James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (bornJames Augusta Joyce[a]; 2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, andliterary critic. He contributed to themodernist movement and is regarded among the most influential and important writers of the 20th century. Joyce's novelUlysses (1922) is a landmark in which the episodes ofHomer'sOdyssey are paralleled in a variety of literary styles, particularlystream of consciousness. Other well-known works are the short-story collectionDubliners (1914) and the novelsA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) andFinnegans Wake (1939). His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, letters, and occasional journalism.
Born inDublin into a middle-class family, Joyce attended the JesuitClongowes Wood College inCounty Kildare, then, briefly, theChristian Brothers–runO'Connell School. Despite the chaotic family life imposed by hisfather's unpredictable finances, he excelled at the JesuitBelvedere College and graduated fromUniversity College Dublin in 1902. In 1904, he met his future wife,Nora Barnacle, and they moved to mainland Europe. He briefly worked inPola (now in Croatia) and then moved toTrieste inAustria-Hungary, working as an English instructor. Except for an eight-month stay inRome working as a correspondence clerk and three visits to Dublin, Joyce lived there until 1915. In Trieste, he published his book of poemsChamber Music and his short-story collectionDubliners, and began serially publishingA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in the English magazineThe Egoist. During most of World War I, Joyce lived inZurich, Switzerland, and worked onUlysses. After the war, he briefly returned to Trieste and in 1920 moved toParis, which was his primary residence until 1940.
Ulysses was first published in Paris in 1922, but its publication in the United Kingdom and the United States was prohibited because of its perceived obscenity. Copies were smuggled into both countries and pirated versions were printed until the mid-1930s, when publication became legal.Ulysses frequently ranks high in lists of the greatest books, and academic literature analysing Joyce's work is extensive and ongoing. Many writers, film-makers, and other artists have been influenced by his stylistic innovations, such as his meticulous attention to detail, use ofinterior monologue,wordplay, and the radical transformation of traditional plot and character development.
Though most of his adult life was spent abroad, his fictional universe centres on Dublin and is largely populated by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there.Ulysses is set in the city's streets and alleyways. Joyce said: "For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. In the particular is contained the universal."[5]
In 1923, Joyce started his next major work,Finnegans Wake. It was published in 1939. Between these years, he travelled widely. He and Nora were married in a civil ceremony inLondon in 1931. He made several trips to Switzerland, frequently seeking treatment for his increasingly severe eye problems and psychological help for his daughter,Lucia. When Germany occupied France during World War II, Joyce moved back to Zurich in 1940. He died there in 1941 after surgery for a perforated ulcer at age 58.
Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 at 41 Brighton Square,Rathgar,Dublin, Ireland,[6] toJohn Stanislaus and Mary Jane "May" (née Murray) Joyce. He was the eldest of ten surviving siblings. He was baptised aCatholic as James Augustine Joyce[b] in the nearby St Joseph's Church inTerenure on 5 February 1882 by Father John O'Mulloy.[c] His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann.[7] The Joyce family came fromFermoy inCounty Cork, where they owned a small salt and lime works. Joyce's paternal grandfather, James Augustine, married Ellen O'Connell, daughter of John O'Connell, a Cork alderman who owned a drapery business and other properties inCork City. Her family claimed kinship with the political leaderDaniel O'Connell, who had helped secureCatholic emancipation for the Irish in 1829.[8]
John Joyce was appointed rate collector byDublin Corporation in 1887. The family moved to the fashionable small town ofBray, 12 miles (19 km) from Dublin. Joyce was attacked by a dog around this time, causing a lifelong fear of dogs.[9][d] He later developed afear of thunderstorms[11] from a superstitious aunt who had called them a sign of God's wrath.[12][e]
That year, his family began to slide into poverty, worsened by his father's drinking and financial mismanagement.[18] John Joyce's name was published inStubbs' Gazette, a blacklist of debtors and bankrupts, in November 1891, and he was temporarily suspended from work.[19] In January 1893, he was dismissed with a reduced pension.[20]
Joyce began his education in 1888 atClongowes Wood College, aJesuit boarding school nearClane, County Kildare, but had to leave in 1891 when his father could no longer pay the fees.[21] He studied at home and briefly attended theChristian Brothers O'Connell School on North Richmond Street, Dublin. Joyce's father then had a chance meeting with the Jesuit priestJohn Conmee, who knew the family. Conmee arranged for Joyce and his brotherStanislaus to attend the Jesuits' Dublin school,Belvedere College, without fees starting in 1893.[22] In 1895, Joyce, now 13, was elected by his peers to join theSodality of Our Lady.[23] Joyce spent five years at Belvedere, his intellectual formation guided by the principles of Jesuit education laid down in theRatio Studiorum (Plan of Studies).[24] He won first place for English composition in his final two years[25] before graduating in 1898.[26]
Newman House, Dublin, which was University College in Joyce's time[27]
Joyce enrolled atUniversity College[f] in 1898 to study English, French and Italian.[30] While there, he was exposed to thescholasticism ofThomas Aquinas, which had a strong influence on his thought for the rest of his life.[31] He participated in many of Dublin's theatrical and literary circles. His closest colleagues included leading Irish figures of his generation, such asGeorge Clancy,Tom Kettle andFrancis Sheehy-Skeffington.[32] Many of the acquaintances he made at this time appeared in his work.[33] His first publication—a laudatory review ofHenrik Ibsen'sWhen We Dead Awaken—was printed inThe Fortnightly Review in 1900. Inspired by Ibsen's works, Joyce sent him a fan letter in Norwegian[34][g] and wrote a play,A Brilliant Career,[37] which he later destroyed.[38][h]
In 1901 the National Census of Ireland listed Joyce as a 19-year-old Irish- and English-speaking unmarried student living with his parents, six sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace (now Inverness Road) inClontarf, Dublin.[40] During this year he became friends withOliver St. John Gogarty,[41] the model forBuck Mulligan inUlysses.[33] In November, Joyce wrote an article,The Day of the Rabblement, criticising theIrish Literary Theatre for its unwillingness to produce the works of playwrights like Ibsen,Leo Tolstoy, andGerhart Hauptmann.[42] He protested against nostalgic Irishpopulism and argued for an outward-looking, cosmopolitan literature.[43] Because he mentionedGabriele D'Annunzio's novelIl fuoco (The Flame),[44] which was on theCatholic list of prohibited books, his college magazine refused to print it. Joyce and Sheehy-Skeffington—who had also had an article rejected—had their essays jointly printed and distributed.Arthur Griffith decried the censorship of Joyce's work in his newspaperUnited Irishman.[45]
Joyce graduated from theRoyal University of Ireland in October 1902. He considered studying medicine[46] and began attending lectures at theCatholic University Medical School in Dublin.[47] When the medical school refused to provide a tutoring position to help finance his education, he left Dublin to study medicine in Paris,[48] where he received permission to attend the course for a certificate in physics, chemistry, and biology at the École de Médecine.[49] By the end of January 1903 he had given up plans to study medicine,[50] but he stayed in Paris, often reading late in theBibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève.[51] He frequently wrote home claiming ill health due to the water, the cold weather, and his change of diet,[52] appealing for money his family could ill afford.[53]
In April 1903, Joyce learned his mother was dying[i] and immediately returned to Ireland.[60] He tended to her, reading aloud from drafts that were eventually worked into his unfinished novelStephen Hero.[61] During her final days, she unsuccessfully tried to get him to make hisconfession and to takecommunion.[62][j] She died on 13 August.[64] Afterwards, Joyce and Stanislaus refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside.[65] John Joyce's drinking and abusiveness increased in the months following her death, and the family began to fall apart.[66] Joyce spent much of his time carousing with Gogarty and his medical school colleagues,[67] and tried to scrape together a living by reviewing books.[68]
Joyce's life began to change when he metNora Barnacle on 10 June 1904. She was a 20-year-old woman fromGalway city who was working in Dublin as a chambermaid.[69] They had their first outing together on 16 June 1904,[k] walking through the Dublin suburb ofRingsend, where Nora masturbated him.[72] This event was commemorated as the date for the action ofUlysses, known in popular culture as "Bloomsday" in honour of the novel's main characterLeopold Bloom.[73] This began a relationship that continued for 37 years, until Joyce died.[74] Soon after this outing, Joyce, who had been out with his colleagues,[75] approached a young woman inSt Stephen's Green and was beaten up by her companion. He was picked up and dusted off by an acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who took him into his home to tend to his injuries. Hunter, who was rumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife, became one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the protagonist ofUlysses.[76]
Joyce was a talented tenor and explored becoming a musical performer.[77][l] On 8 May 1904, he was a contestant in theFeis Ceoil,[79] an Irishmusic competition for promising composers, instrumentalists and singers.[80] In the months before the contest, Joyce took singing lessons with two voice instructors, Benedetto Palmieri and Vincent O'Brien.[81] He paid the entry fee by pawning some of his books.[82] For the contest, Joyce had to sing three songs. He did well with the first two, but when he was told he had tosight read the third, he refused.[83] Joyce won the third-place medal anyway.[m] After the contest, Palmieri wrote to Joyce thatLuigi Denza, the composer of the popular song "Funiculì, Funiculà" who was the judge for the contest,[88] spoke highly of his voice and would have given him first place but for the sight-reading and lack of sufficient training.[89] Palmieri offered to give Joyce free singing lessons. Joyce refused the lessons, but kept singing in Dublin concerts that year.[90] His performance at a concert given on 27 August may have solidified Nora's devotion to him.[91] Although Joyce did not pursue a singing career, he included thousands of musical allusions in his literary works.[92]
Throughout 1904, Joyce sought to develop his literary reputation. On 7 January he attempted to publish a prose work examiningaesthetics calledA Portrait of the Artist,[93] but it was rejected by the intellectual journalDana. He then reworked it into a fictional novel of his youth,Stephen Hero, that he laboured over for years but eventually abandoned.[n] He wrote a satirical poem, "The Holy Office",[95] that parodiedW. B. Yeats's poem "To Ireland in the Coming Times"[96][o] and once more mocked the Irish Literary Revival.[99] It too was rejected for publication, this time for being "unholy".[100] He wrote the collection of poemsChamber Music at this time;[101] which was also rejected.[102][p] He did publish three poems, one inDana[105] and two inThe Speaker,[106] andGeorge William Russell[q] published three of Joyce's short stories in theIrish Homestead. These stories—"The Sisters", "Eveline", and "After the Race"—were the beginnings ofDubliners.[109]
In September 1904, Joyce was having difficulties finding a place to live and moved into aMartello tower near Dublin, which Gogarty was renting.[110] Within a week, Joyce left when Gogarty and another housemate, Dermot Chenevix Trench, fired a pistol in the middle of the night at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed.[111] With the help of funds fromLady Gregory and a few other acquaintances, Joyce and Nora left Ireland less than a month later.[112]
In October 1904, Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile.[113] They briefly stopped in London and Paris to secure funds[114] before heading on toZurich.Joyce had been informed through an agent in England that there was a vacancy at theBerlitz Language School, but when he arrived there was no position.[115] The couple stayed in Zurich for a little over a week.[116] The director of the school sent Joyce on toTrieste,[117] which was part of theAustro-Hungarian Empire until the First World War.[r] There was no vacancy there either.[s] The director of the school in Trieste, Almidano Artifoni, secured a position for him inPola, then Austria-Hungary's major naval base,[t] where he mainly taught English to naval officers.[119] Less than one month after the couple had left Ireland, Nora had become pregnant.[120] Joyce soon became close friends with Alessandro Francini Bruni, the director of the school at Pola,[121] and his wife Clothilde. By the beginning of 1905, the two families were living together.[122] Joyce kept writing when he could. He completed a short story forDubliners, "Clay", and worked on his novelStephen Hero.[123] He disliked Pola, calling it a "back-of-God-speed place—a naval Siberia",[124] and as soon as a job became available, he went to Trieste.[125][u]
The Caffè Stella Polare inTrieste, often visited by Joyce[127]
Joyce moved to Trieste in March 1905 aged 23. He taught English at the Berlitz school.[128] That June he published the satirical poem "The Holy Office".[129]
After Nora gave birth to their first child, Giorgio,[v] on 27 July 1905,[131] he convinced Stanislaus to move to Trieste and obtained a position for him at the Berlitz school. Stanislaus moved in with Joyce as soon as he arrived that October, although most of his salary went directly to supporting Joyce's family.[132] In February 1906, the Joyce household once more shared an apartment with the Francini Brunis.[133]
During this period Joyce completed 24 chapters ofStephen Hero[134] and all but the final story ofDubliners,[135] but was unable to getDubliners published. Although the London publisherGrant Richards had a contract with Joyce, the printers were unwilling to print passages they found controversial; English law could not protect them if brought to court for circulating indecent language.[136] Richards and Joyce tried to find a solution where the book could avoid legal liability while preserving Joyce's artistic integrity. As they negotiated, Richards began to scrutinise the stories more carefully. He became concerned that the book might damage his publishing house's reputation and eventually backed down from his agreement.[137]
Trieste was Joyce's main residence until 1920;[138] he stayed temporarily in Rome, travelled to Dublin, and emigrated to Zurich during World War I, but Trieste became a second Dublin for him[139] and played an important role in his development as a writer.[140][w] He completedDubliners, reworkedStephen Hero intoA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, wrote his only published playExiles and decided to makeUlysses a full-length novel as he worked through his notes and jottings,[142] working out the characters of Leopold and Molly Bloom in Trieste.[143] Many of the novel's details were taken from Joyce's observation of the city and its people,[144] and some of its stylistic innovations appear to have been influenced byFuturism.[145][x] There are even words of the Triestine dialect inFinnegans Wake.[147] Joyce was introduced to the Greek Orthodox liturgy in Trieste. Under its influence, he rewrote his first short story and later drew on it in creating the liturgical parodies inUlysses.[148]
In late May 1906, the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds. Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could afford to keep only one brother on.[151] Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher forDubliners, Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary.[152] He was hired for the position and went to Rome at the end of July.[153]
Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome,[154] but it had a large impact on his writing.[155] Though his new job took up most of his time, he revisedDubliners and worked onStephen Hero.[156] Rome was the birthplace of the idea for "The Dead", which became the final story ofDubliners,[157] and forUlysses,[158] which was originally conceived as a short story.[y] His stay in the city was one of his inspirations forExiles.[160] While there, he read the socialist historianGuglielmo Ferrero in depth.[161] Ferrero's anti-heroic interpretations of history, arguments against militarism, and conflicted attitudes toward Jews[162] found their way intoUlysses, particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom.[163] In London,Elkin Mathews publishedChamber Music on the recommendation of the British poetArthur Symons.[164] Nonetheless, Joyce was dissatisfied with his job, had exhausted his finances, and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again.[165] He left Rome after seven months.[166]
Joyce returned to Trieste in March 1907, but was unable to find full-time work. He went back to being an English instructor, working part-time for Berlitz and giving private lessons.[167] The author Ettore Schmitz, better known by pen nameItalo Svevo, was one of his students. Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom.[168] Joyce learned much of what he knew aboutJudaism from him.[169] The two became lasting friends and mutual critics.[170] Svevo supported Joyce's identity as an author, helping him work through his writer's block withA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.[171] Roberto Prezioso, editor of the Italian newspaperPiccolo della Sera, was another of Joyce's students. He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper. Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italianirredentists in Trieste. He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria-Hungary with the struggle againstBritish rule in Ireland.[172] Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures atTrieste's Università Popolare on Ireland and the arts,[173] as well as onWilliam Shakespeare's playHamlet.[174]
In May, Joyce was struck by an attack ofrheumatic fever,[175] which left him incapacitated for weeks.[z] The illness exacerbatedeye problems that plagued him for the rest of his life.[181] While Joyce was still recovering from the attack, Lucia was born on 26 July 1907.[182][aa] During his convalescence, he was able to finish "The Dead", the last story ofDubliners.[184]
Although a heavy drinker,[185] Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908.[186] He reworkedStephen Hero as the more concise and interiorA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. He completed the third chapter by April[187] and translatedJohn Millington Synge'sRiders to the Sea into Italian with the help of Nicolò Vidacovich.[188] He even took singing lessons again.[189] Joyce had been looking for an English publisher forDubliners but was unable to find one, so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher, Maunsel and Company, owned byGeorge Roberts.[190]
In July 1909, Joyce received a year's advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family, his own in Dublin and Nora's in Galway.[191] He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at hisalma mater, which had become University College Dublin.[192] He met with Roberts, who seemed positive about publishingDubliners.[193] He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva, who helped Nora run the home.[194] Joyce stayed in Trieste for only a month, as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin, which unlike Trieste had none. He quickly got the backing of some Triestine businessmen and returned to Dublin in October, launching Ireland's first cinema, theVolta Cinematograph.[195] It was initially well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left.[196] He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen.[197][ab]
From 1910 to 1912, Joyce still lacked a reliable income. This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus, who was frustrated with lending him money, to their peak.[201] In 1912, Prezioso arranged for him to lecture onHamlet for the Minerva Society between November 1912 and February 1913.[202] Joyce once more lectured at the Università Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at theUniversity of Padua.[203] He performed very well on the qualification tests, but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university. In mid-1912, Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly.[204] While there, his three-year struggle with Roberts over the publication ofDubliners[205] ended as Roberts refused to publish it due to concerns of libel. Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed, but Joyce obtained a copy of the proof sheets.[ac] When Joyce returned to Trieste, he wrote an invective against Roberts, "Gas from a Burner".[207] He never went to Dublin again.[208]
Joyce's fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publishDubliners. It was issued on 15 June 1914,[209] eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him.[210] Around the same time, he found an unexpected advocate inEzra Pound, who was living in London.[ad] On Yeats's advice,[212] Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem fromChamber Music, "I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land", in the journalDes Imagistes. They began a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s. Pound became Joyce's promoter, helping ensure that Joyce's works were published and publicised.[213]
After Pound persuadedDora Marsden toserially publishA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in the London literary magazineThe Egoist,[214] Joyce's pace of writing increased. He completedA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by 1914;[215] resumedExiles, completing it in 1915;[216] started the noveletteGiacomo Joyce, which he eventually abandoned;[217] and began draftingUlysses.[218]
In August 1914, World War I broke out. Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom, which was now at war with Austria-Hungary, they remained in Trieste. Even when Stanislaus, who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists, was interned at the beginning of January 1915, Joyce chose to stay. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary,[219] and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zurich in neutral Switzerland.[220]
Zurich, Switzerland, where Joyce lived from 1915 to 1919
Joyce arrived in Zurich as a double exile: he was an Irishman with a British passport and a Triestine on parole from Austria-Hungary.[221] To get to Switzerland, he had to promise the Austro-Hungarian officials that he would not help the Allies during the war, and he and his family had to leave almost all of their possessions in Trieste.[222] During the war, both the British and Austro-Hungarian secret services kept Joyce under surveillance.[223]
Joyce's first concern was earning a living. One of Nora's relatives sent them a small sum to cover the first few months. Pound and Yeats worked with the British government to provide a stipend from theRoyal Literary Fund in 1915 and a grant from the Britishcivil list the following year.[224] Eventually, Joyce received large regular sums from the editorHarriet Shaw Weaver, who operatedThe Egoist, and the psychotherapistEdith Rockefeller McCormick, who lived in Zurich, studying underCarl Jung.[225] Weaver financially supported Joyce for the rest of his life and even paid for his funeral.[226] Between 1917 and the beginning of 1919, Joyce was financially secure and lived quite well;[227] the family sometimes stayed inLocarno in Switzerland's Italian-speaking region.[228] But Joyce's health problems persisted. During their time in Zurich, he and Nora both suffered illnesses diagnosed as "nervous breakdowns",[229] and he underwent many eye surgeries.[230]
During the war, Zurich was the centre of a vibrant expatriate community. Joyce's spent evenings in the Cafe Pfauen,[231] where he got to know some of the artists living in the city, including the sculptorAugust Suter[232] and the painterFrank Budgen.[233] He often used the time spent with them as material forUlysses.[234] He met the writerStefan Zweig,[235] who organised the premiere ofExiles in Munich in August 1919.[236] He became aware ofDada, which was coming into its own at theCabaret Voltaire.[237][ae] He may have met theMarxist theoretician and revolutionaryVladimir Lenin at the Cafe Odeon,[239] a place they both frequented.[240]
Joyce kept up his interest in music. He metFerruccio Busoni,[241] staged music withOtto Luening, and learned music theory fromPhilipp Jarnach.[242] Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way intoUlysses, particularly the "Sirens" section.[243]
Joyce avoided public discussion of the war and maintained strict neutrality.[244] He made few comments about the 1916Easter Rising in Ireland; although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement,[245] he disagreed with its violence.[246][af] He stayed intently focused onUlysses[248] and the struggle to get his work published. Some of the serial instalments of "The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man" inThe Egoist had been censored by the printers, but the entire novel was published byB. W. Huebsch in 1916.[249] In 1918, Pound got a commitment fromMargaret Caroline Anderson, the owner and editor of the New York-based literary magazineThe Little Review, to publishUlysses serially.[250]
The Pfauen in Zurich. Joyce's preferred hangout was the café, which used to be on the right corner. The theatre staged the English Players.[251]
Joyce co-founded an acting company, the English Players, and became its business manager. The company was pitched to the British government as a contribution to the war effort,[252] and mainly staged works by Irish playwrights, such asOscar Wilde,George Bernard Shaw, and John Millington Synge.[253] For Synge'sRiders to the Sea, Nora played a principal role and Joyce sang offstage,[254] which he did again whenRobert Browning'sIn a Balcony was staged. He hoped the company would eventually stage his play,Exiles,[255] but his participation in the English Players declined in the wake of theinfluenza epidemic of 1918, though the company continued until 1920.[256]
Joyce's work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit.Henry Wilfred Carr, a wounded war veteran and British consul, accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role inThe Importance of Being Earnest. Carr sued for compensation; Joyce countersued for libel. The cases were resolved in 1919, with Joyce winning the compensation case but losing the one for libel.[257] The incident created acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zurich.[258]
By 1919, Joyce was in financial difficulty again. McCormick stopped paying her stipend, partly because he refused to be psychoanalysed by Jung,[259] and Zurich had become expensive to live in after the war. He was also becoming isolated as the city's emigres returned home. In October 1919, Joyce's family moved back to Trieste, but it had changed. The Austro-Hungarian empire had ceased to exist, and Trieste was now an Italian city in postwar recovery.[260] Eight months after his return, Joyce went toSirmione, Italy, to meet Pound, who made arrangements for him to move to Paris.[261] Joyce and his family packed their belongings and headed for Paris in June 1920.[262]
Joyce in a September 1922 issue ofShadowland, photographed byMan Ray
When Joyce and his family arrived in Paris in July 1920, their visit was intended to be a layover on their way to London.[263] For the first four months, he stayed withLudmila Savitzky [fr][264] and metSylvia Beach, who ran theRive Gauche bookshop,Shakespeare and Company.[265] Beach quickly became an important person in Joyce's life, providing financial support[266] and becoming one of his publishers.[267] Through Beach and Pound, Joyce quickly joined the intellectual circle of Paris and was integrated into the internationalmodernist artist community.[268] He metValery Larbaud, who championed Joyce's works to the French[269] and supervised theFrench translation ofUlysses.[270] Paris became the Joyces' regular residence for 20 years, though they never settled at a single location for long.[271]
Joyce finished writingUlysses near the end of 1921, but had difficulties getting it published. With financial backing from the lawyerJohn Quinn,[272][ag] Margaret Anderson and her co-editorJane Heap had begun serially publishing it inThe Little Review in March 1918,[273] but in January and May 1919, two instalments were suppressed as obscene and potentially subversive.[274] In September 1920, an unsolicited instalment of the "Nausicaa" episode was sent to the daughter of a New York attorney associated with theNew York Society for the Suppression of Vice, leading to an official complaint.[272] Thetrial proceedings continued until February 1921, when Anderson and Heap, defended by Quinn, were fined $50 each for publishing obscenity[275] and ordered to cease publishingUlysses.[276] Huebsch, who had expressed interest in publishing the novel in the United States, decided against it after the trial.[277] Weaver was unable to find an English printer,[278] and the novel wasbanned for obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922, where it was blacklisted until 1936.[279]
Almost immediately after Anderson and Heap were ordered to stop printingUlysses, Beach agreed to publish it through her bookshop.[280] She had books mailed to people in Paris and the United States who had subscribed to get a copy; Weaver sent books from Beach's plates to subscribers in England.[281] Soon, the postal officials of both countries began confiscating the books.[282] They were then smuggled into both countries.[283][ah] Because the work had no copyright in the United States at this time, "bootleg" versions appeared, including pirate versions from publisherSamuel Roth, who ceased his actions only in 1928, when a court enjoined publication.[285]Ulysses was not legally published in the United States until 1934, when JudgeJohn M. Woolsey ruled inUnited States v. One Book Called Ulysses that the book is not obscene.[286]
Joyce's health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years. He had over a dozen eye operations,[299] but his vision severely declined.[300] By 1930, he was practically blind in the left eye, and his right eye functioned poorly.[301] He had all his teeth removed because of infection.[302] At one point, Joyce became worried that he could not finishFinnegans Wake, asking the Irish authorJames Stephens to complete it if he became unable.[303]
Joyce's financial problems continued. Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties, his spending habits often left him without available money.[304] Still, he publishedPomes Penyeach in 1927, a collection of 13 poems that he wrote in Trieste, Zurich and Paris.[305]
In 1930, Joyce began thinking of establishing a residence in London once more,[306] primarily to ensure that Giorgio, who had just married Helen Fleischmann, would have his inheritance secured under British law.[307] Joyce moved to London, obtained a long-term lease on a flat, registered on theelectoral roll, and became liable forjury service. After having lived together for 27 years, Joyce and Nora married at theRegister Office in Kensington on 4 July 1931.[308] Joyce stayed in London for at least six months to establish his residency, but abandoned his flat and returned to Paris later in the year when Lucia showed signs of mental illness. He planned to return, but never did, and later became disaffected with England.[309]
In later years, Joyce lived in Paris but frequently travelled to Switzerland for eye surgery[ak] or for treatment for Lucia,[311] who was diagnosed withschizophrenia.[312] Lucia was analysed by Jung, who had previously written thatUlysses was similar to schizophrenic writing.[313][al] Jung suggested that she and her father were two people going into a river, with Joyce diving and Lucia falling.[315] Despite Joyce's attempts to help Lucia, she remained permanently institutionalised after his death.[316]
In the late 1930s, Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism.[317] In 1938, he helped Jews escape Nazi persecution.[318] After thefall of France in 1940, Joyce and his family fled fromNazi occupation, returning to Zurich a final time.[319]
On 11 January 1941, Joyce underwent surgery in Zurich for aperforated duodenal ulcer. He fell into a coma the next day. He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941, and asked a nurse to call his wife and son. They were en route when he died 15 minutes later, at age 58.[320]
His body was buried in theFluntern Cemetery in Zurich. Swiss tenorMax Meili sang "Addio terra, addio cielo" fromMonteverdi'sL'Orfeo at the burial service.[321] Joyce had been a subject of the United Kingdom all of his life, and although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at the time, only the British consul attended the funeral. When Frank Cremins,chargé d'affaires atBern, informedJoseph Walshe, secretary at the Department of External Affairs in Dublin, of Joyce's death, Walshe responded: "Please wire details of Joyce's death. If possible find out did he die a Catholic? Express sympathy with Mrs Joyce and explain inability to attend funeral."[322] Buried originally in an ordinary grave, Joyce was moved in 1966 to a more prominent "honour grave", with a seated portrait statue by American artistMilton Hebald nearby. Nora survived him by 10 years. She is buried by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976.[322]
After Joyce's death, the Irish government declined Nora's request to permit the repatriation of his remains,[323] despite being persistently lobbied by the American diplomatJohn J. Slocum.[322] In October 2019, a motion was put toDublin City Council to plan and budget for the costs of the exhumations and reburials of Joyce and his family somewhere in Dublin, subject to his family's wishes.[324] The proposal immediately became controversial, with theIrish Times commenting: "it is hard not to suspect that there is a calculating, even mercantile, aspect to contemporary Ireland's relationship to its great writers, whom we are often more keen to 'celebrate', and if possible monetise, than read".[325]
Throughout his life, Joyce maintained an active interest in Irish politics[326] and the country's relationship to theBritish Empire.[327] He studiedsocialism[328] andanarchism.[329][am] He attended socialist meetings and expressed anindividualist anarchist view influenced byBenjamin Tucker's philosophy and Oscar Wilde's essay "The Soul of Man Under Socialism".[333] He described his opinions as "those of a socialist artist".[334] Joyce's direct engagement in politics was strongest during his time in Trieste, when he submitted newspaper articles, gave lectures, and wrote letters advocating for Ireland's independence from British rule.[335] After leaving Trieste, Joyce's direct involvement in politics waned,[336] but his later works still reflect his commitment.[337] He remained sympathetic to individualist anarchism and critical of coercive ideologies such asnationalism.[338][an] His novels address socialist, anarchist, andIrish nationalist issues.[341]Ulysses has been read as a critique of the effect of British rule on the Irish people.[342]Finnegans Wake has been read as an investigation of the divisive issues of Irish politics,[343] the interrelationship between colonialism and race,[344] and the coercive oppression of nationalism and fascism.[345]
Joyce wrote critically of British rule in Ireland and was sympathetic to attempts to establish anindependent Irish republic.[346] In 1907, he expressed his support for theearly Sinn Féin movement before the establishment of theIrish Free State in 1922.[347] But Joyce refused to exchange his British passport for an Irish one.[348] When he had a choice, he renewed his British passport in 1935 instead of obtaining one from the Irish Free State,[349][ao] and chose to keep it in 1940 when accepting an Irish passport could have helped him to leaveVichy France more easily.[351] His refusal to change his passport was partly due to the advantages a British passport gave him internationally,[352] his being out of sympathy with the violence of Irish politics,[353] and his dismay over the Irish Free State's political alignment with the Catholic Church.[354][ap]
The interior of theGreek Orthodox Church of San Nicolò inTrieste, where Joyce occasionally attended services[356]
Joyce had a complex relationship with religion.[357] Joyce lapsed from the Church early in life,[358] and firsthand statements by him[aq] and Stanislaus[ar] attest that he did not consider himself aCatholic, though his work is deeply influenced by Catholicism.[361] In particular, his intellectual foundations were grounded in his earlyJesuit education.[362][as] Even after he left Ireland, he sometimes went to church. When living in Trieste, he woke up early to attendMass onHoly Thursday andGood Friday[364][at] and occasionally attendedEastern Orthodox services, saying he liked the ceremonies better.[366]
Joyce's wife Nora refused to allow a Catholic service when he died.[au] His works frequently critique, ridicule, and blaspheme Catholicism,[368] and he appropriates Catholic rituals and concepts for his own artistic purposes.[369] Some critics have therefore argued that Joyce firmly rejected Catholicism,[370] but Catholic critics have argued that Joyce never fully abandoned his faith,[371] wrestling with it in his writings and becoming increasingly reconciled to it.[372] They regardUlysses andFinnegans Wake as expressions of a Catholic sensibility,[373] insisting that the critical views of religion the characters in his novels express are not those of the author.[374]
Other critics have suggested that Joyce's apparentapostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation,[375] a criticism of the Church's adverse effect on spiritual life, politics, and personal development.[376] His attitude toward Catholicism has been described as an enigma in which there are two Joyces: a modern one who resisted the power of Catholicism and another who maintained his allegiance to its traditions.[377] He has been compared to the medievalepiscopi vagantes (wandering bishops), who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought.[378]
Joyce's responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous. For example, during an interview after the completion ofUlysses, Joyce was asked, "When did you leave the Catholic Church?" He answered, "That's for the Church to say."[379]
First edition of Dubliners; published byGrant Richards in London, 1914
Dubliners, first published in 1914, is a collection of 15 short stories[380] that form a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle-class life in and around the city in the early 20th century. The tales were written whenIrish nationalism and the search for national identity was at its peak. Joyce holds up a mirror to that identity as a first step in the spiritual liberation of Ireland.[381][av] The stories centre on Joyce's idea of an epiphany: a moment when a character experiences a life-changing self-understanding or illumination. Many of the characters inDubliners later appear in minor roles in Joyce's novelUlysses.[383] The initial stories are narrated by child protagonists. Later stories deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people. This aligns with Joyce's tripartite division of the collection into childhood, adolescence, and maturity.[384]
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, published in 1916, is a shortened rewrite of the novelStephen Hero, which was abandoned in 1905. It is aKünstlerroman, a kind ofcoming-of-age novel depicting the childhood and adolescence of the protagonistStephen Dedalus and his gradual growth into artistic self-consciousness.[385] It functions both as an autobiographical fiction of the author and a biography of the fictional protagonist.[386] Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works, such asstream of consciousness,interior monologue, and references to a character's psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings, are evident in this novel.[387]
Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play,Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband-and-wife relationship, the play looks back to "The Dead" (the final story inDubliners) and forward toUlysses, which Joyce began around the time of the play's composition.[388]
He published three books of poetry.[389] The first full-length collection wasChamber Music (1907), which consisted of 36 short lyrics. It led to his inclusion in theImagist Anthology, edited by Ezra Pound, a champion of Joyce's work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes "Gas from a Burner" (1912),Pomes Penyeach (1927), and "Ecce Puer" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father). These were published by theBlack Sun Press inCollected Poems (1936).[390]
First edition ofUlysses; published by Shakespeare & Company in Paris, 1922
The action ofUlysses starts on 16 June 1904 at 8am and ends sometime after 2am the next morning. Much of it occurs inside the minds of the characters, who are portrayed through techniques such as interior monologue, dialogue, and soliloquy. The novel has 18 episodes, each covering roughly one hour of the day in a unique literary style.[391] Each chapter refers to an episode inHomer'sOdyssey, as well as a specific colour, a particular art or science, and a bodily organ.[aw]Ulysses sets the characters and incidents of theOdyssey in 1904 Dublin, representingOdysseus (Ulysses),Penelope, andTelemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wifeMolly Bloom, and Stephen Dedalus. It uses humour,[394] including parody, satire and comedy, to contrast the novel's characters with their Homeric models. Joyce played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles[395] so the work could be read independently of its Homeric structure.[396]
Ulysses can be read as a study of Dublin in 1904, exploring various aspects of the city's life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Joyce claimed that if Dublin was destroyed in some catastrophe, it could be rebuilt using his work as a model.[397] To achieve this sense of detail, he relied on his memory, what he heard other people remember, and his readings, to create a sense of fastidious detail.[398] Joyce regularly used the 1904 edition ofThom's Directory—a work that listed the owners and tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city—to ensure his descriptions were accurate.[399] This combination of kaleidoscopic writing, reliance on a formal schema to structure the narrative, and exquisite attention to detail represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th-century modernist literature.[400]
Finnegans Wake is an experimental novel that pushes stream of consciousness[401] and literary allusion[402] to their extremes. It can be read from beginning to end, but Joyce's writing transforms traditional ideas of plot and character development through his wordplay, allowing the book to be read non-linearly. Much of the wordplay stems from peculiar and obscure English, based mainly oncomplex multilevel puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than,Lewis Carroll's inJabberwocky[403] and draws on a wide range of languages.[404] The associative nature of its language has led to its being interpreted as the story of a dream.[405][ax]
The metaphysics ofGiordano Bruno ofNola, whom Joyce read in his youth,[406] plays an important role inFinnegans Wake, as it provides the framework for how the characters' identities interplay and are transformed.[407]Giambattista Vico's cyclical view of history—in which civilisation rises from chaos, passes through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapses back into chaos—structures the text's narrative,[408] as evidenced by the book's opening and closing words:Finnegans Wake opens, "riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs",[409] and ends, "A way a lone a last a loved a long the".[410] Thus the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of that sentence, turning the narrative into one great cycle.[411]
Joyce's work still has a profound influence on contemporary culture.[412][ay]Ulysses is a model for fiction writers, particularly its explorations into the power of language.[400] Its emphasis on the details of everyday life has opened up new possibilities of expression for authors, painters and film-makers.[412] It retains its prestige among readers, often ranking high on 'Great Book' lists.[413] Joyce's innovations extend beyond English literature: his writing has been an inspiration for Latin American writers,[414] andFinnegans Wake has become one of the key texts for Frenchpost-structuralism.[415]
The open-ended form of Joyce's novels keeps them open to constant reinterpretation.[416] They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics. Joyce's studies—based on a relatively small canon of three novels, a small short story collection, one play, and two small books of poems—have generated over 15,000 articles, monographs, theses, translations, and editions.[417]
In popular culture, the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, known asBloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide.[418]
TheNational Library of Ireland has a large collection of Joycean material, including manuscripts and notebooks, much of it available online.[419] A joint venture between the library and University College Dublin, theMuseum of Literature Ireland,[420] the majority of whose exhibits are about Joyce and his work, has a small permanent Joyce-related collection and borrows from its parent institutions; its displays include "Copy No. 1" ofUlysses.[421] Dedicated centres in Dublin include theJames Joyce Centre inNorth Great George's Street, theJames Joyce Tower and Museum inSandycove at the Martello tower where Joyce briefly lived and where he set the opening scene inUlysses, and theDublin Writers Museum.[422]
University College London (UCL) holds the United Kingdom's only major research collection of Joyce's work, including first editions of all his major works, many other editions and translations, and critical and background literature.[423] UCL also has an archive collection of Joyce-related material that includes letters to Jane Lidderdale and Harriet Shaw Weaver and papers relating to and by Joyce's daughter Lucia.[424]
The University at Buffalo's James Joyce Collection has more than 10,000 pages of Joyce's working papers, notebooks, manuscripts, photographs, correspondence and other materials, and Joyce's private library.[425]
Stephen Hero (written 1904–06, posthumous publication byJonathan Cape, 1944 (revised 1956 and 1963); precursor toA Portrait, completed but preserved in fragment)
^Joyce was named after his paternal grandfather,[1] but his middle name was mistakenly registered asAugusta at the time of his birth.[2] Joyce acquired hissaint's nameAloysius at hisconfirmation[3] in 1891.[4]
^Joyce was named after his paternal grandfather,[1] but his middle name was mistakenly registered asAugusta at the time of his birth.[2]
^Joyce's fear of dogs may have been exaggerated.[10]
^ According to Irish artist Arthur Power, Joyce, who sometimes took his children and Power on a ride, once ordered the driver to turn home when a storm broke out. When Power asked "Why are you so afraid of thunder? Your children don't mind it." Joyce answered "Ah, they have no religion".[13]
^University College was part of the Royal University of Ireland.[28] It became University College Dublin, one of three colleges in the new National University of Ireland, in 1908. The others were University College Galway and University College Cork.[29]
^Ibsen did not reply to the fan letter,[35] but he had previously asked the Scottish criticWilliam Archer to thank Joyce for his "very benevolent" review.[36]
^Joyce's dedicatory page to the play is all that is left: "To My own Soul I dedicate the first true work of my life."[39]
^Joyce's mother was initially diagnosed withcirrhosis of the liver;[54] Ellmann says that it became apparent she was actually dying of cancer.[55] This may reflect what Joyce's family came to believe,[56] but Gorman's 1939 biography of Joyce, which was edited by Joyce,[57] states that she died of cirrhosis,[58] as does her death certificate.[59]
^Gorman writes: "Mary Jane Joyce was dying in the sanctity of the bosom of her Church... and her eldest son could only grieve that the two wills could not meet and mix. He was incapable of bending his knee to the powerful phantom, that once acknowledged, would devour him as it had devoured so many about him and half a civilisation as well."[63]
^Though there is substantial circumstantial evidence supporting that date,[70] there is no direct documentary evidence confirming that Joyce and Nora's walk on the Ringsend actually occurred on this day.[71]
^ComposerOtto Luening, who knew Joyce in Trieste, described his voice as being "mellow and pleasant... a nice Irish-Italian tenor... very good for Italian operas of the 17th and 18th centuries".[78]
^The details of what happened immediately after the contest are unclear.[84] For example, Oliver Gogarty claims Joyce threw his medal into the Liffey,[85] but Joyce apparently gave the medal to his Aunt Josephine,[86] and it ended up being bought by the choreographerMichael Flatley at an auction in 2004.[87]
^Stephen Hero was published after Joyce's death in 1944.[94]
^Though Joyce parodied Yeats in "Holy Office", he admired two short stories Yeats had written, "Tables of the Law" and "Adoration of the Magi". The former he memorised by heart and references to both were integrated into Joyce's "Stephen Hero".[97] Joyce admired Yeats's 1899 playThe Countess Cathleen as well, which he translated into Italian in 1911.[98]
^According to Stanislaus, Russell and Joyce became acquainted through a common interest intheosophy, which he briefly explored after his mother's death.[107] Joyce's knowledge of theosophy appears in his later writing, particularlyFinnegans Wake.[108]
^After less than an hour in Trieste, Joyce found himself arrested and jailed when he got into the middle of an altercation between three sailors of theRoyal Navy and Austro-Hungarian police. He had to be released by the British Vice-Consul.[118]
^It was later rumoured that Joyce had been evicted from Pola when the Austrians—having discovered an espionage ring in the city—expelled allaliens, but the evidence suggests that he moved because the position in Trieste was better.[126]
^Joyce's son was named Giorgio when he was born, but later preferred to be called George.[130]
^Joyce's Triestine colleague, the writerItalo Svevo states that with the exception of some stories ofDubliners and the "songs" ofChamber Music, "All his other works down to Ulysses were born in Trieste".[141]
^Regarding the role of Trieste on the creation of Ulysses, Svevo states "To the Irish critic [Earnest] Boyd, who asserted thatUlysses was merely the product of pre-war thought in Ireland,Valery Larbaud replied 'Yes, in so far as it came to maturity in Trieste'."[146]
^In October, Joyce wrote "I have a new story forDubliners in my head. It deals with Mr. [Alfred] Hunter", the man who was picked him after he was beaten in 1904. In November, he first mentioned the title of the story as "Ulysses", and in Feb 1907, he mentioned "Ulysses" along with "The Dead" and three other stories that never appeared.[159]
^FollowingRichard Ellmann's biography, a number of later biographers also state the attack was due to rheumatic fever,[176] but evidence suggests thatsyphilis may have been the cause.[177] It may have been the cause of Joyce's eye problems too.[178] The physicianJ. B. Lyons makes a case that the cause wasReiter's syndrome,[179] though he later suggested that this occurred as an aftereffect of a venereal infection.[180]
^Lucia was named after the patron saint of eyesight.[183]
^Eva became homesick and returned to Dublin after little more than a year,[198] but Eileen stayed on the continent, eventually marrying aCzech bank cashier, Frantisek Schaurek.[199] The Irish actorPaddy Joyce is their son.[200]
^It was in the midst of these frustrations with Richards in 1911 that Joyce was alleged to have thrown the manuscript of the first three chapters ofA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man into a stove fire, only to have it rescued by Eileen.[206]
^The literary criticMary Colum, who was personally well-acquainted with Joyce, reports him as saying: "Pound took me out of the gutter."[211]
^In 1920, Joyce wrote that the Irish press reported him as the founder of Dada.[238]
^Budgen wrote: "Joyce, if asked, what he did during the Great War, could reply: 'I wrote Ulysses.'"[247]
^Quinn was an early supporter of Joyce's work in the United States. (cf.,Quinn 1917)
^Ernest Hemingway became involved in smuggling copies ofUlysses into the United States from Canada.[284]
^In March 1923, Joyce wrote "Yesterday I wrote two pages—the first I have since the finalYes ofUlysses. Having found a pen, with some difficulty I copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet offoolscap so that I could read them.Il lupo perde il pelo ma non il vizio, the Italians say. 'The wolf may lose his skin but not his vice' or 'the leopard cannot change his spots."[288]
^Joyce metT. S. Eliot in Paris in 1923. Eliot became a strong advocate of Joyce's work, arranging publication of parts ofWork in Progress, the first complete edition ofFinnegans Wake withFaber and Faber and editing the first anthology of Joyce's work the year after his death.[298]
^He still retained his sense of humour and appreciation of music during these difficult times. For example, Joyce heard the composerOthmar Schoeck's Song Cycle based on the poems ofGottfried Keller,Lebendig begraben [Buried Alive], while visiting Zurich in 1935. Afterwards, he went to Schoeck's house unannounced and dressed as a tramp to introduce himself to him. He later obtained Keller's poems and began to translate them.[310]
^Jung also states: "It would never occur to me to classUlysses as a product of schizophrenia...Ulysses is no more a pathological product than modern art as a whole."[314]
^ In 1918, Joyce declared himself "against every state",[339] and later in the 1930s he said of the defeated multi-ethnic Hapsburg Empire: "They called the Empire a ramshackle empire, I wish to God there were more such empires."[340]
^When Joyce had to renew his passport while residing in Paris during 1935, he wrote Georgio afterwards: "Giorni fa dovevo far rinnovare il mio passaporto. L'impiegato mi disse che aveva ordini di mandare gente come me alla legazione irlandese. Insistetti ed ottenni un altro." [A few days ago I had to have my [British] passport renewed. The clerk told me that he had orders to send people like me to the Irish legation. I insisted and got another one.][350]
^Svevo writes: "He is twice a rebel, against England and against Ireland. He hates England and would like to transform Ireland. Yet he belongs so much to England that like a great many of his Irish predecessors he will fill pages of English literary history."[355]
^In 1904 Joyce declared to Nora, who he had just recently met: "My mind rejects the whole present social order and Christianity—home, the recognised virtues, classes of life and religious doctrines... Six years ago I left the Catholic church, hating it most fervently. I found it impossible for me to remain in it on account of the impulses of my nature. I made secret war upon it when I was a student and declined to accept the positions it offered me. By doing this I made myself a beggar, but I retained my pride. Now I make open war upon it by what I write and say and do."[359]
^Stanislaus wrote: "It has become a fashion with some of my brother's critics... to represent him as a man pining for the ancient Church he had abandoned, and at a loss for moral support without the religion in which he was bred. Nothing could be further from the truth. I am convinced that there was never any crisis of belief. The vigour of life within him drove him out of the church".[360]
^ Colum states: "I have never known anyone with a mind so fundamentally Catholic in structure as Joyce's own, or one on whom the Church, its ceremonies, symbols, and theological declarations had made such an impress".[363]
^Joyce told Stanislaus "The Mass on Good Friday seems to me a very great drama."[365]
^ When a Catholic priest offered to perform a religious service for Joyce's burial, Nora declined, saying, "I couldn't do that to him."[367]
^Svevo writes that "what is fundamental in Joyce can be found entire in [Dubliners]".[382]
^ This structure was not part of the original conception ofUlysses,[392] but by 1921, Joyce was circulating two versions of this structure, known as theLinati schema andGilbert schema.[393]
^Attridge 2013 also critiques interpretingFinnegans Wake as a dream narrative.
^Lyons 2000, p. 306: "The iritis may have been caused by... Reiter's disease. This follows a chlamydial infection; This may have been acquired during a carousal... on his return to Trieste from Rome."
^Joyce 1966b, p. 102: Letter from Stanislaus Joyce, 7 August 1924;Pound 1967, p. 228: Letter to James Joyce, 15 November 1926;Ellmann 1982, p. 590: Letter from Weaver, 4 February 1927
^Gibson 2006, pp. 164–165;Nolan 1995, p. 143: "The Irish Civil War also forms an integral component of the fraternal antagonism between the sons of the Wakean family."
^Lernout 2010, p. 210: "To the dismay of Joyce and other intellectuals, the Irish Free State of 1922 adopted the catholic culture that had already been dominant in the powerful coalition between the bishops and the nationalist party."
^Ellmann 1982b, §7: "His most adroit manoeuvre is taking over its [The Catholic Church's] vocabulary for his own secular purposes.";Hibbert 2011, p. 198;Lang 1993, p. 15.
^Benstock 1961, p. 417;Ellmann 1982b, §3: "Joyce wrote to Nora. 'Now I make open war upon it [The Catholic Church] by what I write and say and do.' His actions accorded with this policy.";Lernout 2010, p. 6.
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Doyle, Paul A. (1965). "Joyce's Miscellaneous Verse".James Joyce Quarterly.2 (2):90–96.JSTOR25486486.
Ellmann, Richard (1950). "Joyce and Yeats".Kenyon Review.12 (1):618–638.JSTOR4333187.
Ellmann, Richard (1958). "The Backgrounds of 'The Dead'".The Kenyon Review.20 (4):507–528.JSTOR4333899.
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Fahy, Catherine (1993). "The James Joyce/Paul Léon Papers in the National Library of Ireland: Observations on their cataloguing and research potential".Joyce Studies Annual.4 (4):3–15.JSTOR26283682.
Fludernik, Monika (1986). ""Ulysses" and Joyce's change of artistic aims: external and internal evidence".James Joyce Quarterly.23 (2):173–186.JSTOR25476719.
Froula, Christine (1990). "History's nightmare, fiction's dream: Joyce and the psychohistory ofUlysses".Papers from the Joyce and History Conference at Yale, October 1990, Pp. 857–872.28 (4):857–872.JSTOR25485215.
Gabler, Hans Walter (1974). "Toward a critical text of James Joyce'sPortrait of the Artist as a Young Man".Studies in Bibliography.27:1–53.JSTOR40371587.
Gerber, Richard J. (2010). ""James Joyce: A Concert of Music" by George Antheil, Othmar Schoeck, Mátyás Gyorgy Seiber, performed by the American Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Leon Botstein, with Collegiate Chorale Singers".James Joyce Quarterly.47 (3):478–484.doi:10.1353/jjq.2011.0016.JSTOR23048756.S2CID162186078.
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del Greco Lobner, Corinna (1985). "James Joyce and Italian Futurism".Irish University Review.15 (1):73–92.JSTOR25477575.
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Martin, Timothy; Bauerle, Ruth (1990). "The voice from the prompt vox: Otto Luening remembers James Joyce in Zurich".Journal of Modern Literature.17 (1):34–48.JSTOR3831401.
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McCourt, John (1999b). "James Joyce: Triestine Futurist?".James Joyce Quarterly.36 (2):85–105.JSTOR25473995.
Medina Casado, Carmelo (2000). "Sifting through Censorship: The British Home OfficeUlysses Files (1922–1936)".James Joyce Quarterly.37 (3/4):479–508.JSTOR25477754.
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Nadel, Ira B. (1989). "Joyce and Expressionism".Journal of Modern Literature.16 (1):141–160.JSTOR3831378.
Nadel, Ira B. (1990). "Anthologizing Joyce: the example of T. S. Eliot".James Joyce Quarterly.27 (3):509–515.JSTOR25485058.
Nadel, Ira B. (1991). "The incomplete joyce".Joyce Studies Annual.2:86–100.JSTOR26283639.
Nadel, Ira B. (2008). "Travesties: Tom Stoppard's Joyce and other Dadaist fantasies, or history in a hat".James Joyce Quarterly.45 (3/4):481–492.doi:10.1353/jjq.0.0086.JSTOR30244390.S2CID161243903.
Staley, Thomas F. (1964). "The Search for Leopold Bloom: James Joyce and Italo Svevo".James Joyce Quarterly.1 (4):59–63.JSTOR25486462.
Stanzel, Frank K. (2001). "Austria's Surveillance of Joyce in Pola, Trieste, and Zurich".James Joyce Quarterly.38 (3/4):361–371.JSTOR25477813.
Sultan, Stanley (2000). "Joyceday".Joyce Studies Annual.11:27–48.JSTOR26285213.
Thompson, William Irwin (1964). "The language ofFinnegans Wake".Sewanee Review.72 (1):78–90.JSTOR27540957.
Walkiewicz, E. P. (1982). "Joyce/Pound: Dublin '82".Paideuma: Modern and Contemporary Poetry and Poetics.11 (3):511–517.JSTOR24725366.
Walzl, Florence L. (1977). "The life chronology ofDubliners".James Joyce Quarterly.14 (4):408–415.JSTOR25476081.
Weir, David (2000). "What did he know and when did he know it: TheLittle Review,, Joyce, andUlysses".James Joyce Quarterly.37 (3/4):389–412.JSTOR25477749.
Weisenfarth, Joseph (1991). "Fargobawlers: James Joyce and Ford Madox Ford".James Joyce Quarterly.14 (2):95–116.JSTOR23539891.
Witemeyer, Hugh (1995). ""He gave the name": Herbert Gorman's rectifications ofJames Joyce: His First Forty Years".James Joyce Quarterly.32 (3/4):523–532.JSTOR25473660.
Wykes, David (1968). "TheOdyssey inUlysses".Texas Studies in Literature and Language.10 (2):301–316.JSTOR40753991.
Zanotti, Serenella (2001). "An Italianate Irishman: Joyce and the Languages of Trieste".James Joyce Quarterly.38 (3/4):411–430.JSTOR25477816.
Francini Bruni, Alessandro (1979) [1947]."Recollections of Joyce". In Potts, Willard (ed.).Portraits of the Artist in Exile: Recollections of James Joyce by Europeans. University of Washington Press. pp. 39–46.ISBN0-295-95614-3.OCLC1256510754.
Gogarty, Oliver St. John (1990) [1948]. "James Joyce: A Portrait of the Artist". In Mikhail, E. H. (ed.).James Joyce: Interviews and Recollections. Palgrave MacMillian. pp. 21–31.ISBN978-1-349-09422-6.OCLC1004381330.
Gorman, Herbert Sherman (1948) [1939].James Joyce. Rinehart.OCLC1035888158. Gorman's biography was substantially edited by Joyce; see Nadel, 1991 and Witemeyer, 1995 cited above.
Joyce, James (1901)."The Day of the Rabblement".Two essays: "A Forgotten Aspect of the University Question" by F. J. C. Skeffington and "The Day of the Rabblement by James A. Joyce. Gerrard Brothers.OCLC1158075403.
Joyce Schaurek, Eileen (1990) [1963]. "Pappy never spoke of Jim's books". In Mikhail, E. H. (ed.).James Joyce: Interviews and Recollections. Palgrave MacMillian. pp. 60–68.ISBN978-1-349-09422-6.OCLC1004381330.
Joyce, James (1965) [1904]."A Portrait of the Artist". In Scholes, Robert; Kain, Richard M. (eds.).The Workshop of Daedalus: James Joyce and the Raw Materials forA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.OCLC763117800.
James Joyce Checklist (a database of citations and links to publications relevant to Joyce in any language and in any medium, from the early twentieth century to the present)
James Joyce Calendar (a database of published, unpublished, and ungathered correspondence by James Joyce)
Joyce Tools (a collection of high-resolution historical maps of Dublin, digitised directories, tram guides, Joyce-related publications, and reference tools)
James Joyce Correspondence (a digital edition of the previously unpublished letters, postcards, telegrams, and notes written by Joyce or by others at his dictation or direction. Provides transcriptions and translations of Joyce’s correspondence incrementally)
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