite for seafood, which could contribute to the depletion of natural ocean resources. For example, Japan consumes 80% of the global supply ofblue fin tuna, a popularly sought sushi and sashimi ingredient, which could lead to its extinction due to commercialoverfishing.[141] Another environmental concern is commercialwhaling and the consumption ofwhale meat, for which Japan is the world's largest market.[142][143]
^Ogura, Tomoko; 小倉朋子 (2008)."Itadakimasu" o wasureta Nihonjin : tabekata ga migaku hinsei (Shohan ed.). Tōkyō: Asukī Media Wākusu. p. 68.ISBN9784048672870.OCLC244300317.
^Ehara, Ayako (1999)."School Meals and Japan's Changing Diet".Japan Echo.26.Archived from the original on September 30, 2024. RetrievedOctober 18, 2015.Relatively alien to the traditional Japanese diet were meat, oil and fats, and dairy products...
^Morimatsu, Yoshiaki; Hinonishi, Sukenori; Sakamoto, Taro (1957).風俗辞典. 東京堂出版.Archived from the original on September 30, 2024. RetrievedOctober 18, 2015.天武天皇三年に牛・馬。犬・猿,鶏の肉を食べゐこと古禁じてから肉食が演じ、江戸時代になっても四足・二足を食べない家が多かった。もっとも野獣の肉は食用に供した。
^Ochiai, H. (November 25, 2014). Is it a potato or a prawn?: Kyoto farmers make a name selling strangely shaped vegetables, The Japan News by the Yomiuri Shimbun, the-japan-news.com/news/article/0001713547
^abcFukuta, Ajio (福田アジオ) (1999).Nihon minzoku daijiten(日本民俗大辞典). Vol. 1. Yoshikawa Kobunkan (吉川弘文館).ISBN9784642013321.Archived from the original on September 30, 2024. RetrievedOctober 18, 2015., p.16 安土,桃山時代から江戸時代にかけて南蛮料理や中国料理の影響と油の生産増大に伴い、油揚や天麩羅,素揚,薩摩撝など副食物として
^Nagatomo, Akiko (長友麻希子) (September 3, 2011)."普茶料理".「京都」×（もっと）ワかる. Industry and Tourism Bureau, City of Kyoto. Archived fromthe original on March 4, 2016. RetrievedMay 6, 2012.
^Kugel, Seth (November 9, 2008)."Rio de Janeiro: Koni Stores".The New York Times.Archived from the original on September 30, 2024. RetrievedMay 5, 2010.
^Media, Kompas Cyber (February 10, 2011)."Okonomiyaki Merambah Kaki Lima".Kompas.com (in Indonesian).Archived from the original on September 15, 2018. RetrievedSeptember 15, 2018.
^Crisol, Christine (2006). "AHalo-Halo Menu". In Zialcita, Fernando N. (ed.).Quiapo: Heart of Manila. Manila: Quiapo Printing. p. 321.ISBN978-971-93673-0-7.Today, many non-Quiapense informants in their forties and older associate the Quinta Market with this dessert. Why did this market become important in the invention of this dessert? Aside from its being a Japanese legacy in the area [...] of all the city markets, the Quinta was closest to the ice.
^abFigueroa, Antonio V. (September 12, 2016)."US, Japan linguistic legacies".Edge Davao. No. 142. p. 9.Archived from the original on September 30, 2024. RetrievedJanuary 18, 2022.
^"The Kitchenless Restaurant",Kitchen Planning, vol. 6, p. 63, December 1968,archived from the original on September 30, 2024, retrievedJanuary 28, 2020
^"Why Hibachi Is Complicated"(Audio Podcast with Notes).Sporkful. March 11, 2019.Archived from the original on September 30, 2024. RetrievedMarch 24, 2019.
Francks, Penelope. "Diet and the comparison of living standards across the Great Divergence: Japanese food history in an English mirror."Journal of Global History 14.1 (2019): 3-21.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
