Jalayirid Sultanate جلایریان | |||||||||||
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| 1335–1432 | |||||||||||
 Fragmentation of the territory of theIlkhanate territory into various polities, including the Jalayirids ( ) | |||||||||||
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| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||
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TheJalayirid Sultanate (Persian:جلایریان) was a dynasty ofJalayir origin, which ruled over modern-dayIraq and westernIran after the breakup of theIlkhanate in the 1330s.[5] It lasted about fifty years, until disrupted byTimur's conquests and the revolts of theQara QoyunluTurkoman. After Timur's death in 1405, there was a brief attempt to re-establish the sultanate in southernIraq andKhuzistan. The Jalayirids were finally eliminated by the Qara Qoyunlu in 1432.[6][7]
The Jalayirids wereMongol andTurkicized andTurkic-speaking. They are credited with bolstering the Turkic presence in Arabic-speaking Iraq so much so that Turkic became the second-most-spoken language after Arabic.[4] The Jalayirids were also culturallyPersianate,[8] and their era marks an important period in the evolution ofPersian art, where it developed important aspects that would serve as the basis of later Persian paintings.[8]
The history of the Sultanate of Jalayirid can be divided into four phases:
During the disintegration years of theIlkhanate after the death ofAbu Sa'id Bahadur Khan in 1335, the family of emir Ilge (Īlgā) Noyan, known as Köke (Kukā, ‘Blue’) Ilge, descendants of the Jalayirid tribe, first emerged as the inheritors of the traditional governors of the southwestern lands of the Ilkhanate. Ilge Noyan had taken over pasturelands along the River Onon inMongolia and produced several military commanders during the Mongol era. According to theJami' al-tawarikh written byRashid-al-Din Hamadani, Ilge, who accompaniedHulegu on his great expedition toWestern Asia in the 1250s, was among the generals who besieged the Assassins' strongholds inQohestan in 1256. Besides, Ilge joined the expedition toBaghdad and was tasked with overseeing the rebuilding of the city after its siege in 1258. Ilge Noyan served Hülegü until the khan's death in 1265. When theAbaka khan came to the throne in 1265 and was identified as a senior emir, Ilge was in charge of the ordos ("royal headquarters"). Ilge was one of the main military leaders in conflicts with theMamluks and Jochids, neighbors and opponents of the Ilkhanate, in Baghdad,Syria,Diyarbakir and theCaucasus.[7][6][12]
Ilge Noyan's sons Agbuga (Āqbuqā), Tughu were also in the service ofAbaga khan. Agbuga, who was promoted to mir-e mirān (commander-in-chief) by Keyhatu khan, was later assassinated byBaydu's supporters in 1295. He became the patron (murabbī) of Sadr al-Din Zanjani, Kaykhatu's grand vizier. Aq buqa was married to Qhazan khan's sister Ūljatāy Sulṭān, but after his death, his son Hussein married his father's wife and took the title of gūrgān (greregen) or royal son-in-law.[5]
Hussein first servedOljaitu and then Abu Sa'id, and took part in the march onGilan in 1317. He was later appointed ruler of Arran in 1313 and died in Khorasan in 1322. After his death, his sonShaykh Hasan ("Hasan Buzurg", "Hasan The Great") became the head of the family. He was both the cousin of Abu Sa'id and the nephew of Amir Choban.[12][7][6]
After defeating his rivals,Hasan Buzurg strengthened his ties with Muhammad Khan (Pir Hussein), who ruledAnatolia at the time. He then proceeded toTabriz where he put Muhammad on the throne and married the granddaughter of Chupan and the wife of Abu Sa'id,Dilshad Khatun. Shaykh Ḥasan was the ‘biklārī bik [beglerbeg], or amīr al-umarā’’.[6][13]
For a short time in 1337–1338, Hasan Buzurg-un's authority was recognized in all parts of the Ilkhanate Empire except Khorasan, but after being expelled by Ḥasan-e Kucak and his brotherMalek Ašraf in 1338–1339, he was forced to evacuate Azerbaijan and his power only held in Iraq. Hasan Buzurg died in July 1356 and was buried inNajaf. He was succeeded by his son,Shaikh Uways Jalayir.[14][15][16]
According to historian Patrick Wing, while the Jalayirid sultans sought to preserve the social and political order of the Ilkhanate, they claimed to be the legitimate heirs of the rule of this order. At the center of the claims of the Jalayirid regarding the Ilkhanid heritage was their attempt to control Azerbaijan, the main center of the Ilkhanate. This province represented the symbolic heritage and material wealth of the Ilkhanate and became the focus of the Jalayirid political program.[7]
Shortly after Shaykh Uways Jalayir succeeded his father, the Chobanids (old rivals of the Jalayrids) were overrun by the forces of theGolden Horde underJani Beg in 1357. The Chobanid rulerMalek Asraf was executed andAzerbaijan was conquered by the Jalayrids.
Following Jani Beg's withdrawal from Azerbaijan, as well as his sonBerdi Beg’s similar abandonment of the region in 1358, the area became a prime target for its neighbors.Shaykh Uways Jalayir, who at first had recognized the sovereignty of the Blue Horde, decided to take the former Chobanid lands for himself, even as a former amir of Malek Asraf’s named Akhichuq attempted to keep the region in Mongol hands. Despite a campaign that ended prematurely, as well as the brief conquest of Azerbaijan by theMuzaffarids, Uvais conquered the area in 1360. In addition to Baghdad, he could now boast Tabriz as a large city under his control.[17][5][6][7]
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In 1364, Shaykh Uways Jalayir campaigned against the Shirvan Shah Kai-Ka’us, but a revolt begun by the governor of Baghdad, Khwaja Mirjan, forced him to return to reassert his authority. In 1366, Shaykh Uways Jalayir marched against theKara Koyunlu, defeating their leader,Bairam Khwaja, at the battle of Mush. Later, he defeated the Shirvanshah, who had attacked Tabriz twice in the meantime. According to Zayn al- Dīn Qazvīnī and Ḥāfiẓ Abrū, Kā’ūs readily overpowered all of Shirvan and Darband forShaykh Uways Jalayir, and remained a faithful servant as long as he lived. After the death of Kā’ūs, Shaykh Uways Jalayir confirmed his son, Hūshang, as the successor ofShirvanshahs.[7]
Due to his campaigns, Shaykh Uways Jalayir spent much time in Iran, and he died in Tabriz in 1374. During his lifetime, the Jalayirid state reached its peak in power. In addition to his military adventures, which were considerable, he was known for his attempts to revive commercial enterprise, which had suffered heavily in the past years, in the region, as well as his patronage to the arts. His chronicler, Abu Bakr al-Qutbi al Ahri, wrote of Shaykh Uways Jalayir’ deeds in theTarikh-i Shaikh Uvais. Shaykh Uways Jalayir was succeeded by his sonShaikh Hasan Jalayir. He appointed his son Hassan as his successor in Baghdad. After his death the power of the dynasty began to disappear sharply.[18][19][5]
In 1376, Shaikh Hussain Jalayir took up residence in Tabriz. In the following spring, he undertook a successful campaign against the Kara Koyunlu underBayram Khwaja, who had been raiding from the west.Shaikh Hussain Jalayir lost his supporters because of the external enemies and conflicts within the amirs. His brother SultanAhmad Jalayir came to power as a result of a plot against him. Ahmad's other brothers, Shaikh 'Ali andBayazid opposed him. To secure his position, Ahmad requested the assistance of theKara Koyunlu. Shaikh 'Ali fell in battle against theKara Koyunlu.[7]
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In the spring of 1384, theChagatai amirTimur attacked the Jalayirids and Azerbaijan. Although Sultan Ahmad was not captured, his subordinates inSoltaniyeh failed to defend the town and Timur took it with a minimum of resistance.[20]
In the midst of Timur's absence, Sultan Ahmad had to deal with an invasion byTokhtamysh, Khan of theGolden Horde in 1385.[20]
Timur completed his Indian campaign and returned to Azerbaijan in 1396. Kara Koyunlu ruler Kara Yusuf, who retreated to Mosul to avoid a sudden raid, was able to take shelter in the Ottomans in 1400.[21]
The hosting ofYildirim Bayezid toKara Yusuf was one of the main reasonsTimur launched a campaign against theOttomans. He was able to reachDamascus by escaping into the desert. Kara Yusuf was welcomed by Sheikh Mahmud, the nâib of Damascus. Not long after, Jalairid Sultan Ahmed also came to Damascus. Not wanting to worsen relations with Amir Teymur, Nasir-ad-Din Faraj agreed to capture Gara Yusif and Sultan Ahmed Jalairi, and hand them over to Teymur. Sultan Ahmed Jalayir and Kara Yusuf imprisoned on the order ofNasir-ad-Din Faraj. Together in prison, the two leaders renewed their friendship, making an agreement that Sultan Ahmed Jalayir should keep Baghdad whileQara Yusuf would have Azerbaijan. Ahmad also adopted his son Pirbudag. When Timur died in 1405 Nasir-ad-Din Faraj released them both. However, according to Faruk Sümer, they were released on the orders of rebellious wali of Damascus – Sheykh Mahmud.[22][20]
In 1409 fall, Qara Yusuf entered Tabriz and sent a raiding party toShirvan, especiallyShaki, which was fruitless.Kara Koyunlu defeated Jalayirds in 1432, bringing an end to the dynasty.[23][12][7][6]
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The Jalayirid administration was modeled after Ilkhanate protocols, with documents in Persian and Mongolian.[3] Its diplomatic correspondence also resembled the Ilkhanate's, using a red ink square seal with Islamic phrases in Arabic.[3]
| Title/Name[25] | Personal name | Reign |
|---|---|---|
| Taj-ud-Din تاج الدین | Hasan Buzurg | 1336–1356 |
| Mu'izz-ud-duniya wa al-Din معز الدنیا والدین Bahadur Khan بهادرخان | Shaikh Awais Jalayir | 1356–1374 |
| Jalal-ud-Din جلال الدین | Shaikh Hasan Jalayir | 1374 |
| Ghiyas-ud-Din غیاث الدین | Shaikh Hussain Jalayir | 1374–1382 |
| Shaikh Bayazid Jalayir Ruler ofIraq-i 'Ajam atSoltaniyeh and contender for the throne | 1382–1384 | |
| Sultan سلطان | Sultan Ahmed Jalayir Ruler ofIraq-i 'Arab atBaghdad and contender for the throne | 1382–1410 |
| Shah Walad Jalayir son ofShaikh Ali Jalayir | 1410–1411 | |
| Tandu Khatun | 1411–1419[26] | |
| Sultan سلطان | Mahmud bin Shah Walad Jalayir under tutelage ofTandu Khatun | 1411 (1st reign) |
| Sultan سلطان | Awais bin Shah Walad Jalayir | 1411–1421 |
| Sultan سلطان | Muhammad bin Shah Walad Jalayir | 1421 |
| Sultan سلطان | Mahmud bin Shah Walad Jalayir | 1421–1425 (2nd reign) |
| Hussain bin Ala-ud-Daulah bin Sultan Ahmed Jalayir | 1425–1432 |
| Jalayirid Dynasty | |
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