Jamaican cuisine includes a mixture of cooking techniques, flavours and spices influenced byAmerindian,West African,Irish,English,French,Portuguese,Spanish,Indian,Chinese andMiddle Eastern people who have inhabited the island.[1][2] It is also influenced by indigenous crops, as well as crops and livestock introduced to the island fromMesoamerica,Europe, tropicalWest Africa andSoutheast Asia[3][4]— which are now grown locally. A wide variety ofseafood,tropical fruits andmeats are available.
Some Jamaican dishes are variations of cuisines brought to the island from elsewhere, which are often modified to incorporate local produce and spices. Many others are novel orCreole dishes, created from afusion of dishes, techniques and ingredients from different cultures— which have developed locally over time. Popular Jamaican dishes includecurry goat, frieddumplings, brown stew (oxtail),ackee and saltfish andjerk.[1][5]Jamaican patties along with various pastries, breads and beverages are also popular.[1][5]
Jamaican cuisine has spread with migration, between the mid-17th and 20th centuries. Contingents of Jamaican merchants and labourers, who settled in coastalLatin America,[6][7][8] to establish businesses, and work in agriculture and the construction of railroads, ports and thePanama Canal,[9] contributed Jamaican dishes to the region.[10][11][12][13] Also, Jamaicans who have sought economic opportunities in other parts of the world,[14][15][16] have spread their culture and culinary practices.
The indigenous inhabitants ofJamaica, theTaínos, developed dishes such asjerk meats,[2]roasted fish,bammy,[2]cassava bread andpepperpot (made withcallaloo andscotch bonnet pepper).[2] Taíno influence can also be found in dishes like turned cornmeal,duckunoo,[17] Jamaicanhominy corn porridge and Saturday beef soup. They are believed to have kept a stock pot in which meat, fish and vegetables were collected for soup.[18] The Taínos also made intoxicating drinks from cassava and maize,[18] as well as, a tree-bark based drink known for its health benefits, calledmauby, which was also made with mâ'bi, theArawak word for sweet potato.[19]
Many native crops and local staples, like peppers (scotch bonnet,cayenne and other cultivars)[20] andbeans (likekidney beans) were taken to Jamaica incanoes from Mesoamerica— along withcorn,sweet potato,cashew,cacao andcassava.[21][22] They also cultivatedchayote (cho cho),kenep (guinep),mammee apple,coco,squash,pumpkin,yam,peanut,guava,potato,pineapple,starapple,papaya,soursop,naseberry,custard apple,sweet sop and other native crops.[21][23] According to historian,James Delbourgo, the brewing ofcocoa beans which led to the recipe forchocolate milk and traditional Jamaicanchocolate tea, was being done by the Taínos, as far back as 1494.[24] He also mentioned the Spanish and Africans' use of cacao on the island.
Cooking techniques likejerking,grilling,roasting,smoking andbarbecuing, as well as, the use ofearth ovens,charcoal,pimentowood, plantain orbanana leaves andcorn husks to cook, can be traced back to them.[2][18] Food colouring withannatto was inherited from the Taínos,[25] as well as, tools which were used to grind cocoa beans, corn, and cassava for flour and bammy the traditional way— these include stone and woodenmortars,pestles, grinders andgraters calledmetate,mano and guaio/guayo,[26] a long funnel-shaped basket called a matapi (for extracting cassava juice),[26] and a flatearthenware griddle (burén) used for baking cassava breads.[26]
TheSpanish, the first European arrivals to Jamaica, contributed many dishes and introduced a variety of crops and ingredients to the island— such asAsian rice,sugar cane,citrus like sweetorange,sour orange (Seville and Valencia), lime andlemon,tamarind, cacao,coconut,tomato,avocado,banana,grape,pomegranate,plantain,lettuce,carrot,fig and many other fruits and vegetables.[3][4] They also broughtcattle,goat,pig and otherlivestock that are eaten on the island,[4][18] as well as,rum,[27] herbs and spices such asrosemary,thyme,garlic,onion,oregano,ginger and others.[3][4]
Many beans and pea dishes,stews,fish andrice dishes that are Jamaican staples, originated inSpain.[18] Spanish culinary contributions include the vinegaryescovitch/escoveitch fish (Spanishescabeche),[18] Creole dishes likerice and peas, JamaicanSpanish rice,stews like brown stew meats (chicken, pork, cow foot, oxtail etc.),stew peas andred peas soup withcured meats,[18] as well as, the soaking of fruits in wine for desserts like Jamaicanwedding andChristmas cakes.[18]Spanish and Portuguese Jews[28][29][30]who had escaped theinquisition in the 1500s, also introduced coconutmacaroons,gizzada,steamed andfried fish, and saltedcodfish which is used in breakfast dishes and Jamaica'snational dish—ackee and saltfish. It has become a staple from the time it was eaten by enslaved Africans as a long-lasting source of affordable protein. TheJamaican patty, apasty orempanada-styledturnover filled with spiced meat may have been influenced by the Spanish andCornish.[18] Sweets like peanut drops/cake,coconut drops, peanutbrittle andgrater cake have Portuguese and Spanish influences, as well as, African and Middle Eastern influences.
Cooking and preservation techniques which includestewing,frying,brining,pickling andcuring meats[2] were also influenced by the Spaniards.[18]
African cuisine developed on the island as a result of waves ofslavery andindentureship, such as callaloo from theAngolan dish calulu,okra andtaro.[18] Along with the Europeans and Indians, Africans contributed to the cultivation ofrice,[31][32]cow peas andpigeon peas (known as 'gungo' locally) in theAmericas,[4][33] which are key ingredients in some local dishes. Their knowledge of cultivating and using crops that were introduced by the Europeans, from Africa and other regions, helped to shape cuisines in the Americas including Jamaica's. African influences can be seen inone-pot dishes like seasoned rice, callaloo rice,ackee and saltfish and turned cornmeal.[18] Dishes prepared withoffals liketripe and bean,cow footstew, cow skin or cow cod soup andmannish water (goat head soup), were also influenced by them.[34] They adopted and added the use of certain spices andground provisions to variations of dishes from other cultures,[18] as well as, Creole dishes that were created on the island during the colonial era. Jamaican sweets such asBustamante backbone or stagga back andasham[35] can be traced back to the Africans, along with the names of foods like "duckunoo"[36] and "gungo".[37]
In the past, tools like the woodenmortar and pestle were used to grind dried and roasted coffee and cocoa beans, as well as, clay pots called 'yabba', were used for mixing cakes or puddings and seasoning or salting meats—both of which have African origins.[2]
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Baked goods likepuddings,rock cake,sponge cakes,fruit cakes,muffins,breads,pies,biscuits andspiced bun were influenced bythe British[18]— who ruled the island until its independence, as well as,indentured labourers fromEngland,Scotland andIreland[38] who arrived on the island after theabolition of slavery to replaceslaves. As such, JamaicanEasterbun andcheese,[18] jams, other sweet treats likeconfectioneries andgelatin desserts,[39] teas,macaroni and cheese,[40] and some colonial era Creole dishes have British influences.Sunday roast variations which includepot roast meats, potato and vegetables,[41] as well as, breakfast dishes which includebaked beans (adopted fromNative Americans by the British),[42] are made in Jamaica. British influences can be seen in the way Jamaicans prepare dinners for holidays and Sundays.Irish moss andporridges were influenced by the Irish and Scottish respectively.[18][43]Also,deep frying, a cooking technique used to prepare dishes like Jamaicanfried chicken, frieddumpling andfestival may have been influenced by the Scots,[44] along with the Spanish and Portuguese.
Staple crops likebreadfruit,Otaheite apple, variousmangoes,rose apple,coffee, rice (Gold Seede),[31]ackee andblack pepper were introduced to the island by the British.[18] They also contributed to thedistillation of rum,[27] which they exported and traded along withmolasses for flour, pork and pickled fish.[18] Additionally, the introduction and development ofbeers likestout,porter andale can be traced back to the British.[45][46][47] Their influence can be found in Jamaica'stoffee-like sweet, Bustamante backbone.
Due to the migration of British settlers, enslaved andemancipatedAfro-Jamaicans andCreole Jamaicans to coastalCentral America, between the 17th and 20th centuries,[6][7][8][9][48][49] Jamaican dishes some of which were influenced by the British, have been contributed toBelize and the Caribbean coast ofCosta Rica,Nicaragua,Panama,Honduras,Guatemala andSan Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.
During the period ofindentureship other labourers migrated to Jamaica fromIndia,[50][51]China,[52]Germany[53] andthe Azores inPortugal.[54] Consequently,East Indian influences can be found in Jamaican cuisine likeroti,[2]lentil dishes likedhal, callaloo, and a variety ofginger andcurried dishes.[18][50][51] The Indians broughtcurry andturmeric to Jamaica,[55]which have been modified to create Jamaican curry powder, a key ingredient in dishes such ascurried goat/mutton, chicken and seafood (shrimp,lobster,crab, fish andconch). Indian influences can also be found ineggplant dishes,[56][55]pelau,pickled unripe mango (with salt and pepper), roasted saltfishchoka,takari dishes (with potato, mango and pumpkin),[56][55]pholourie and sweets which have been modified likegulgula andkhurma. Along with spices, they broughtjackfruit, plums, tamarind,banyan,neem andbilimbi (also called 'kamranga' locally)[51][56][55]— which is pickled and served as arelish. While Indian influences are present in some Jamaican Creole or fusion dishes, and vegetarian dishes inital cuisine (prepared by JamaicanRastafarians), some of the aforementioned (like the sweets and relish) and the cooking of unripe jackfruit andbamboo shoots (which have become popular vegetarian dishes internationally), are not widely prepared by all locals. Also, Indian restaurants are operated on the island by more recent Indian migrants (notIndo-Jamaicans), which offer flavours from India that differ from Indo-Jamaican cuisine.[57]
A flat iron griddle calledtawah, which is used to make flatbreads, was adopted from the Indians.[2][18] Thekarahi pot, also used byChinese Jamaicans, originated in India.[18] The Indians were the first to manage growing rice in Jamaica, establishing the island's first successful rice mill in the 1890s,[50] and they dominated the island's vegetable production until well into the 1940s.[50]
Chinese labourers, mostlyHakka,[52][58] who arrived during indentureship also contributed to Jamaican cuisine. Chinese (especiallyCantonese) influences can be found in dishes withpak choy,mushroom andmustard.[18][59] Upon arrival many of the original ingredients used in China were not available, and they were imported later, so the Chinese had to improvise and adapt in order to recreate their dishes[59]— as such, Jamaican Chinese food emerged. In the 1940s, Jamaican tamarind was substituted for Chinese sour plums, key ingredients in the preparation of a popular Chinese duck dish.[59] Their most notable culinary contributions arehard dough bread[60] and the use ofsoy sauce, ginger andescallion on meats,[18][59] particularly in Jamaican brown stew andfricassee dishes. They also influenced other Jamaican fusion dishes, and contributedstir-fry,chow mein,chop suey,fried rice,sweet and sour meats/seafood,pineapple chicken and others[18]— which can be found on the menus of non-Chinese local restaurants. In Jamaica, many Chinese restaurants have their own variations of Chinese dishes, modified with a local twist,[59] like "Jamaicanized" fried rice with saltfish. Commonly prepared local Chinese dishes include Jamaican malah chicken, pork with muknee or hamchoy, hot pepper chicken (pork, beef and shrimp), Chinesefive-spiceroast meats, sui/suey mein,lo mein, "2 or 3 meat choy fan" (which includes a combination of dishes), Chinese-style curry chicken, meats cooked inblack bean sauce,[18] shrimp, chicken or beef broccoli and others. They have also contributed condiments likeoyster sauce,hoisin sauce, sweet and sour sauce,[59]satay sauce and scotch bonnet-infused soy sauce, sesame oil[59] and variousnoodles.[18] Jamaicantwist donut (a variation ofmahua) andmoon cake are of Chinese origin.[61][62]
A cast iron pot called 'Chinese karahi' (a Cantonese-stylewok) was also introduced by the Chinese,[2] along with the pow wok and technique of stir-frying.[59]Chinese Jamaican families who owned most of the island's bakeries, also perfected making Jamaican patties, which they commercialized locally in the 1960s and 70s[63][64]— contributing to the dish's popularity and demand.
The French, possibly those who fled fromHaiti[65] during different periods, orFrench Jews[66][67] who went to Jamaica during the inquisition, along with the Spanish, may have influenced dishes like Jamaicanfricassee[68] chicken,lobster thermidor,[69]casseroles andpelau made with chicken or shrimp. French and English influences can be found in the use ofbouillon or stock cubes, and Jamaican smokedherringpâté calledSolomon Gundy. Many Jamaicangourmet dishes, desserts and pastries liketarts,gâteaux andmacarons, were adopted from the French.[70][71] Local variations of French dishes likecrêpe,bisque andfries[71] are prepared in Jamaica, often incorporating local ingredients.A variety of French cooking techniques[71][72] have also been adopted by Jamaicans— including cutting techniques such asbatonnet andjulienne used for vegetables in escoveitch and stir-fry dishes, as well as, rondelle.[72][73]Bouquet garni (made with escallion, thyme and other herbs) is used in local stews and soups, andbéchamel sauce orroux are used in macaroni and cheese, stews and sauces.[72][74] Other French cooking techniques which have been adopted includesautéing,blanching,braising,rotisserie andflambéing with rum. A traditional cooking tool used for Jamaican beef and pork pot roasts, called a 'Jesta pot' (Digester pot)[2] is of French origin.[75]
Jamaica Blue Mountain coffee and the introduction ofcoffea arabica to Jamaica can be traced back to one of three coffee plants sent toMartinique byKing Louis XV ofFrance— gifted to theGovernor of Jamaica from theGovernor of Martinique, in the 1700s.[76][77]The French who fled to Jamaica during theHaitian Revolution, partly helped with the rapid expansion of the local coffee industry— French masters and their slaves brought their experience and expertise in coffee production.[77]
During the 17th century,Dutch traders settled in Jamaica and they brought sugarcane fromBrazil.[78] Also, before and during theHolocaust,Dutch Jews andPolish Jews sought refuge on the island.[29][79]Between the late 1700s and 20th century,German Jews,[29][79] Jews fromCuracao,Brazil,British Guiana andSuriname also settled in Jamaica.[30] As such, influences from other Europeans can be found in Jamaican cuisine. Jamaica's must-have cooking tool, theDutch pot or Dutchie, was imported from theNetherlands by Dutch traders.[2] It is typically used to cook meat, stew, and pot roast dishes, as well as, to bake bammies and puddings.[2][26] Thecoalstove, another important cooking tool used for preparing a wide range of foods like roast breadfruit (especially outdoors), was introduced by Dutch traders during the colonial era.[2] Dishes which have been adopted with Dutch and other European influences includecoleslaw,donuts, coconut rolls,cinnamon rolls,ginger biscuits,Black Forest cake,raisin bread andmarble cakes.
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Middle Eastern contributions to Jamaica's culinary repertoire began whenSyrian,Lebanese andPalestinian people, mostlyChristians and someJews,[29][30][79] fled to Jamaica in the late 19th century, due to religious persecution underOttoman rule.[80][81] Jews from other places such as Egypt also settled on the island.[30][79] Contingents of Syrian and Lebanesemerchants settled in Jamaica and established businesses[29][80]— as such, Middle Eastern influences can be found in some dishes. Variations ofkebabs,wraps,meatballs, pelau, stuffed grape leaf rolls (known as 'mehshi') which are made with cabbage as a substitute,hummus,kibbeh, laban,tabbouleh and Syrian bread have been adopted.[80][82] Though some of these dishes are not widely prepared by all locals, their influences can be seen in some fusion dishes, and Syrian, Lebanese and kosher restaurants can be found across the island. Jamaicanpeanut drops or cake and peanutbrittle have Middle Eastern and other influences.[83]Simmering, a popular cooking style inJewish cuisine[84] is also used for Jamaican stews, and the use of garlic as a primary seasoning is a culinary tradition inherited from the Jews.[29] Local variations ofkosher food with a Jamaican twist can be found in Jamaica, and some kosher dishes have been modified byRastafarians to createital dishes.[28]
JamaicanRastafari have aholisticvegan approach to preparing food, cooking, and eating, and they have introduced a host of uniquevegetarian dishes to Jamaican cuisine.[1][18][85] Rastafari dishes are referred to asital,[1] meaning "natural", derived from the English word "vital".[85] Their diet is based on maintaining a balanced life, good health and longevity by consuming fresh, organic and locally sourced ingredients.[18][85] Popular ital foods include ackee,lentil,tofu,okra andbean andpea dishes, pumpkin rice,callaloo and othervegetables.[85] Some Rastas adhere to apescatarian diet,[18][85] and have adoptedkosher dishes.[28] Modern Rastas are blending globalplant-based trends with ital roots, creating new fusion dishes such as jerk hummus.
A typical Jamaican breakfast may includeackee andsaltfish, seasonedcallaloo, boiledgreen bananas, andfried dumplings.[86]
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Grapenut andrum and raisinice cream are populardesserts. Jamaican ice cream comes in many flavours like,coffee,pistachio,jackfruit,coconut,mango,pineapple,guava,soursop andDragon Stout.
Other popular desserts includebatata pudding,cornmeal pudding,cassava pone,gizzada,grater cake,toto,bananafritters,coconut drops,plantaintarts,guava cheese,banana bread,rum cake,carrot cake,pineapple cake,fruit cake and coconutmacaroons.
Tie-a-leaf orblue drawers is a dish made by combining a starch (usually cornmeal, cassava or sweet potato) with coconut milk, spices likecinnamon andnutmeg, sugar and vanilla, then wrapped and tied in banana leaf before boiling.
Asham is parched corn that is ground and combined with brown sugar.
Jackass corn is a sweet thin biscuit that is made from corn, and is hard to bite.
Tamarind balls are candy made with the sticky flesh of the fruit, rolled with brown sugar into sweet and sour balls. A spicy version containing hot pepper can be made.
Bustamante Backbone, also called Busta, stagga back or buss mi jaw, is atoffee-like candy named after Jamaica's first Prime MinisterAlexander Bustamante. It is made with brown sugar, coconut, ginger andmolasses, and can also include coffee, vanilla and lime juice.
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Jamaican cuisine is available throughoutNorth America, theUnited Kingdom, and other places with a sizeable Jamaican population or descendants,[87][88] such as coastalCentral America[7][8][11] and theCaribbean. Jamaican food can be found in other regions, and popular dishes often appear on the menus of non-Jamaican restaurants.In theUnited States, numerous restaurants are located throughout New York's boroughs,Atlanta,West Palm Beach,Fort Lauderdale, Washington DC,Philadelphia, and other metropolitan areas. In Canada, Jamaican restaurants can be found in the Toronto metropolitan area, as well as Vancouver, Montreal, and Ottawa.
Golden Krust Caribbean Bakery & Grill is a chain of about 120 franchised restaurants found throughout the U.S., which sells Jamaican patties, buns, breads, and other popular Jamaican dishes. They also supply food to several institutions in New York.[89]Juicy Patties, one of Jamaica's first patty companies to be established, has also expanded to other regions.[64][90]
International cuisines have been introduced and blended with Jamaican cuisine,[87][91][70]due to waves of migration from other parts of the world, tourism, the growth of the restaurant and hotel industries, the establishment of businesses (including eateries) by foreigners in Jamaica, and the exposure of locals and the diaspora, particularly Jamaican chefs, to internationalgastronomy and culinary practices.[87][70] As such, other cuisines likeLatin,[92]Japanese,[93]Korean,[94]Thai,[95]Italian,[96]Greek,[97]French,[98]Spanish,Mediterranean[99] andAmerican[100] cuisines can be found in Jamaica.[91] It is common to find fusion restaurants across the island offering blends of Jamaican foods and beverages with dishes from other cuisines.[87][91][70] An array of fusion dishes are created on the island, especially in eateries and hotels, like Jamaican-styletacos,tapas,soul food,pastas,pizzas,calzone (called "pizza patty"),tostadas,paninis, burgers,quesadillas, salads, crêpes,waffles,frittatas, cocktails, desserts and a variety of internationalepicurean dishes.[87][91][70]
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