ThePolish "Golden Age", the period of the reigns ofSigismund I andSigismund II, the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture ofPolish Renaissance. The cultural blossoming had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers asKraków andGdańsk.
At the end of the 15th century, the Jagiellonians reigned over vast territories stretching from theBaltic to theBlack to theAdriatic Sea
The name comes fromJogaila (Jagiełło), the first Grand Duke of Lithuania to become King of Poland. In Polish, the dynasty is known asJagiellonowie and the patronymic form:Jagiellończyk; inLithuanian it is calledJogailaičiai, inBelarusianЯґайлавічы (Jagajłavičy), inHungarianJagelló, and inCzechJagellonci, as well asJagello orJagellon inLatin. Etymologically, the name Jogaila means "strong rider", from the Lithuanian wordsjoti (to ride) andgailus (strong, powerful).[citation needed]
Jogaila, theeponymous first ruler of the Jagiellonian dynasty, started as the Grand Duke of Lithuania. As a result of theUnion of Krewo he then converted toChristianity and married the 12-year-oldQueen Hedwig of Poland (daughter of KingLouis I of Hungary from theAngevins Dynasty). Thereby he becameKing of Poland as her co-ruler.[7] Hedwig died in 1399, and as her and Jogaila's daughter, Princess Elizabeth, died as infant, Jogaila lost inheritance rights to Polish crown for his future descendants, but he remained the King of Poland as elected ruler. He eventually went to have 4 more children and started a Jagiellonian dynasty, whose members continued to be elected as monarchs of Poland.[8]
In 1385 theUnion of Krewo was signed betweenQueen Hedwig of Poland andJogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, the lastpagan state in Europe. The act arranged for Jogaila'sbaptism (after which Jogaila was known in Poland by his baptismal name, Ladislaus, and the Polish version of his Lithuanian name, Jagiełło) (Zamoyski, the Polish Way) and for the couple's marriage and constituted the beginning of thePolish–Lithuanian union. The Union strengthened both nations in their shared opposition to theTeutonic Knights and the growing threat of theGrand Duchy of Moscow. Uniquely in Europe, the union connected two states geographically located on the opposite sides of the great civilizational divide between theWestern or Latin, and theEastern or Byzantine worlds.[9]
The intention of the Union was to create a common state under Ladislaus II Jagiełło, but the Polish ruling oligarchy's idea of incorporation of Lithuania into Poland turned out to be unrealistic. There would be territorial disputes and warfare between Poland and Lithuania or Lithuanian factions; the Lithuanians at times had even found it expedient to conspire with the Teutonic Knights against thePoles. Geographic consequences of the dynastic union and the preferences of the Jagiellonian kings accelerated the process of reorientation of Polish territorial priorities to the east.[10] The political influence of the Jagiellonian kings was diminishing during this period, which was accompanied by the ever-increasing role in central government and national affairs of landed nobility.[b] The royal dynasty, however, had a stabilizing effect on Poland's politics. TheJagiellonian Era is often regarded as a period of maximum political power, great prosperity, and in its later stage,the Golden Age of Polish culture.
The Great War of 1409–1411, precipitated by the Lithuanian uprising in the Order controlledSamogitia, included theBattle of Grunwald (Tannenberg), where the Polish and Lithuanian armies completely defeated theTeutonic Knights. The offensive that followed lost its impact with the ineffective siege ofMalbork (Marienburg). The failure to take the fortress and eliminate the Teutonic (later Prussian) state had for Poland dire historic consequences in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries.The Peace of Thorn (1411) had given Poland and Lithuania rather modest territorial adjustments, including Samogitia. Afterwards there were negotiations and peace deals that didn't hold, more military campaigns and arbitrations. One attempted, unresolved arbitration took place at theCouncil of Constance.
TheCrusade of Varna was a series of events in 1443–44 between the crusaders and theOttoman Empire, culminating in a devastating Christian loss at theBattle of Varna on 10 November 1444.
The Jagiellonian dynasty was not entitled to automatic hereditary succession, as each new king had to be approved by nobility consensus. Władysław Jagiełło had two sons late in life from his last wife, Sophia of Halshany. In 1430 the nobility agreed to the succession of the futureLadislaus III, only after the King gave in and guaranteed the satisfaction of their new demands. In 1434 the old monarch died and his minor son Ladislaus was crowned; the Royal Council led by Bishop Oleśnicki undertook the regency duties. In 1438 the Czech anti-Habsburg opposition, mainly Hussite factions, offered the Czech crown to Jagiełło's younger sonCasimir IV. The idea, accepted in Poland over Oleśnicki's objections, resulted in two unsuccessful Polish military expeditions toBohemia.[12]
AfterVytautas' death in 1430 Lithuania became embroiled in internal wars and conflicts with Poland. Casimir IV, sent as a boy by Ladislaus III on a mission there in 1440, was surprisingly proclaimed by the Lithuanians as aGrand Duke of Lithuania, and he stayed in Lithuania.[12]
Oleśnicki gained the upper hand again and pursued his long-term objective of Poland's union withHungary. At that time theOttoman Empire embarked on a new round of European conquests and threatened Hungary, which needed the powerful Polish–Lithuanian ally. In 1440 Ladislaus III assumed the Hungarian throne. Influenced by Julian Cesarini, the young king led the Hungarian army against the Ottomans in 1443 and again in 1444. Duringbattle of Varna Ladislaus III disappeared and is presumed to be killed at the battlefield; he was eventually assumed to be deceased in Poland in 1445, when Polish throne was given to his only living brother, the Grand Duke of LithuaniaCasimir, who was ultimately crowned two years later.[13] Beginning toward the end of Jagiełło's life, Poland was practically governed by a magnate oligarchy led by Oleśnicki. The rule of the dignitaries was actively opposed by variousszlachta groups. Their leaderSpytek of Melsztyn was killed during anarmed confrontation in 1439, which allowed Oleśnicki to purge Poland of the remaining Hussite sympathizers and pursue his other objectives without significant opposition.
Casimir IV Jagiellon and his consortElizabeth fromHabsburgs, who gave birth to his 13 children
Casimir IV Jagiellon was the third and youngest son of King Ladislaus II Jagiełło and his fourth wife,Sophia of Halshany. His father was already 65 at the time of Casimir's birth, and his brother Ladislaus III, three years his senior, was expected to become king before his majority. Strangely, little was done for his education; he was never taught Latin, nor was he trained for the responsibilities of office, despite the fact he was the only brother of the rightful sovereign.[14] He often relied on his instinct and feelings and had little political knowledge, but shared a great interest in the diplomacy and economic affairs of the country. Throughout Casimir's youth, BishopZbigniew Oleśnicki was his mentor and tutor; however, the cleric felt a strong reluctance towards him, believing that he would be an unsuccessful monarch following Ladislaus' death.
The sudden death ofSigismund Kęstutaitis left the office of theGrand Duchy of Lithuania empty. The Voivode ofTrakai,Jonas Goštautas, and other magnates of Lithuania, supported Casimir IV Jagiellon as a candidate to the throne.[15] However, many Polish noblemen hoped that the thirteen-year-old boy would become a Vice-regent for the Polish King in Lithuania. Casimir IV Jagiellon was invited by the Lithuanian magnates to Lithuania and was sent by his older brotherLadislaus III, King of Poland and Hungary, Supreme Duke of Lithuania, to Lithuania to rule in his name.[16] But instead he was elected by theLithuanian Council of Lords as the Grand Duke of Lithuania upon his arrival to Lithuania's capitalVilnius on June 29, 1440, with the ringing of church bells and the singing of theTe Deum laudamus.[16][17] TheBishop of Vilnius put aGediminas' Cap in theVilnius Cathedral on Casimir IV Jagiellon's head, despite thePolish nobility's opposition.[18][19] This was breaching the agreements of theUnion of Grodno (1432) and terminating thePolish–Lithuanian union.[18][19] It manifested Lithuania as a sovereign state and its ruler Casimir IV Jagiellon stressed himself as a "free lord" (pan – dominus).[19] When the news arrived in Poland concerning the proclamation of Casimir IV Jagiellon as the Grand Duke of Lithuania, it was met with hostility, even to the point of military threats against Lithuania.[20] Since the young Lithuanian Grand Duke was underage, the supreme control over the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was in the hands of the Lithuanian Council of Lords, presided by Jonas Goštautas, while Casimir IV Jagiellon was taughtLithuanian language and the customs of Lithuania by appointed court officials.[3][21][22][23]
In 1445, Casimir IV Jagiellon, already being the Grand Duke of Lithuania, was asked to also assume thePolish throne vacated by the death of his brother Ladislaus III (killed at theBattle of Varna in 1444). Casimir IV Jagiellon was a tough negotiator and did not accept the Polish nobility's conditions for his election, thus he assumed the Polish throne only on a condition that Lithuania and Poland will be equivalent states.[24] Casimir IV Jagiellon succeeded his brother Ladislaus III as King of Poland after a three-year interregnum on 25 June 1447. In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellon marriedElisabeth of Austria, daughter of the lateKing of the RomansAlbert II of Habsburg by his late wifeElisabeth of Bohemia. Her distant relative Frederick of Austria becameHoly Roman Emperor and reigned asFrederick III until after Casimir IV Jagiellon's own death. The marriage strengthened the ties between the house of Jagiellon and the sovereigns of Hungary-Bohemia and put Casimir IV Jagiellon at odds with the Holy Roman Emperor through internal Habsburg rivalry. Becoming a King of Poland Casimir IV Jagiellon also freed himself from the control theLithuanian oligarchy had imposed on him; in the Vilnius Privilege of 1447 he declared the Lithuanian nobility having equal rights with Polishszlachta. In time Casimir IV Jagiellon was able to remove from power Cardinal Oleśnicki and his group,[25] basing his own power on the younger middle nobility camp instead. A conflict with the pope and the local Church hierarchy over the right to fill vacant bishop positions Casimir IV Jagiellon also resolved in his favor.
That same year, Casimir IV Jagiellon was approached by thePrussian Confederation for aid against theTeutonic Order, which he promised, by making the separatist Prussian regions a protectorate of thePolish Kingdom. However, when the insurgent citiesrebelled against the Order, it resisted and theThirteen Years' War (1454–1466) ensued. Casimir IV Jagiellon and thePrussian Confederation defeated the Teutonic Order, taking over its capital atMarienburg (Malbork Castle). In theSecond Peace of Thorn (1466), the Order recognized Polish sovereignty over the seceded western Prussian regions,Royal Prussia, and the Polish crown's overlordship over the remainingTeutonic Monastic State, transformed in 1525 into a duchy,Ducal Prussia. Poland regainedPomerelia and with it the all-important access tothe Baltic Sea, as well asWarmia. In addition to land warfare, naval battles had taken place, where ships provided by theCity of Danzig (Gdańsk) successfully foughtDanish and Teutonic fleets.[26]
The influence of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Central Europe had been on the rise. In 1471 Casimir's sonLadislaus became aking of Bohemia, and in 1490 also ofHungary. The southern and eastern outskirts of Poland and Lithuania became threatened byTurkish invasions beginning in the late 15th century.Moldavia's involvement with Poland goes back to 1387, whenPeter I,Hospodar of Moldavia, seeking protection against the Hungarians, paid Jagiełło homage inLviv, which gave Poland access to theBlack Sea ports. In 1485 King Casimir undertook an expedition into Moldavia, after its seaports were overtaken by the Ottoman Turks. The Turkish controlledCrimean Tatars raided the eastern territories in 1482 and 1487, until they were confronted by KingJohn Albert, Casimir's son and successor. Poland was attacked in 1487–1491 by remnants of theGolden Horde. They had invaded into Poland as far asLublin before being beaten at Zaslavl. King John Albert in 1497 made an attempt to resolve the Turkish problem militarily, but his efforts were unsuccessful as he was unable to secure effective participation in the war by his brothers, KingLadislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Alexander, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and because of the resistance on the part ofStephen the Great, the ruler of Moldavia. More Ottoman Empire-instigated destructive Tatar raids took place in 1498, 1499 and 1500.John Albert's diplomatic peace efforts that followed were finalized after the king's death in 1503, resulting in a territorial compromise and an unstable truce.
The Grand DukeAlexander was elected King of Poland in 1501, after the death of John Albert.[27] In 1506 he was succeeded bySigismund I the Old (Polish:Zygmunt I Stary,Lithuanian:Žygimantas Senasis) in both Poland and Lithuania, as the political realities were drawing the two states closer together.[28] Prior to that Sigismund I had been aDuke of Silesia by the authority of his brotherLadislaus II of Bohemia, but like other Jagiellon rulers before him, he had not pursued the Polish Crown's claim to Silesia.
After the death ofKing Alexander I, Sigismund I arrived inVilnius, where he was elected by theLithuanian Ducal Council on 13 September 1506 asGrand Duke of Lithuania, contrary to theUnion of Mielnik, which involved a joint Polish-Lithuanian election of a monarch.[28] On 8 December 1506 during the session of thePolish Senate inPiotrków, Sigismund I was elected King of Poland.[28] He arrived in Kraków on 20 January 1507 and was crowned four days later inWawel Cathedral by Primate Andrzej Boryszewski. In 1518 Sigismund I marriedBona Sforza d'Aragona, a young, strong-minded Italian princess.[28] The couple had six children together, including a male heir,Sigismund Augustus.[29] In 1527, while pregnant with the sixth child, the Queen fell from a horse during hunting of abear and gave birthprematurely to her second son,Prince Albertus, who died the same day; accident renderred Bona infertile and left Augustus as sole surviving legitimate son of the King.[30][31]
Bona's sway over the king and themagnates, her efforts to strengthen the monarch's political position, financial situation, and especially the measures she took to advance her personal and dynastic interests, including the forced royal election of the minorSigismund Augustus in 1529 and his coronation in 1530, increased the discontent amongszlachta activists.[32]
The rebellion of Lwów (the so-calledChicken War) was an anti-royalist and anti-absolutistrokosz (rebellion) by thePolish nobility that occurred in 1537. The derisive name was coined by the magnates, who for the most part supported the King and claimed that the "war's" only effect was the near-extinction of the local chickens, eaten by the nobles gathered for the rebellion at Lwów, inLesser Poland. The nobility, gathered near the city to meet with alevée en masse, called for a military campaign againstMoldavia. However, the lesser and middle strata of the nobility called a rebellion, or semi-legal rebellion, to force the King to abandon his risky reforms. The nobles presented him with 36 demands, most notably: a cessation of further land acquisitions byQueen Bona, exemption of the nobility from the tithes, a clean-up of the Treasury rather than its expansion, confirmation and extension of the privileges of the nobility, lifting of the toll or exemption of the nobility from it, adoption of a law concerningincompatibilitas—the incompatibility of certain offices that were not to be joined in the same hand, the carrying out of a law requiring the appointment of only the local nobles to most important local offices and the creation of a body of permanent advisors to the king.[citation needed] Finally, the protesters criticised the role of Queen Bona, whom they blamed for the "bad education" of young Prince Sigismund Augustus (the future King Sigismund II Augustus), as well as for seeking to increase her power and influence in the state.
Sigismund II Augustus (1520–1572), King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. He ruled as co-monarch alongside his father in years 1529–1548 and as sole ruler since 1548.
From the outset of his reign, Sigismund II came into collision with the country's nobility, who had already begun curtailing the power of the great families. The ostensible cause of the nobility's animosity to the King was his second marriage with the Lithuanian noblewomanBarbara Radziwiłł, daughter ofHetman Jerzy Radziwiłł, conducted in secret during 1547 without consulting his parents and Polish nobility.[41] Sigismund II publicly announced marriage and declared his wife the Queen of Poland in 1548.[42][43] The King's marriage was strongly opposed by his mother Bona and by the magnates of the Crown, who demanded for marriage to be annulled or for Barbara to remained uncrowned (which would weaken position of potential children and would exclude them from being chosen as next rulers of Poland).[41][44][45][46] Sigismund II, who became the sole king ofPoland after his father's Sigismund I death in 1548, overcame the resistance and had Barbara crowned in 1550; a few months later the new queen died.[41][33] Sigismund II accompanied thefuneral procession of Barbara from Kraków to Vilnius by personally going on foot through cities.[47] While Bona eventually accepted Barbara as the Queen, via representatives sent to her daughter-in-law in 1551, she remained estranged from her son and ultimately returned to Italy in 1556, where she died soon afterwards.[48][32]During their stay inCracow, Sigismund II and Barbara often resided in royal hunting residency inNiepołomice Castle; the King had continued renovation of complex that was started by his parents.[49][50]
Barbara Radziwiłł (1523–1551), second wife of Sigismund II Augustus. She married King in 1547 and was declared Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania in 1548, but was crowned only in 1550, after three years of royal couple's fight with opposition.
Sigismund II possessed to a high degree the tenacity and patience that seem to have characterized all the Jagiellons, and he added to these qualities a dexterity and diplomatic finesse. No other Polish king seems to have so thoroughly understood the nature of the Polishsejm. Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to the care with which he controlled his nation. Everything went as he wished, they said, because he seemed to know everything in advance. He managed to get more money out of thesejm than his father ever could, and at one of hissejms he won the hearts of the assembly by unexpectedly appearing before them in the simple grey coat of aMasovian lord. Like his father, a pro-Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry with him the nation, often distrustful of the Germans. He avoided serious complications with the powerful Turks.
Sigismund II mediated for twenty years between theCatholic Church and theProtestants. Unsuccessful and debilitating beginning of theLivonian War for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania andLithuanian nobility's desire for equal rights with thePolish nobility resulted inchildless Sigismund II's possibly the most striking memorial—theUnion of Lublin, which united Poland and Lithuania with equal rights into thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth—the "Republic of the Two Nations" (Polish:Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów,Lithuanian:Abiejų Tautų Respublika).[33][51][52] Also, German-speakingRoyal Prussia and Prussian cities were included. This achievement might well have been impossible without Sigismund II.
Sigismund II had no living children with any of his three wives,[53] thus ending the male line of Jagiellonian dynasty, howeverdescandants of the female line remained in control over Poland and Lithuania as elective monarchs until 1668.
ThePolish "Golden Age", the period of the reigns ofSigismund I andSigismund II, the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture ofPolish Renaissance. The cultural flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers asKraków andGdańsk. As was the case with other European nations, the Renaissance inspiration came in the first place fromItaly, a process accelerated to some degree by the marriage of Sigismund I toBona Sforza. Many Poles traveled to Italy to study and to learn its culture. As imitating Italian ways became very trendy (the royal courts of the two kings provided the leadership and example for everybody else), many Italian artists and thinkers were coming to Poland, some settling and working there for many years. While the pioneering Polish humanists, greatly influenced byErasmus of Rotterdam, accomplished the preliminary assimilation of the antiquity culture, the generation that followed was able to put greater emphasis on the development of native elements, and because of its social diversity, advanced the process of national integration. TheAcademy of Kraków and Sigismund II possessed well-stocked libraries; smaller collections were increasingly common at noble courts, schools and the households of townspeople. Illiteracy levels were falling, as by the end of the 16th century almost every parish ran a school.
In 1515, during acongress in Vienna, a dynastic succession arrangement was agreed to betweenMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and the Jagiellon brothers,Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Sigismund I of Poland and Lithuania. It was supposed to end the Emperor's support for Poland's enemies, the Teutonic andRussian states, but after the election ofCharles V, Maximilian's successor in 1519, the relations with Sigismund had worsened.[54]
The Jagiellon rivalry with theHouse of Habsburg in central Europe was ultimately resolved to the Habsburgs' advantage. The decisive factor that damaged or weakened the monarchies of the last Jagiellons was theOttoman Empire's Turkish expansion. Hungary's vulnerability greatly increased after Suleiman the Magnificent took the Belgrade fortress in 1521. To prevent Poland from extending military aid to Hungary,Suleiman had a Tatar-Turkish force raid southeastern Poland–Lithuania in 1524. The Hungarian army was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács, where the youngLouis II Jagiellon, son of Vladislaus II, was killed. Subsequently, after a period of internal strife and external intervention, Hungary was partitioned between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans.
Sigismund II Augustus kept close diplomatic ties with the Habsburgs and took as his first and third wives daughters ofFerdinand I Habsburg,Elizabeth andCatherine, however both marriages remained unhappy and childless, what caused some tensions in relationship between King of Poland and family of his wives.[55][56] Sigismund II remained allied to his former father-in-law also during marriage withQueen Barbara, as Ferdinand promised to Polish royal couple a military support in case of rebellion of nobles who were opposing king's choice of bride.[57]
On other hand, Sigismund I's daughter and Sigsmund Augustus's sister,Isabella Jagiellon, regent ofKingdom of Hungary in the name of her sonJohn Sigismund Zápolya, was in diplomatic and military conflict with Ferdinand Habsburg, as both sides were laying claim to the Hungarian throne.[58]
Vladislaus was born on 1 March 1456, the oldest son of KingCasimir IV of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, then the head of the ruling Jagiellon dynasty of Poland, andElizabeth of Austria, daughter ofAlbert,King of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia. He was christened as the namesake of his grandfather, KingLadislaus Jagiełło of Poland and Lithuania, his maternal uncle KingLadislaus the Posthumous of Bohemia and his paternal uncleLadislaus III of Poland, an earlier king of Hungary.
He was proposed for the Bohemian throne by the widow of the previous king,George of Poděbrady, and was crownedKing of Bohemia on 22 August 1471. The period after the death ofGeorge of Poděbrady was a time of conflict for the Bohemian throne (seeBohemian–Hungarian War (1468–1478)), and Vladislaus was unable to confront it. At the time of his arrival inPrague, he was only fifteen years old and significantly dominated by his advisers. The succession conflict was settled in 1479 in the Peace of Olomouc, which allowed both Vladislaus andMatthias Corvinus to use the title "King of Bohemia". Vladislaus would reign in Bohemia proper, while Matthias gainedMoravia,Silesia, and the two Lusatias. The deal also stipulated that in case of Matthias' death, Vladislaus would pay 400,000 gulden for the entirety of the Bohemian lands. However, this payment was not made once Vladislaus became King of Hungary after the death of Matthias.
Great chaos overcameHungary when the KingMatthias Corvinus died without heir in 1490. His illegitimate sonJohn Corvinus was not recognized by theHungarian nobility, and after being forced to retreat, they called Vladislaus to Hungary, as his mother was the sister of the long ago deceased King Ladislaus and granddaughter of King Sigismund. Vladislaus was then crowned King of Hungary on 18 September 1490.
Vladislaus immediately moved to Hungary, and there he lived the rest of his life, having his court and all his children born in the palace of Buda. The Hungarian nobility reigned and took many important decisions in his name, and his role as monarch soon passed to be in a second plan.Stephen Zápolya, the archbishopTamás Bakócz andGeorge Szatmári continued with the Turkish war plans and tried then to maintain the Kingdom that fell in a severe economical crisis after Matthias's death. Vladislaus was a cheerful man, but after the death of his third wife, he fell into a severe depression and almost retired from all official issues. Then he gained the nickname of "Vladislaus Bene" (Polish:Władysław Dobrze, Hungarian:Dobzse László, Czech:král Dobře) because to almost any request he answered, "Bene" (Latin for "(It is) well").
Louis II was the son of Ladislaus II Jagiellon and his third wife,Anne of Foix-Candale. In 1515 Louis II was married toMary of Austria, granddaughter of EmperorMaximilian I, as stipulated by the First Congress of Vienna in 1515. His sister Anne was married to ArchdukeFerdinand of Austria, then a governor on behalf of his brotherCharles V, and later Emperor Ferdinand I.
Following the accession to the throne ofSuleiman I, the sultan sent an ambassador toLouis II to collect the annual tribute that Hungary had been subjected to. Louis refused to pay annual tribute and had the Ottoman ambassador executed and sent the head to the Sultan. Louis believed that the Papal States and other Christian States including Charles V,Holy Roman Emperor would help him. This event hastened the fall of Hungary. TheOttoman Empire declared war on theKingdom of Hungary, Suleiman postponed his plan to besiege Rhodes and made an expedition to Belgrade. Louis failed to coordinate and gather his forces. At the same time, Hungary was unable to get assistance from other European states, which Louis had hoped for.Belgrade and many strategic castles inSerbia were captured by the Ottomans. This was disastrous for Louis' kingdom; without the strategically important cities of Belgrade and Šabac, Hungary, including Buda, was open to further Turkish conquests.
Discovery of the corpse of King Louis II after theBattle of Mohacs
After thesiege of Rhodes, in 1526 Suleiman made a second expedition to subdue all of Hungary. Louis made a tactical error when he tried to stop the Ottoman army in an open field battle with a medieval army, insufficient firearms, and obsolete tactics. On 29 August 1526, Louis led his forces against Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire in the disastrousBattle of Mohács. In a pincer movement, the Hungarian army was surrounded by Ottoman cavalry, and in the center, the Hungarian heavy knights and infantry were repulsed and suffered heavy casualties, especially from the well-positioned Ottoman cannons and well-armed and trained Janissary musketeers.
Nearly the entire Hungarian Royal army was destroyed on the battlefield. During the retreat, the twenty-year-old king died in a marsh. As Louis had no legitimate children,Ferdinand was elected as his successor in the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, but the Hungarian throne was contested byJohn Zápolya, who ruled the areas of the kingdom conquered by the Turks as an Ottoman client.
According to his 1506 privilege, which he granted during his coronation as the Grand Duke of Lithuania, he was elected not only as the grand duke, but also as the Supreme Duke (Supremus Dux) of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[66]
Became Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland in 1529, as co-ruler with his father. He married out of love a Lithuanian noblewoman Barbara Radziwiłł, which stirred conflict with nobles during first years of his reign.[67][68][34]
After Sigismund II Augustus, the dynasty underwent further changes. Sigismund II's heirs were his sistersAnna Jagiellon andCatherine Jagiellon. The latter had married Duke John (a son of KingGustav I), who thereby from 1569 became KingJohn III of Sweden, and they had a son,Sigismund III Vasa; as a result, the Polish branch of the Jagiellonians merged with theHouse of Vasa, which ruled Poland from 1587 until 1668. During the interval, among others,Stephen Báthory, the husband of the childless Anna, reigned.
Jagiellonian Kings of Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia
At one point, the Jagiellonians established dynastic control also over the kingdoms ofBohemia andHungary (from 1490 onwards), withVladislaus Jagiello whom several history books call Vladisla(u)s II. After being elected and crowned King of Hungary, Vladislaus moved his court to Hungary from where he ruled both countries and his children were born and raised. By Louis' sudden death inBattle of Mohács in 1526, that royal line was extinguished in male line.
Although Louis II's marriage remained childless, he probably had an illegitimate child with his mother's former lady-in-waiting,Angelitha Wass, before his marriage. This son was calledJohn (János in Hungarian). This name appears in sources in Vienna as either János Wass or János Lanthos. The former surname is his mother's maiden name. The latter surname may refer to his occupation. "Lanthos" means "lutenist", or "bard". He received incomes from the Royal Treasury regularly. He had further offspring.
Sigismund II Augustus had one acknowledged illegtimate child, Barbara, born by his mistressBarbara Giżanka. The girl was adopted by her stepfather,kniaz Michał Woroniecki, and eventually married official of royal treasure, Jakub Zawadzki.[71]
^Jadwiga was crowned King of Poland—Hedvig Rex Poloniae, not Hedvig Regina Poloniae.
^This is true especially regarding legislative matters and legal framework. Despite the restrictions the nobility imposed on the monarchs, the Polish kings had never become figureheads. In practice they wielded considerable executive power, up to and including the last king,Stanisław August Poniatowski. Some were at times even accused of absolutist tendencies, and it may be for the lack of sufficiently strong personalities or favorable circumstances that none of the kings had succeeded in significant and lasting strengthening of the monarchy.[11]
^Borkowska, Urszula (2012).Dynastia Jagiellonów w Polsce (in Polish). PWN.ISBN9788301205331. p. 481.
^Borkowska, Urszula (2012).Dynastia Jagiellonów w Polsce (in Polish). PWN. pp. 79, 477, 481. ISBN 9788301205331.
^Krzysztof Baczkowski –Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506) (History of Late Medieval Poland (1370–1506)), p. 55; Fogra, Kraków 1999,ISBN83-85719-40-7
^abFrost, Robert (2015).The Oxford History of Poland-Lithuania. The Making of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, 1385—1569. Oxford. pp. 185–186.ISBN978-0-19-820869-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Kosman, Marceli (1989). ""Podniesienie" książąt litewskich" ["Elevation" of the Lithuanian princes].Litwa pierwotna. Mity, legendy, fakty. p. 274.
^J. Kiaupienė Valdžios krizės pabaiga ir Kazimieras Jogailaitis. Gimtoji istorija 2: Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės (Lietuvos istorijos vadovėlis). CD. (2003). Elektroninės leidybos namai: Vilnius.
^"Valdovų rūmai".Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved11 February 2023.
^abcBumblauskas, Alfredas."Barbora Radvilaitė".Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved11 February 2023.
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