Jainism (/ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm,ˈdʒaɪnɪzəm/JAY-niz-əm,JEYE-niz-əm),[1] also known asJain Dharma,[2] is anIndian religion which teaches a path toward spiritual purity and enlightenment through disciplined non-violence (ahimsa) to all living creatures. The tradition is spiritually guided by twenty-fourtirthankaras (ford-makers), supreme teachers who have conquered the cycle of rebirth and attained omniscience (kevala jnana). The core ofJain philosophy is established on three ethical pillars:ahiṃsā (nonviolence),anekāntavāda (non-absolutism or many-sided reality), andaparigraha (non-possession). While its ultimate spiritual goal ismoksha (liberation fromkarma), these ethical principles have historically fostered a community renowned for its high literacy, trusted role in commerce, and distinct intellectual culture.
Jain philosophy distinguishes itself through the doctrine ofanekāntavāda, which asserts that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects; thus, no single viewpoint can claim absolute truth. This framework encourages intellectual humility and conflict resolution, contrasting with the "one-sided" (ekānta) views rejected by the tradition. Ethically, the vow ofaparigraha (non-attachment) requiresmonks to renounce all property, while encouraging laypersons to limit their possessions and voluntarily limit their desires (iccha-parimana). Historically, the application of non-violence drove theJain community away from agriculture and warfare toward trade and banking, where they became a dominant mercantile force in ancient and medieval India, supporting a vast network oftemples, libraries, and charitable institutions.
Jainism has between four and five million followers, known asJains orJainas, residing mostly inIndia, with significant diaspora communities inNorth America,Europe, andEast Asia. The community is divided into two major sub-traditions, theDigambaras ("sky-clad") andŚvētāmbaras ("white-clad"), which differ on ascetic practices, gender, and canonical texts, though they share the same core philosophy. Despite their small numbers, Jains have exerted a disproportionate influence onIndian culture, contributing significantly to the development of logic, art, architecture, and the legal and ethical frameworks of modern India. Major festivals includeParyushana ordas lakshana,Akshaya Tritiya,Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, andDiwali.
Etymology
The nameJainism comes fromji (Sanskrit), "to conquer," referring to the battle against the passions and bodily desires, aiming to reach omniscience. Those few who accomplish this are calledjina, "conqueror." Adherents are calledjain orjaina, "follower of the conquerors," a term which replaced the older namenirgrantha, bondless, which was only used for ascetic wanderers.[5]
Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", a word derived from the Sanskrit verbal rootji, which means to conquer. In the Jain context, monks have to conquer their senses and karma for liberation. Those who have succeeded arejinas (victors), which means an omniscient person who teaches the path of salvation, and their followers are Jains.[6][7][8]
Its salvational goal for ascetics is to reachmoksha (liberation), while for most Jain laypersons it is to accumulate goodkarma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.[9][10] Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the three jewels (ratnatraya):[11][12]samyak darśana, right vision or faith in the Jain teachings[13] or scriptures,[14] more specifically the seven tattvas;[15][16][a]samyak gyana, right knowledge and understanding of the Jain teachings,[14][18] more specifically of self (jiva) and non-self (ajiva);[15] andsamyak charitra, correct conduct, behavior consistent with these teachinngs and the five vows.[14][19] Jain texts often addsamyak tapas (correct asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation (moksha).[18] The four jewels are calledMoksha Marga (the path of liberation).[11]
The core of Jainism is also summarized in the three tenets ofahiṃsā (nonviolence),aparigraha (asceticism), andanekāntavāda, a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality.
Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are calledanuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, andmahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants.[20] For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to aguru (teacher, counsellor),deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors.[21] Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism:
Ahiṃsā, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury":[21] The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals).[21] This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.[22][23][24]
Satya, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.[20][22][25]
Asteya, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.[21][26] Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.[27][28]
Brahmacharya, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.[20][22][29]
Aparigraha, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed.[20] Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.[30][31][32]
Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including threeguņa vratas (merit vows) and fourśikşā vratas.[33][34] TheSallekhana (orSanthara) vow is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age.[35] In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion,[36][37] This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.[38]
The principle ofahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.[39] It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.[39] In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty.[39][40] Jain texts such asĀcārāṅga Sūtra andTattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable.[41][42] Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.[40][41]
Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.[41][42] It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".[42][b]
Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.[42]
The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism.[39][44][45][46][47] The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths.[48] Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates badkarma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.[49][50]
Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined theAhiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns.[51][52] According toDundas, the Jain scholarJinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".[53]
However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.[51][c]
The third main principle in Jainism isaparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions.[30] For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions.[55] The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in theŚvētāmbara tradition.[55] For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity.[30] According to Natubhai Shah,aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.[56]
Jain metaphysics explains the nature of the universe and its interaction with the soul (jiva).[57] It posits that the soul is an eternal entity that is separate from the body and the physical world.[57] Their interaction is what defines the cycle of rebirth (Saṃsāra).[57]
According to Jain beliefs, vibrational energy (virya) drawskarmic particles to the soul and creates bondages.[58] Purification of soul from karmic particles and thereby liberation can be achieved throughratnatraya, the path of the three jewels,[11][12] namelysamyak darśana, correct faith in the Jain teachings;samyak gyana, correct knowledge and understanding of those teachings; andsamyak charitra, correct conduct, behavior consistent with the five vows.[19][d]
Jainism, like other Indian religions, believes inkarma, but with a unique and fundamental difference. It is the only tradition that conceives ofkarma as a physical, material substance — subtle, invisible particles of matter (pudgala) that exist in the universe.[58] These particles are drawn to the soul (jiva) by its actions, thoughts, and words.[59]
This "karmic dirt" then sticks to the soul, obscuring its innate, pure qualities of consciousness and bliss.[60][61] This bondage ofkarma is the cause of the soul's entrapment inSaṃsāra and its repeated cycles of birth and death.[62]
Thetattvas are the seven (or nine) fundamental truths that form the basis of the entire Jain path. They describe the step-by-step process ofkarmic bondage and liberation:[63][64]
Saṃsāra is the doctrine of the worldly cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, through which the soul transmigrates based on itskarma.[68] This cycle is considered the natural state of existence, but it is also one of suffering, and the ultimate aim of Jainism is liberation (Moksha) from it.[69][70]
According to Jain tradition, souls can be reborn in one of four states of existence (gatis): as heavenly beings, humans, animals/plants, or hellish beings.[71] Jain theosophy also describes a vast number of potential birth-situations, traditionally 8.4 million, through which the unliberated soul cycles.[71][72] Jain philosophy also uniquely posits the existence ofabhavya (incapable) souls, a category of souls that are eternally trapped inSaṃsāra and can never attain liberation.[73][74]
Jain cosmology views the universe as an uncreated, eternal, and self-sustaining entity.[75] It was never created by a god and will never be destroyed.[75]
This universe is composed of six eternal substances known asdravya:
Kāla (time) is itself conceived as a boundless, eternal wheel (kālachakra) that rotates ceaselessly.[80] It is divided into two half-cycles: an ascending arc (utsarpiṇī) of progressive happiness and virtue, and a descending arc (avasarpiṇī) of progressive sorrow and decline.[81][80][6][82][83][84][85]
Rebirthloka (realms of existence) in Jain cosmology[86]
The universe itself is structurally divided into three realms, orlokas: theUrdhva Loka (upper world of heavenly beings), theMadhya Loka (middle world of humans, animals, and plants), and theAdho Loka (lower world of hellish beings).[87] All unliberated souls, including gods and demons, transmigrate through these three realms based on their karma.[87]
Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (pramana). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana), and testimony (sabda or the word of scriptures).[88][89] These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such asTattvarthasūtra,Parvacanasara,Nandi andAnuyogadvarini.[90][89] Some Jain texts add analogy (upamana) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar toepistemological theories found in other Indian religions.[91]
In Jainism,jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds—mati jñāna (sensory knowledge),śrutu jñāna (scriptural knowledge),avadhi jñāna (clairvoyance),manah prayāya Jñāna (telepathy) andkevala jnana (omniscience).[92] According to the Jain textTattvartha sūtra, the first two are indirect knowledge, and the remaining three are direct knowledge.[93]
The second main principle of Jainism isanekāntavāda,[94][95] fromanekānta ("many-sidedness," etymologically "non-oneness" or "not being one") andvada ("doctrine").[94][95] The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate areNaya, "partial expression of the truth".[94] According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience aresyāt, or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".[96] It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed.[94] It suggests that the great error is belief inekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute.[97] The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as theSamaññaphala Sutta. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt).[98][99] These texts identifyanekāntavāda as a key difference from theBuddha's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality.[100] The permanent being is conceptualized asjiva (soul) andajiva (matter) within a dualisticanekāntavāda framework.[101]
According toPaul Dundas, in contemporary times theanekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings.[102] According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature ofabsolute reality and human existence.[103] He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".[102] The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them.[104] Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.[105]
Concept of God (and Tirthankaras)
Jain miniature painting of 24 tirthankaras,Jaipur,c. 1850
Jainism is atranstheistic religion,[106] holding that theuniverse was not created, and will exist forever.[107] The universe is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer.[57][108] In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands ofHinduism, but similar to Buddhism.[109] However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die, and reborn like earthly beings.[110][111] The souls who live happily in the body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma.[112] It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms.[112] However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals, or other beings.[112][113] The perfect enlightened soulswith a body are calledArihants (victors) and perfect soulswithout a body are calledSiddhas (liberated souls). Only a soul with a human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly, and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves.[114][106][115]
Jainism is an ancientIndian religion of obscure origins.[117][118][119] Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the firsttirthankaraRishabhanatha as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle.[120] It is one of theŚramaṇa traditions of ancient India, those that rejected theVedas,[121][122] and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religionSarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed.[123][124][e]
The first twenty two tirthankaras are not considered by non-Jain scholars ashistorical figures.[126][127] The 23rd Tirthankara,Parshvanatha, was likely a historical being,[128][129] dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE;[130] historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE.[131] Parshvanatha may have founded a proto-Jainascetic community which subsequently got revived and reformed byMahavira.[132][133]
Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth or 5th century BCE.[134][135] The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha;[136] later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them.[137][138] Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines.[139]
The historicity of Jainism is supported by epigraphic and archaeological evidence.[144][145] TheHathigumpha Inscription at theUdayagiri Caves in Odisha, dated to the 2nd century BCE, is a key piece of early evidence.[144][145] This inscription, from KingKharavela ofKalinga, details his patronage of Jain monks.[144][145] It also provides a historical reference by mentioning the retrieval of a Jina idol taken from Kalinga by aNanda dynasty king (c. 4th century BCE).[144][145]
Additionally, excavations atKankali Tila inMathura have provided extensive archaeological evidence of an early Jain center.[146] The site yielded numerous Jain stupas, statues, andayagapatas (votive tablets) dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.[146] These tablets, commissioned by lay followers (śrāvakas), represent early physical evidence of an organizedsangha (community) that included monks, nuns, and laity.[146]
The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions theNiganthas (Jains).[147]Tirthankara statues date back to the second century BCE.[148] Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE. onwards.[149] Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara.[150] There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.[151]
Rishabhdev, believed to have lived over 592.704×1018 years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism.
The Jain community is divided into two majordenominations,Digambara andŚvētāmbara.[152] This schism is ancient and centers on differing monastic disciplines, canonical scriptures, and core doctrines (such as the liberation of women).[152]
TheDigambara (sky-clad) tradition holds that male monks must renounce all possessions, including clothes, to practiceachailakya (nudity).[152] Female monastics, known asAryikas, wear unstitched plain whitesarees.[152]
TheŚvētāmbara (white-clad) tradition holds that monastics, both male and female, may wear simple, seamless white robes (sachailakya).[152]
The Great Schism: Traditional Accounts
TheDigambara tradition places the origin of the schism around the 4th century BCE.[153] According to their account,AcharyaBhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year famine inMagadha and led a migration of monks toKarnataka.[154][155]Sthulabhadra, a pupil, remained behind with other monks.[154][155] The Digambara tradition holds that Sthulabhadra's northern group relaxed the original practice of nudity and began wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the returning monks who had preserved themūla sangha (original community).[154][155] In this view, theDigambaras preserved the originalachailakya (nude) practice of Mahavira, while theSvetambaras adopted a more lax, clothed practice.[154][155]The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the PrakritSuttapahuda ofKundakunda.[156]
TheSvetambara tradition, in texts like theViśeṣāvaśyaka Bhāṣya (5th cent. CE), places the schism much later.[citation needed] Their account states theDigambara sect arose 609 years after Mahavira'snirvana (c. 1st-2nd cent. CE), founded by a monk namedSivabhuti.[citation needed] The narrative states that Sivabhuti, in a "fit of pique," adopted nudity, which his original tradition rejected.[157][page needed][158][page needed][159][page needed][160] Svetambara texts accuse this new sect of "eight concealments," including the rejection of the canonical texts preserved by their tradition and the new doctrine that women could not attain liberation.[161][162][page needed][163] The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known asMandirmargis, andSthānakavasī.[164]
Scholarly Analysis and Solidification
Most modern scholars, such as Padmanabh Jaini and Paul Dundas, conclude that the schism was not a single "event" but a gradual hardening of differences over several centuries.[161] Monastic nudity and the wearing of robes likely co-existed as acceptable monastic options for some time.[161] Archaeological evidence from Mathura, for instance, shows nudetirthankara images from theKushan Empire (c. 1st century CE).[165]
The definitive, formal split is often associated with theCouncil of Vallabhi in the 5th century CE.[166][167] This council was organized by theSvetambara tradition to formally codify their canonical scriptures (theAgamas).[166][167] TheDigambara tradition, which had its own (and different) scriptural canon, did not attend and rejected the authenticity of these texts, solidifying the schism.[166][167][161]
Key Doctrinal and Practical Differences
Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in their practices and dress code,[168][169][170] interpretations of teachings,[169][171] and on Jain history especially concerning thetirthankaras.[172][173][174][175][176] Their monasticism rules differ,[177] as does theiriconography.[177] Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants,[178] where Digambara has mostly had male monks[179] and considers males closest to the soul's liberation.[180][181] The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism[181][182] and state that the 19thTirthankaraMāllīnātha was female,[183] which Digambara rejects.[184] Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.[185]
Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of theKushan Empire (c.1st century CE).[190]Tirthankara represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as theArdhaphalaka (half-clothed) mentioned in texts.[190] TheYapaniyas, believed to have originated from theArdhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.[190] In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a "primarily devotional form of Jainism" have developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" style devotionalism.[191]
Medieval Patronage and Decline
Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism.[192] In the second half of the first century CE,Hindu kings of theRashtrakuta dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples.[193] KingHarshavardhana of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism.[194] The Pallava KingMahendravarman I (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism.[195] His workMattavilasa Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics.[196] TheYadava dynasty built many temples at theEllora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE.[197][198][199] KingĀma of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.[200]Mularaja (10th century CE), the founder of theChalukya dynasty, constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain.[201] During the 11th century,Basava, a minister to the JainKalachuri kingBijjala, converted many Jains to theLingayat Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use.[202] TheHoysala KingVishnuvardhana (c. 1108–1152 CE) became aVaishnavite under the influence ofRamanuja, and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka.[203]
Jainism faced persecution during and after theMuslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler ofDelhi Sultanate remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate.Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi.[205] One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat,Alp Khan permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.[206][207]Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars.[208]
TheMughal emperors in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites underHumayun (1540–1556),Akbar (1556–1605),Jahangir (1605–1627) and evenAurangzeb (1658–1707).[209] Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains.Babur (1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols inGwalior.[210] In 1567, Akbarravaged the fort of Chittor. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor.[211] Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines underJahangir,Shah Jahan and most notably underAurangzeb.[212]
The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.[213]
Shrimad Rajchandra, a mystic, poet and philosopher fromGujarat is believed to have attainedjatismaran gnana (ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions.[216] He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi.[217] Shrimad Rajchandra composedShri Atmasiddhi Shastra, considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours.[218] He expounds on the six fundamental truths of the soul:[219]
Self (soul) exists
It is permanent and eternal
It is the doer of its own actions
It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions
Liberation exists
There is a path to achieve liberation.
Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion.[220][221][222] Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such asChampat Rai Jain defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists.[223] Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious.[224] These criticisms, statesJohn E. Cort, were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity.[225]
The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance. However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks.[226] The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. AcharyaShantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.[226] Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by theBritish Raj and prompted their discontinuance.[227] The laws were abolished by India after independence.[228]
Modern era
The texts attributed toKundakunda inspired two contemporary lay-movements within Jainism with his notion oftwo truths and his emphasis on direct insight intoniścayanaya or ‘ultimate perspective’, also called “supreme” (paramārtha) and “pure” (śuddha).[f]
Shrimad Rajchandra (1867-1901) was aJain poet and mystic who was inspired by works ofKundakunda andDigambara mystical tradition. Nominally belonging to the Digambara tradition,[232] his followers sometimes consider his teaching as a new path of Jainism, neitherŚvetāmbara norDigambara, and revere him as a saint. His path is sometimes referred asRaj Bhakta Marg,Kavipanth, orShrimadiya, which has mostly lay followers as was Rajchandra himself.[233] His teachings influencedKanji Swami,Dada Bhagwan,[191]Rakesh Jhaveri (Shrimad Rajchandra Mission),Saubhagbhai,Lalluji Maharaj (Laghuraj Swami), Atmanandji and several other religious figures.
Kanji Panth is a lay movement founded byKanji Swami (1890-1980).[234] Nominally it belongs to theŚvetāmbara[235] but is inspired by Kundakunda andShrimad Rajchandra (1867-1901), though "lacking a place in any Digambara ascetic lineage descending from Kundakunda."[234] Kanji Swami has many followers in the Jain diaspora.[236] They generally regard themselves simply as Digambara Jains, more popularly known asMumukshu, following the mystical tradition of Kundakunda and Pandit Todarmal.[234]
Bauer notes that "[in] recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas."[237]
TheAkram Vignan Movement established byDada Bhagwan draws inspiration from teachings of Rajchandra and other Jain scriptures, though it is considered as a Jain-Vaishnava Hindusyncretistic movement.[238]
No religion in the World has explained the principle ofAhiṃsā so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle ofAhiṃsā or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority onAhiṃsā.[240]
Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition.[242][243][244] Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reachingsiddha andmoksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation").[242][245][246]
Jain texts likeTattvartha Sūtra andUttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts.[247] Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).[248] Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assistingmendicants, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body.[248] Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition.[249][250] Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify thejiva (soul).[244] According to tradition, thetirthankaras such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years.[251][252][253]
Monastic organization,sangh, has a four-fold order consisting ofsadhu (male ascetics,muni),sadhvi (female ascetics,aryika),śrāvaka (laymen), andśrāvikā (laywomen).[254] The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations calledgacch orsamuday, in autonomous regional Jain congregations.[255][256][257] Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as theDandasan – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.[258][259][260]
In Jainism, six essential duties (avashyakas) are prescribed forśrāvakas (householders).[261][262] The six duties are:[263]
Abhaya-dāna- saving the life of a living being or giving of protection to someone under threat
These duties became fundamental ritual activities of aJain householder. Such as spreading thegrain for thebirds in the morning, andfiltering orboiling the water for the next few hours' use became ritual acts ofcharity andnon-violence.[261]Samayika was used as a word for all spiritual activity including icon worship during medieval times.[261]
The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture beingvegetarian. Devout Jains practicelacto-vegetarianism, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production.Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare.[265] Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoidroot vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.[266][g] Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow ofratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata.[267] Monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day.[267]
Jains fast particularly during festivals.[268] This practice is calledupavasa,tapasya orvrata,[269] and may be practiced according to one's ability.[270] Digambaras fast forDasa-laksana-parvan, eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival,[271] mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period.[271] Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight dayparyusana withsamvatsari-pratikramana.[272] The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit (punya).[268] A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after.[268] Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group.[273] Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.[273]
Jainism considers meditation (dhyana) a necessary practice, but it never has been a central practice.[274] In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions.[274]
According toPadmanabh Jaini,Sāmāyika is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part ofsiksavrata (ritual restraint).[275] The goal ofSāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the secondsiksavrata.[h] Thesamayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such asPuja in a Jain temple and doing charity work.[276][277][278] According to Johnson, as well as Jaini,samayika connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".[279][i]
There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic.[281][282] The ultimate ritual issallekhana, a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks.[281] The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy.[281] The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular.[283][284]
Jains ritually worship numerous deities,[282] especially theJinas. In Jainism aJina asdeva is not anavatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetictirthankara achieved.[285] Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra,Parshvanatha,Neminatha andRishabhanatha.[286] Among the non-tirthankara saints, devotional worship is common forBahubali among the Digambaras.[287] ThePanch Kalyanaka rituals remember the five life events of thetirthankaras, including thePanch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava,Panch Kalyanaka Puja andSnatrapuja.[288][289]
Jain worship may include ritual offerings and recitals.[290]
The basic ritual isdarsana (seeing) ofdeva, which includes Jina,[291] or otheryaksas, gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras,Padmavati,Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (includingSarasvati andLakshmi).[292][293][294] Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras.[295] The worship ritual is calleddevapuja, and is found in all Jain sub-traditions.[296] Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says thenamaskar, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.[296]
Jain practices include performingabhisheka (ceremonial bath) of the images.[297] Some Jain sects employ apujari (also calledupadhye), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple.[298][299] More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras.[300][290]
Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy ofmantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual.[301][302] The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" (panca namaskara) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time.[301][303] Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of theRishi-mandala including thetirthankaras.[304] The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.[305]
The most important annual Jain festival is called theParyushana by Svetambaras andDasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month ofBhadrapada in theIndian calendar. This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar.[306][307] It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras.[306] It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time.[307] Svetambaras recite theKalpasūtras, while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing the slaughter of animals.[306]
Forgiveness
I forgive all living beings, may all living beings forgive me. All in this world are my friends, I have no enemies.
The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known asSamvatsari. Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends.[306] Forgiveness is asked by saying "Micchami Dukkadam" or "Khamat khamna" to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning ofParyushana is "abiding" or "coming together".[309]
Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month ofChaitra in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar.[310][311] The festivities include visiting Jain temples,pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama inBihar, north of Patna, special events are held by Jains.[310]The next day of Dipawali is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment ofmoksha.[312] The Hindu festival ofDiwali is also celebrated on the same date (Kartika Amavasya). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights anddiyas (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning,Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali.[312] Some other festivals celebrated by Jains areAkshaya Tritiya andRaksha Bandhan, similar to those in the Hindu communities.[313][314]
Jain canonical scriptures are calledAgamas. They are believed to have beenverbally transmitted, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts,[316] and to have originated from the sermons of thetirthankaras, whereupon theGanadharas (chief disciples) transmitted them asŚhrut Jnāna (heard knowledge).[317][318] The spoken scriptural language is believed to beArdhamagadhi by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains.[316]
The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures (having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras believe that all were lost,[319][320] and that Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to them, DigambaraĀchāryas recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the fouranuyoga.[321][322][323] The Digambara texts partially agree with older Śvētāmbara texts, but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions.[324] The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups orVedas: history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics.[325][j]
The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, theKalpa Sūtras are particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE). This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition.[327] Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal.[327] Both traditions consider hisNiryuktis andSamhitas important. The earliest surviving Sanskrit text byUmaswati, theTattvarthasūtra is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism.[328][329][k] In the Digambara tradition, the texts attributed toKundakunda are highly revered and have been historically influential,[331][332][333] while the oldest beingKasayapahuda andShatkhandagama attributed to Acharya pushpdanta and Bhutbali. Other important Digambara Jain texts include:Samayasara,Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, andNiyamasara.[334]
The Digambara-texts attributed toKundakunda inspiredShrimad Rajchandra (1867-1901), who in turn influencedKanji Swami (Kanji Path),Dada Bhagwan,[191]Rakesh Jhaveri (Shrimad Rajchandra Mission),Saubhagbhai,Lalluji Maharaj (Laghuraj Swami), Atmanandji and several other religious figures. According to Bauer, "[in] recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas."[237]
Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts depict life legends oftirthankara or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture.Yakshas andyakshinis, attendant spirits who guard thetirthankara, are usually shown with them.[336] The earliest known Jain image is in thePatna museum. It is dated approximately to the third century BCE.[336] Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the second century BCE.[337]
Ayagapata is a type ofvotive tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as thestupa,dharmacakra andtriratna. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila nearMathura in Uttar Pradesh, India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century BCE to the third century CE.[338][149]Samavasarana, a preaching hall oftirthankaras with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art.[339]
TheJain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture.[340] Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology.[341] Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known asPanch Kalyanaka, from the life of thetirthankara. Rishabha, the firsttirthankara, is usually depicted in either thelotus position orkayotsarga, the standing position. He is distinguished from othertirthankara by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures.[342] In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage andIndra marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.[343] Each of the twenty-fourtirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts asTiloyapannati,Kahavaali andPravacanasaarodhara.[344]
A Jain temple, aDerasar orBasadi, is aplace of worship.[345] Temples containtirthankara images, some fixed, others moveable.[345] These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall.[345] One of the images is marked as themoolnayak (primary deity).[346] Amanastambha (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples.[347] Temple construction is considered a meritorious act.[348]
The second–first century BCE Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings oftirthanakars and deities with inscriptions including theElephant Cave inscription.[362][363] Jain cave temples atBadami,Mangi-Tungi and the Ellora Caves are considered important.[364] TheSittanavasal Cave temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century BCE.Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.[365] The eighth centuryKazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India.[366]
Gyanakshetra – Places associated with famousacharyas, or centers of learning, such asShravanabelagola.
Outside contemporary India, Jain communities builttemples in locations such asNagarparkar,Sindh (Pakistan). However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before "the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition".[204]
Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-fourtīrthaṅkaras; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated inlotus position orkayotsarga, along withArihant,Bahubali, and protector deities likeAmbika.[368] Quadruple images are also popular.Tirthankar idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented.[369]
Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as theswastika,Om, and theAshtamangala. In Jainism,Om is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "Arihant,Ashiri,Acharya,Upajjhaya,Muni".[374][375] TheAshtamangala is a set of eight auspicious symbols:[376] in the Digambara tradition, these arechatra,dhvaja,kalasha,fly-whisk,mirror, chair,hand fan and vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika,Srivatsa,Nandavarta,Vardhmanaka (food vessel),Bhadrasana (seat),Kalasha (pot),Darpan (mirror) and pair of fish.[376]
A symbol to represent the Jain community was chosen in 1975 as part of the commemoration of the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira'snirvana.
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizesahimsā. The wheel represents thedharmachakra, which stands for the resolve to halt thesaṃsāra (wandering) through the relentless pursuit ofahimsā. The five colours of theJain flag represent thePañca-Parameṣṭhi and the five vows.[377] Theswastika's four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans.[378][379] The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection.[380]
In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism.[381] It depicts the threelokas, heaven, the human world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizesSiddhashila, a zone beyond the three realms. The Jain swastika and the symbol ofAhiṃsā are included, with the Jain mantraParasparopagraho Jīvānām[382] from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati'sTattvarthasūtra, meaning "souls render service to one another".[383]
Jainism and ecology
Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions, offers a profound ecological philosophy rooted in its core principles.[384] As noted in the Jain Declaration on Nature, "Jainism is fundamentally a religion of ecology and has turned ecology into a religion. It has enabled Jains to create an environment-friendly value system and code of conduct."[385] Central to Jain ethics isahimsa (non-violence), which extends beyond human interactions to encompass all living beings. "All breathing, existing, living, sentient beings should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law."[386]
The Jain concept ofparasparopagrahojīvānām in theTattvarth Sutra, the most authoritative sacred text of Jains, teaches that all souls are responsible for one another and underscores the mutual interdependence of all life forms.[387]Mahavira, the founder of Jainism taught, "One who neglects or disregards the existence of earth, air, fire, water and vegetation disregards his own existence which is entwined with them."[388] This principle is not merely philosophical but is reflected in daily practices. For instance, Jain monks and nuns often wear masks to prevent inhaling and harming microscopic organisms, demonstrating meticulous care for even the smallest forms of life.[389]
Jainism also emphasizesaparigraha (non-possessiveness), advocating for minimal consumption and a lifestyle that avoids excess. This principle encourages individuals to live sustainably, reducing their ecological footprint. "Using any resource beyond one's needs and misuse of any part of nature is considered a form of theft. Indeed, the Jain faith goes one radical step further and declares unequivocally that waste and creating pollution are acts of violence."[390]
In contemporary times, Jain communities continue to uphold these ecological principles through various initiatives. These includetree planting,wildlife conservation, and promotingvegetarianism, all aimed at fostering a harmonious relationship with nature. Such practices exemplify the enduring relevance of Jain teachings in addressing modern environmental challenges.[391]
Through its unwavering commitment to non-violence, interdependence, and minimalism, Jainism offers a holistic framework for ecological sustainability, emphasizing the sacredness of all life and the importance of living in harmony with the environment.[392]
Jain votive plaque withJain stupa, the "Vasu Śilāpaṭa" ayagapata, 1st century CE, excavated fromKankali Tila,Mathura.[393] The inscription reads: "Adoration to the Arhat Vardhamana. The daughter of the matron (?) courtesan Lonasobhika (Lavanasobhika), the disciple of the ascetics, the junior (?) courtesan Vasu has erected a shrine of the Arhat, a hall of homage (ayagasabha), cistern and a stone slab at the sanctuary of theNirgrantha Arhats, together with her mother, her daughter, her son and her whole household in honour of the Arhats."[394]
Sivayasa Ayagapata, with stupa fragment,Kankali Tila, 75–100 CE
All fourDharmic religions—Jainism,Hinduism,Sikhism andBuddhism—share concepts and doctrines such askarma andrebirth.[395][396][397] They do not believe in eternalheaven orhell orjudgment day, and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such asahimsa (non-violence) to be important,[398]: p. 635 link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (moksha).[399][400]
Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises: While all three believe in impermanence, Buddhism incorporates the premise ofanatta ("no eternal self or soul") while Hinduism maintains the concept of an eternal unchangingatman ("soul"); by contrast, Jainism incorporates an eternal but changingjiva ("soul").[401][402][403] In Jain thought, there are infinite eternaljivas, predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a fewsiddhas (liberated ones).[404] Unlike Jainism, Hindu philosophies encompassnondualism where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one[405][406][407] Jainism rejected the non-dual concept, stating that if there were only one universal consciousness which was already liberated, the purpose of dharma would be nullified. Additionally, the need and desire for an infinitely blissful consciousness to create the universe would imply a limitation within that consciousness. Jainism also criticized Vedanta's inability to explain how an intangible consciousness could create a material universe, filled with countless living beings who experience suffering.[408] Jain scholar Dr. Hukumchand Bharill explains that, according to both Jainism and Vedanta, only consciousness can perceive itself, while themind andbody are incapable of recognizing and experiencing the soul. In Jainism, the soul, in its state of ignorance, mistakenly identifies with the body and consequently experiences suffering. When the soul realizes its true nature, it attains enlightenment, gaining infinite knowledge and bliss. If there were only a singular, universal consciousness, Bharill questions, who attains realization as the consciousness is already liberated, and the mind is incapable of experiencing soul's boundless knowledge-bliss nature.[409]
While both Hinduism and Jainism believe "soul exists" to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present, infinite and constant (vibhu), but some Hindu scholars propose soul to be atomic. Hindu thought generally discusses Atman andBrahman through a monistic or dualistic framework. In contrast, Jain thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being.[410]
Jainism is similar to Buddhism in not recognizing the primacy of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe "soul exists" as a self-evident truth.[399][411] Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India.[412][413] Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the Hindu caste system,[414][415] but later scholars consider this a Western error.[416] A caste system not based on birth has been a historic part of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society.[412][417][418][419][m]
Monasticism is similar in all three traditions,[422][423] with similar rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-monthmonsoon season, and celibacy,[423] originating before the Buddha or the Mahāvīra.[422] Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to asangha (monastery) and staying in its premises.[138] Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls.[422] In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks.[422][n]
Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified,[425] and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.[426] Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.[427] The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a JainTirthankara within its premises in a place of honour,[428][429] while temple complexes such as theBadami cave temples andKhajuraho feature both Hindu and Jain monuments.[430][431]
With an estimated four to five million followers worldwide,[433][434] the vast majority of Jains reside in India. According to the2011 Census of India, there were 4.45 million Jains in the country, constituting 0.37% of the total population.[435] The community is highly concentrated, with 78.2% of Indian Jains living in four states:Maharashtra (31.5%),Rajasthan (14.0%),Gujarat (13.0%) andMadhya Pradesh (12.7%).[435] Other states with significant populations includeKarnataka (9.9%),Uttar Pradesh (4.8%),Delhi (3.7%) andTamil Nadu (2.0%).[435] In 2014, theGovernment of India granted Jainism "national minority" status.
Global Diaspora
Significant Jain communities exist globally, largely tracing their origins to Indian migration.[436] The oldest of these is inEast Africa, particularly Kenya and Uganda, where Jain merchants settled in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[437] Political instability in those countries in the 1960s and 1970s led to a secondary migration, primarily to theUnited Kingdom, which now has a community estimated at 25,000 to 30,000.[438] The first Jain temple consecrated outside India was inLeicester.[438]
The largest diaspora community is in theUnited States, with estimates ranging from 80,000 to 100,000, and a significant population also resides inCanada (est. 12,000+).[436] A notable community exists in Antwerp, Belgium, where Jains have played a prominent role in the global diamond trade since the mid-20th century. In recent decades, Jainism has also attracted converts in other nations, such asJapan.[439][440]
Socio-Economic Profile
The Jain community is a distinct socio-economic group within India. Data from the 2015–16National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) identified Jains as the wealthiest religious community in the country.[441] This is strongly correlated with high educational attainment. According to the 2011 census, Jains have the highest literacy rate in India at 86.7% (for ages 7+), and this figure exceeded 97% for the population excluding the retired.[442] Jains also have the highest percentage of college graduates of any religious community.[443]
Scholars often attribute this socio-economic profile to the theological principles of the faith.[444] The rigorous observance ofAhiṃsā (non-violence) historically discouraged professions like agriculture, which involve the harming of insects and microbes.[445][446] This steered the community toward mercantile pursuits, such as commerce, banking, jewelry, and trade.[446][447] A notable historical example of this financial prominence was theJagat Seth family, a Jain banking house that served as state bankers to theNawabs of Bengal and theEast India Company in the 18th century.[448][449]
In the modern era, this focus has translated to high representation in business, finance, and professional fields.[446][447][32] Foundational industrialists likeWalchand Hirachand, who established India's first modern shipyard and aircraft factory, emerged from the community.[450] In finance, the merchantPremchand Roychand was a key 19th-century founder of theBombay Stock Exchange.[451] This prominence in large-scale industry continues with contemporary figures such asGautam Adani, founder of theAdani Group, and the Patni family ofKishangarh, founders of RK Marble, a major global stone processor. This representation also extends to technology and the sciences.Narendra Patni, for instance, was a pioneer of the Indian IT services industry with the founding ofPatni Computer Systems. In science, physicistVikram Sarabhai, founder of theIndian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), is widely regarded as the "father of the Indian space program."[452]
Community and Philanthropy
A defining characteristic of the Jain community is its highly organized and historical practice ofdāna (charity).[453] This is a central religious duty for laypersons (śrāvakas), who are motivated by two key theological concepts.[453] Firstly, scholars identifydāna as the primary mechanism for the laity to acquire goodkarma (punya), which is sought to ensure worldly well-being and a favorable rebirth. Secondly, this practice is the main expression of the householder's vow ofAparigraha (non-attachment). This dual motivation has resulted in a long-standing tradition of institutional philanthropy.[453]
This is most famously expressed in the establishment ofpanjrapoles (animal hospitals and sanctuaries), which provide care for animals in accordance with the principle ofAhiṃsā.[454] The community has also historically funded and manageddharamshalas (pilgrim rest-houses), educational institutions, andbhandaras (manuscript libraries), which have been crucial in preserving tens of thousands of ancient and medieval texts.[454]
In the 20th century, this philanthropic tradition of supporting educational institutions evolved to include the founding of major national bodies. IndustrialistKasturbhai Lalbhai, for example, was a key co-founder of theIndian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (IIM-A) and thePhysical Research Laboratory. In the field of public policy, physicistDaulat Singh Kothari chaired the influentialKothari Commission (1964–1966), which provided the comprehensive framework for the modernization of India's education policy.
^According to Padmanabh S. Jaini,samyak darśana is acceptance of the truth of soul (jīva).[17]
^This view, however, is not shared by all Jain sub-traditions. For example, the Terapanthi Jain tradition, with about 250,000 followers, considers both good karma such as compassionate charity, and bad karma such as sin, as binding one's soul to worldly morality. It states that any karma leads to a negation of the "absolute non-violence" principle, given man's limited perspective. It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping any being in any form.[43]
^Jain literature, like Buddhist and Hindu literature, has also debated the aspects of violence and non-violence in food creation.[54]
^Long notes thatṚṣabha, the first Tīrthaṅkara of Jainism, means "bull," and that images of bulls are found at seals from theIndus Valley civilization, speculating that they may be related to Jainism.[125]
^According to Long, this view shows influence from Buddhism and Vedanta, which see bondage are arising fromavidya, ignorance, and see the ultimate solution to this in a form of spiritualgnosis.[229] Johnson also notes that "his use of a vyavahara/niscaya distinction [...] has more in common with Madhyamaka Buddhism and even more with Advaita Vedanta than with the Jain philosophy of Anekantavada."[230] Cort, referring to Johnson, notes that "a minority position exemplified by Kundakunda has deemphasized conduct and focused upon knowledge alone."[231]
^In Jainism, theahiṃsā precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including plants. It also mandates never swimming in water, nor lighting or fire or extinguish one, nor thrashing arms in the air as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of matter.[49]
^The first is desavakasika (staying in a restrained surrounding, cutting down worldly activities). The third isposadhopavasa (fasting on the 8th and 14th days on lunar waxing and waning cycles). The fourth isdana (giving alms to Jain monks, nuns or spiritual people).[275]
^According to Dundas,samayika seems to have meant "correct behavior" in early Jainism.[280]
^Not to be confused with the fourVedas of Hinduism.[326]
^That Which Is, known as theTattvartha Sūtra to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest, most authoritative and comprehensive summary of their religion."[330]
^Some texts refer to the place as Mount Sammeta.[353]
^According toRichard Gombrich and other scholars, Buddhism too was not a rejection or rebellion against any ancient caste system and it too was focused on individual's liberation from rebirths and suffering. The caste system in Buddhist societies and monasteries outside India have been documented. Gombrich states, "Some modernists go so far as to say that the Buddha was against caste altogether: this is not the case, but is one of the mistakes picked up from western authors."[420][416][421]
^Whether the begging utensils of a monk, such as robe and begging bowl, were justified and legitimate for a Jain monk and were not considered an impediment on the path to salvation, remained a bone of contention among various splinter groups within Jainism, and was partly responsible for the ultimate Digambara-Svetambara split, although it would be a grave oversimplification to reduce the roots of the split to just monks' robes and bowls.[424]
^Ram Vallabh Somani (1976).History of Mewar, from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D. Mateshwari. p. 221.OCLC2929852.A glaring example of this sort of feeling is the destruction of several Hindu and Jain shrines, made at Chittor, during the course of invasion by the forces of Akbar
^"Jain Ecology". The Interfaith Center for Sustainable Development. Retrieved26 May 2025.
^Singhvi L.M.,"Jain Faith Statement". Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology. Retrieved26 May 2025.
^ĀcārāṅgaSūtra I:4.1, as translated by Hermann Jacobi, Jaina Sutras in Two Parts. Part One: the ĀkārāṅgaSūtra; The Kalpa Sūtra(New York: Dover, 1968, first published, 1884), p. 36.
^Nisithabhasya (inNisithasutra) 289; Jinadatta Suri:Upadesharasayana 26; Dundas pp. 162–163; Tähtinen p. 31.
^Jindal pp. 89–90; Laidlaw pp. 154–155; Jaini, Padmanabh S.:Ahimsa and "Just War" in Jainism, in:Ahimsa, Anekanta and Jainism, ed. Tara Sethia, New Delhi 2004, p. 52–60; Tähtinen p. 31.
^Harisena,Brhatkathakosa 124 (10th century); Jindal pp. 90–91; Sangave p. 259.
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