A 12th-century manuscript ofHemachandra'sYogaśāstra in Sanskrit. The text is notable for using 1 mm miniaturized Devanagari script.
Jain literature (Sanskrit:जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of theJain religion. It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material is contained in the canonicalJain Agamas, which are written inArdhamagadhi, aPrakrit (Middle-Indo Aryan) language. Various commentaries were written on these canonical texts by laterJain monks. Later works were also written in other languages, like Sanskrit andMaharashtri Prakrit.
Jain literature is primarily divided between the canons of theDigambara andŚvētāmbara orders. These two main sects of Jainism do not always agree on which texts should be considered authoritative.
Stela depictingŚhrut Jnāna, "the knowledge which is heard" (directly from the omniscient fordmakers)
According to Jain tradition, the teachings that form the basis of their scriptures are eternal.[1] It's believed that in each universal time cycle, twenty-fourtīrthaṅkaras reveal these truths.[1] The firsttīrthaṅkara of the current cycle,Ṛṣabhanātha, is considered the original source of the teachings in this era, millions of years ago.[1]
Jains believe thetīrthaṅkaras deliver their teachings in a divine preaching hall called thesamavasaraṇa, which are heard simultaneously by gods, ascetics, and laypersons.[2] This divine discourse itself is known asśrutajñāna ("heard knowledge").[2] Crucially, this initial form is not a written text but an oral transmission.[3][4]
The tradition holds that the chief disciples (Gaṇadharas) of atīrthaṅkara possess the unique ability to perfectly understand and recall this divine discourse.[3] They are credited with converting theśrutajñāna into structured scriptures (suttas), initially comprising the fourteenPūrvas (ancient or prior texts) and the elevenAṅgas ("limbs").[5] The complete structure is often referred to as the "twelve-limbed basket" (duvala samgagani pidaga), as the twelfthAṅga contained thePūrvas.[5][1][6]
For many centuries, these foundational scriptures were meticulously transmitted orally from teacher (guru) to disciple (shishya) through rigorous memorization and chanting.[citation needed] This emphasis on oral transmission was a defining characteristic of the early literary tradition.[citation needed]
While some authors date the composition of the Jain Agamas starting from the 6th century BCE,[7] some western scholars, such as Ian Whicher and David Carpenter, argue that the earliest portions of Jain canonical works were composed around the 4th or 3rd century BCE.[8][9] According toJohannes Bronkhorst it is extremely difficult to determine the age of the Jain Agamas, however:
Elsewhere, Bronkhorst states that the Sūtrakṛtāṅga "dates from the 2nd century BCE at the very earliest," based on how it references the Buddhist theory of momentariness, which is a later scholastic development.[10]
The Jaina congregation gradually split into the two sects. While Śvetāmbaras maintain that the schism happened in the 1st century CE, Digambaras hold that it happened in 2nd century BCE. Śvetāmbaras hold that the theory of Jain monks migrating from North to South is a fabricated account.[11] Some scholars specifically state that the said lore was developed after 600 CE and is inauthentic.[12]
[Top illustration] Mahavira attainskevala jñāna (complete knowledge); [Bottom] asamosarana (divine preaching hall). Folio 60 from Kalpasutra series, loose leaf manuscript, Patan, Gujarat.c. 1472.TheSuryaprajnaptisūtra, a 4th or 3rd century BCE Śvētāmbara astronomical and mathematical text.[13] The top illustration depicts Mahavira, while the bottom one illustrates his great discipleGautama.
Śvetāmbaras convened the First Council at Pataliputra (modern Patna) around 300 BCE (traditional dating varies).[14] During this council, the monks pooled their collective memory to compile the elevenAṅgas.[14] However, the twelfthAṅga, theDṛṣṭivāda, which contained the fourteenPūrvas, was found to be incomplete or lost, as Bhadrabāhu, the only master who knew it fully, was absent.[15] While Sthulabhadra learned 10 of the 14 purvas from Bhadrabāhu when the latter was in Nepal, the full transmission was broken.[16][page needed][17][page needed]
The most definitive step for the Śvetāmbara tradition was the Council ofVallabhi (inGujarat) held around 454 or 466 CE, presided over byDevardhigaṇi Kṣamāśramaṇa.[18][19][20] Faced with the ongoing weakening of memory, the council made the historic decision to commit the entire remembered canon to writing in manuscript form.[18][19][20]
TheŚvetāmbara sect considers this written canon, based on the Vallabhi council texts, to be the authenticAgamas, derived from the original oral tradition passed down fromMahavira, even while acknowledging that the twelfthAṅga and parts of thePūrvas are missing.[5][21]
Āchārya Pushpadanta, depicted writing down theṢaṭkhaṅḍāgamaĀchāryaKundakunda, one of the most important Digambara philosophers
TheDigambara tradition holds a fundamentally different view.[22][23] They believe that due to the famine and the passage of time, the originalAṅgas andPūrvas were completely lost by around the 2nd century CE.[22][23] They state thatĀchāryaBhutabali (1st century CE) was the last ascetic with even partial knowledge of the original canon.[22] They maintain thatĀchārya Pushpadanta and Bhutabali wrote theṢaṭkhaṅḍāgama (Six Part Scripture) under guidance ofDharasena, which is held to be one of the oldest Digambara texts (2nd to 3rd century CE).[22][24] Around the same time,ĀchāryaGunadhar wroteKasayapahuda (Treatise on the Passions).[22][25][24]
Consequently,Digambaras reject the scriptures compiled by theŚvetāmbaras at Pataliputra and Vallabhi, viewing them as incomplete and corrupted.[22] This disagreement over the authenticity and survival of theAgamas is a central reason for the historical schism between the two major sects.[26] Lacking the original Agamas, the Digambara tradition instead came to hold authoritative a set of later texts, believed to encapsulate the essence of the lost teachings.[27][28][29]
To reach the number 45, Mūrtipūjak Śvētāmbara canons contain a "Miscellaneous" collection of supplementary texts, called thePaiṇṇaya suttas (Sanskrit:Prakīrnaka sūtras, "Miscellaneous"). This section varies in number depending on the individual sub-sect (from 10 texts to over 20). They also often included extra works (often of disputed authorship) named "supernumerary Prakīrṇakas".[32] The Paiṇṇaya texts are generally not considered to have the same kind of authority as the other works in the canon. Most of these works are in Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit, unlike the other Śvetāmbara scriptures which tend to be in Ardhamāgadhī. They are therefore most likely later works than the Aṅgas and Upāṅgas.[32]
Mūrtipūjak Jain canons will generally accept 10 Paiṇṇayas as canonical, but there is widespread disagreement on which 10 scriptures are given canonical status. The most widely accepted list of ten scriptures are the following:[32]
Cau-saraṇa (Sanskrit:Catuḥśaraṇa, The 'four refuges')
From the 15th century onwards, various Śvetāmbara subsects began to disagree on the composition of the canon.Mūrtipūjaks ("idol-worshippers") accept 45 texts, while theSthānakavāsins andTerāpanthins only accept 32.[33]
The Digambara canon of scriptures includes these two main texts, three commentaries on the main texts, and four (later)Anuyogas (expositions), consisting of more than 20 texts.[34][35]
The great commentatorVirasena wrote two commentary texts on theṢaṭkhaṅḍāgama, theDhaval‑tika on the first five volumes andMaha‑dhaval‑tika on the sixth volume of theṢaṭkhaṅḍāgama, around 780 CE.[24]Virasena and his disciple,Jinasena, also wrote a commentary on theKaşāyapāhuda, known asJaya‑dhavala‑tika.[25][24]
There is no agreement on the canonical Anuyogas ("Expositions"). The Anuyogas were written between the 2nd and the 11th centuriesCE, either in JainaŚaurasenī Prakrit or inSanskrit.[36]
The expositions (Anuyogas) are divided into four literary categories:[34]
The 'first' (Prathamānuyoga) category contains various works such as Jain versions of theRāmāyaṇa (like the 7th-centuryPadma-purāṇa byRaviṣeṇa) andMahābhārata (likeJinasena's 8th centuryHarivaṃśa-purāṇa), as well as 'Jain universal histories' (like Jinasena's 8th-centuryĀdi-purāṇa).
The 'calculation' (Karaṇānuyoga) expositions are mainly works onJain cosmology (such asTiloya-paṇṇatti of Yati Vṛṣabha, dating from the 6th to 7th century) and karma (for example, Nemicandra'sGommaṭa-sāra). TheGommatsāra ofNemichandra (fl. 10th century) is one of the most important Digambara works and provides a detailed summary of Digambara doctrine.[37]
The 'behaviour' (Caraṇānuyoga) expositions are texts about proper behaviour, such as Vaṭṭakera'sMūlācāra (on monastic conduct, 2nd century) and theRatnakaraṇḍaka-Śrāvakācāra bySamantabhadra (5th-century) which focuses on the ethics of a layperson.[38] Works in this category also treat the purity of the soul, such as the work of Kundakunda like theSamaya-sāra, thePancastikayasara, andNiyamasara. These works byKundakunda (2nd century CE or later) are highly revered and have been historically influential.[39][40][41]
The 'substance' (Dravyānuyoga) exposition includes texts aboutontology of the universe and self.Umāsvāmin's comprehensiveTattvārtha-sūtra is the standard work on ontology andPūjyapāda's (464–524 CE)Sarvārthasiddhi is one of the most influential Digambara commentaries on theTattvārtha. This collection also includes various works on epistemology and reasoning, such as Samantabhadra'sĀpta-mīmāṃsā and the works ofAkalaṅka (720–780 CE), such as his commentary on theApta-mīmāṃsā and hisNyāya-viniścaya.
There are various later Jain works that are considered post-canonical, that is to say, they were written after the closure of the Jain canons, though the different canons were closed at different historical eras, and so this category is ambiguous.
Thus,Umasvāti's (c. between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE)Tattvarthasūtra ("On the Nature of Reality") is included in the Digambara canon, but not in the Śvētāmbara canons (though they do consider the work authoritative). Indeed, theTattvarthasūtra is consideredthe authoritative Jain philosophy text by all traditions of Jainism.[42][43][44] It has the same importance in Jainism asVedanta Sūtras andYogasūtras have inHinduism.[42][45][46]
Prabhacandra (8th–9th century) – Jain philosopher, composed a 106-Sutra Tattvarthasutra and exhaustive commentaries on two key works on Jain Nyaya,Prameyakamalamartanda, based on Manikyanandi'sParikshamukham andNyayakumudacandra on Akalanka'sLaghiyastraya.
Abhayadeva (1057–1135 CE) – author ofVadamahrnava (Ocean of Discussions) which is a 2,500 versetika (Commentary) ofSanmartika and a great treatise on logic.[49]
Vadideva (11th century) – He was a senior contemporary of Hemacandra and is said to have authoredParamananayatattavalokalankara and its voluminous commentarysyadvadaratnakara that establishes the supremacy of doctrine ofSyādvāda.
Vidyanandi (11th century) – Jain philosopher, composed the brilliant commentary on Acarya Umasvami's Tattvarthasutra, known asTattvarthashlokavartika.
Devendrasuri wrote theKarmagrantha which is an exposition of theJain theory of Karma.
Yaśovijaya (1624–1688) was a Jain scholar ofNavya-Nyāya and wrote Vrttis (commentaries) on most of the earlierJain Nyāya works by Samantabhadra, Akalanka, Manikyanandi, Vidyānandi, Prabhācandra and others in the then-prevalentNavya-Nyāya style. Yaśovijaya has to his credit a prolific literary output – more than 100 books inSanskrit,Prakrit,Gujarati andRajasthani. He is also famous forJnanasara (essence of knowledge) andAdhayatmasara (essence of spirituality).
TheLokaprakasa of Vinayavijaya was written in the 17th century CE.
Srivarddhaeva (aka Tumbuluracarya) wrote a Kannada commentary onTattvarthadigama-sutra.
Atmasiddhi Shastra is a spiritual treatise in verse, composed inGujarati by the nineteenth centuryJain saint, philosopher poetShrimad Rajchandraji (1867–1901) which comprises 142 verses explaining the fundamental philosophical truths about thesoul and itsliberation. It propounds six fundamental truth on soul which are also known asSatapada (six steps).
TheSaman Suttam is a compilation of ancient texts and doctrines recognised by all Jain sects, assembled primarily by Jinendra Varni and then examined and approved by monks of different sects and other scholars in 1974.
Jainendra Vyākaraṇa of AcharyaPujyapada andŚākaṭāyana-vyākaraṇa ofŚākaṭāyana (also called Pālyakīrti)[50] are both works on grammar written inc. 9th century CE.[51]
Pañcagranthiby Ācārya Buddhisāgarasūri (10th century) in poetic form, complemented with auto-commentary.[52]Siddha-Hema-Śabdānuśāsana by AcharyaHemachandra (c. 12th century CE) is considered byF. Kielhorn as the best grammar work of the Indian middle ages.[53] Hemacandra's book Kumarapalacaritra is also noteworthy.[54][55] Malayagiri, a contemporary toHemachandra, also authored a Śabdānuśāsana, accompanied with an auto-commentary.[50]
Palm leaf manuscript of Tolkappiyam
Tamil grammar is extensively described in the oldest available grammar book for Tamil, theTolkāppiyam (dated between 300 BCE and 300 CE) whose author was a Jain.[56]S. Vaiyapuri Pillai suggests that Tolkappiyar was a Jain scholar well-versed in the Aintiram grammatical system and posits a later date, placing him in southern Kerala around the 5th century CE. Notably, Tolkappiyam incorporates several Sanskrit and Prakrit loanwords, reflecting its historical and linguistic context.[57]
Another grammatical text Naṉṉūl (Tamil: நன்னூல்) is a work on Tamil grammar written by a Jain ascetic Pavananthi Munivar around 13th century CE. It is the most significant work on Tamil grammar after Tolkāppiyam.[58]
Prākṛta-Lakṣaṇa (The characteristic of Prakrit) is one of the earliest extant specialised grammar ofPrakrit.A. F. Rudolf Hoernle opines that the grammar was written by a Jaina author.[59]
Jain acharya Hemchandra also contributed to grammar. He wroteSiddha-Hema-Śabdanuśāśana, which includes six languages:Sanskrit, the "standard"Prakrit (virtuallyMahārāṣṭrī Prākrit),Śaurasenī,Māgadhī,Paiśācī, the otherwise-unattested Cūlikāpaiśācī andApabhraṃśa (virtually Gurjar Apabhraṃśa, prevalent in the area of Gujarat andRajasthan at that time and the precursor ofGujarati language). He gave a detailed grammar of Apabhraṃśa and also illustrated it with the folk literature of the time for better understanding. It is the only known Apabhraṃśa grammar. He wrote the grammar in the form of rules, with eight adhyayas (chapters) and its auto-commentaries, namely "Tattvaprakāśikā Bṛhadvṛtti" with "Śabdamahārṇava Nyāsa" in one year.Jayasimha Siddharaja had installed the grammar work in Patan's (historically Aṇahilavāḍa) state library. Many copies were made of it, and many schemes were announced for the study of the grammar. Scholars like Kākala Kāyastha were invited to teach it.[60] Moreover, an annual public examination was organized on the day of Jñāna-pañcamī.[61]Kielhorn regards this as best grammar of Indian middle ages.[62]
Hemacandra's grammar textSiddhahemashabdanushasana in Sanskrit
The German scholarGeorg Buhler wrote, "In grammar, in astronomy as well as in all branches of belles letters the achievements of the Jains have been so great that even their opponents have taken notice of them and that some of their work are of importance for European science even today. In the south where they have worked among the Dravidian peoples, they have also promoted the development of these languages. The Kanarese, Tamil, Telugu literary languages rest on the foundations erected by the Jain monks."[63]
Jain literature covered multiple topics of mathematics around 150 CE including the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, bi-quadric equations, permutations, combinations and logarithms.[64]
The first autobiography in the ancestor of Hindi,Braj Bhasha, is called Ardhakathānaka and was written by a Jain,Banarasidasa, an ardent follower of AcaryaKundakunda who lived inAgra. ManyTamilclassics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject. Practically all the known texts in theApabhramsha language are Jain works.[citation needed]
The oldest Jain literature is inArdhamagadhi Prakrit[67] and theJain Prakrit (theJain Agamas, Agama-Tulya, the Siddhanta texts, etc.). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tattvartha Sutra,Puranas, Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc.). "Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written byAcharya Rajendrasuri, is only one available Jain encyclodaedic dictionary to understand the technical Jain terms inArdhamagadhi Prakrit and other languages, with specific reference to Jain literature.[citation needed]
Jain Prakrit is a term loosely used for the language of theJain Agamas (canonical texts). The books ofJainism were written in the popular vernacular dialects (as opposed toSanskrit), and therefore encompass a number of related dialects. Chief among these isArdha Magadhi, which due to its extensive use has also come to be identified as the definitive form ofPrakrit. Other dialects include versions ofMaharashtri andSauraseni.[19]
The Jain literary tradition is notable for its large and ancient body of manuscripts.[68] The act of commissioning and donating texts, known asshastra-dana (the "gift of knowledge"), has been a traditional act of religious merit for centuries.[citation needed] This practice, by both ascetics and the laity, led to the accumulation of large manuscript collections, many of which remain unstudied.[69]
Jain manuscript libraries, orjñāna bhaṇḍāras ('knowledge warehouses'), are among the oldest surviving libraries in India.[68] They were often housed in temple basements for preservation and managed by the lay community or designated monks.[70]
Thesebhandaras hold hundreds of thousands of documents, including some of the earliest-known palm-leaf manuscripts from the 11th century.[citation needed] Significant historical collections are located inPatan (Gujarat),Jaisalmer (Rajasthan), andMoodabidri (Karnataka), among others.[citation needed] These collections are a primary source for the literary, religious, and social history of the regions.[citation needed]
The manuscript collections, written on organic materials like palm leaf and paper, face constant threats from disintegration, moisture, and insect damage.[71] This has led to modern conservation and digitization efforts to preserve the texts.[71]
National and international institutions are involved in this work.[citation needed] For example, theGovernment of India has supported the establishment of a Centre for Jain Manuscriptology atGujarat University, a facility dedicated to the conservation, digitization, and research of these manuscripts.[citation needed]
Parts of theSangam literature in Tamil are attributed to Jains. Tamil Jain texts such as theCīvaka Cintāmaṇi andNālaṭiyār are credited to Digambara Jain authors.[72][73] These texts have seen interpolations and revisions. For example, it is generally accepted now that the Jain nun Kanti inserted a 445-verse poem intoCīvaka Cintāmaṇi in the 12th century.[74][75] The Tamil Jain literature, according to Dundas, has been "lovingly studied and commented upon for centuries by Hindus as well as Jains".[73] The themes of two of the Tamil epics, including theSilapadikkaram, have an embedded influence of Jainism.[73]Some scholars believe that the author of the oldest extant work of literature in Tamil (3rd century BCE),Tolkāppiyam, was a Jain.[76]S. Vaiyapuri Pillai suggests that Tolkappiyar was a Jain scholar well-versed in the Aintiram grammatical system and posits a later date, placing him in southern Kerala around the 5th century CE. Notably, Tolkappiyam incorporates several Sanskrit and Prakrit loanwords, reflecting its historical and linguistic context.[77]
A number of Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions have been found in Tamil Nadu that date from the 3rd century BCE. They are regarded to be associated with Jain monks and lay devotees.[78][79]
Some scholars consider theTirukkural byValluvar to be the work by a Jain.[80][81][82] It emphatically supportsmoral vegetarianism (Chapter 26) and states that giving up animal sacrifice is worth more than a thousand offerings in fire (verse 259).[83][84]
Silappatikaram, a major work in Tamil literature, was written by a Samaṇa(jain),Ilango Adigal. It describes the historical events of its time and also of the then-prevailing religions, Jainism, andShaivism. The main characters of this work,Kannagi andKovalan, who have a divine status among Tamils, were Jains.
There was a permanent Jaina assembly called a Sangha established about 604 CE in Maturai. It seems likely that this assembly was the model upon which tradition fabricated the cangkam legend."[85]
Jainism began to decline around the 8th century, with many Tamil kings embracing Hindu religions, especiallyShaivism. Still, theChalukya,Pallava andPandya dynasties embraced Jainism.
Jain scholars also contributed toKannada literature.[86] The Digambara Jain texts in Karnataka are unusual in having been written under the patronage of kings and regional aristocrats. They describe warrior violence and martial valor as equivalent to a "fully committed Jain ascetic", setting aside Jainism's absolute non-violence.[87]
Jain manuscript libraries calledbhandaras inside Jain temples are the oldest surviving in India.[88] Jain libraries, including the Śvētāmbara collections atPatan, Gujarat andJaiselmer, Rajasthan, and the Digambara collections in Karnataka temples, have a large number of well-preserved manuscripts.[88][89] These include Jain literature and Hindu and Buddhist texts. Almost all have been dated to about, or after, the 11th century CE.[90] The largest and most valuable libraries are found in theThar Desert, hidden in the underground vaults of Jain temples. These collections have witnessed insect damage, and only a small portion have been published and studied by scholars.[90]
^Umāsvāti 1994, p. xi–xiii, Quote: "That Which Is, known as theTattvartha Sūtra to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest, most authoritative and comprehensive summary of their religion.".
^Guy, John (January 2012),"Jain Manuscript Painting",The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Heilburnn Timeline of Art History,archived from the original on 2 April 2013, retrieved25 April 2013
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