Kingdom of Jaffna | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1215–1619 | |||||||||||
 Jaffna Kingdom 1469-1521 Jaffna Kingdom 1521-1538 Jaffna Kingdom 1594-1597 Jaffna Kingdom 1597-1619Territorial evolution of the Jaffna Kingdom | |||||||||||
| Capital | Nallur | ||||||||||
| Common languages | Tamil | ||||||||||
| Religion | Hinduism (Shaivism) | ||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||
| Monarchs | |||||||||||
| Kulankayan Cinkai Ariyan a.k.a. Kalinga Magha | |||||||||||
• 1277–1284 | Kulasekara Cinkaiariyan | ||||||||||
• 1617–1619 | Cankili II | ||||||||||
| Historical era | Transitional period | ||||||||||
| 1215 | |||||||||||
• Pandyas installedAryacakravarti | 1277 | ||||||||||
• Independence fromPandya dynasty | 1323 | ||||||||||
| 1450 | |||||||||||
• Aryacakravarti dynasty restored | 1467 | ||||||||||
| 1619 | |||||||||||
| Currency | Setu coins | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
TheJaffna Kingdom (Tamil:யாழ்ப்பாண அரசு,Sinhala:යාපනය රාජධානිය; 1215–1619 CE), also known asKingdom of Aryachakravarti, was a historical kingdom of what today is northern Sri Lanka. It came into existence around the town ofJaffna on theJaffna Peninsula and was traditionally thought to have been established after the invasion ofKalinga Magha fromKalinga in India.[1][2][3][4] Established as a powerful force in the north, northeast and west of the island, it eventually became a tribute-payingfeudatory of thePandyan Empire in modernSouth India in 1258, gaining independence[1][5] when the last Pandyan ruler ofMadurai was defeated and expelled in 1323 byMalik Kafur, the army general of theDelhi Sultanate.[6] For a brief period in the early to mid-14th century it was an ascendant power in the island of Sri Lanka, to which all regional kingdoms accepted subordination. However, the kingdom was overpowered by the rivalKotte kingdom around 1450 when it was invaded byPrince Sapumal under the orders ofParakramabahu VI.[5][1][2][3][4]
It gained independence fromkingdom of Kotte control in 1467 after Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan and his two son's returned fromMadurai with mercenaries to wrest the Jaffna Kingdom from Kotte's over lordship.[7][8][9] and its subsequent rulers directed their energies towards consolidating its economic potential by maximising revenue from pearls, elephant exports and land revenue.[10][11] It was lessfeudal than most of the other regional kingdoms on the island of Sri Lanka of the period.[11] During this period, important localTamil literature was produced andHindu temples were built, including an academy for language advancement.[12][13][14] The Sinhalese Nampota dated in its present form to the 14th or 15th century CE suggests that the whole of the Jaffna kingdom, including parts of the modernTrincomalee District, was recognised as a Tamil region by the name Demala-pattanama (Tamil city).[15] In this work, a number of villages that are now situated in theJaffna,Mullaitivu andTrincomalee districts are mentioned as places in Demala-pattanama.[16]
The arrival of thePortuguese on the island of Sri Lanka in 1505, and its strategic location in thePalk Strait connecting all interiorSinhalese kingdoms toSouth India, created political problems. Many of its kings confronted and ultimately made peace with the Portuguese. In 1617,Cankili II, a usurper to the throne, confronted the Portuguese but was defeated, thus bringing the kingdom's independent existence to an end in 1619.[17][18] Although rebels likeMigapulle Arachchi—with the help of theThanjavur Nayak kingdom—tried to recover the kingdom, they were eventually defeated.[19][20]Nallur, a suburb of modern Jaffna town, was its capital.
Part ofa series on the | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Historicalstates ofSri Lanka | ||||||||||||||
 | ||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||
| Part ofa series on |
| Sri Lankan Tamils |
|---|
The origin of the Jaffna kingdom is obscure and still the subject of controversy among historians.[21][22][23][24][25] Among mainstream historians, such asK. M. de Silva,S. Pathmanathan andKarthigesu Indrapala, the widely accepted view is that the kingdom of theAryacakravarti dynasty in Jaffna began in 1215 with the invasion of a previously unknown chieftain calledMagha, who claimed to be fromKalinga in modern India.[2][3][4] He deposed the rulingParakrama Pandyan II, a foreigner from thePandyan Dynasty who was ruling thekingdom of Polonnaruwa at the time with the help of his soldiers and mercenaries from the Kalinga, modernKerala andDamila (Tamil Nadu) regions in India.[1]
.png)
After the conquest ofRajarata, he moved the capital to theJaffna peninsula which was more secured by heavy Vanni forest and ruled as a tribute-paying subordinate of theChola empire ofTanjavur, in modern Tamil Nadu, India.[1] During this period (1247), aMalay chieftain fromTambralinga in modernThailand namedChandrabhanu invaded the politically fragmented island.[1] Although KingParakramabahu II (1236–1270) fromDambadeniya was able to repulse the attack, Chandrabhanu moved north and secured the throne for himself around 1255 from Magha.[1]Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I invaded Sri Lanka in the 13th century and defeated Chandrabhanu the usurper of the Jaffna kingdom in northern Sri Lanka.[26]Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I forced Chandrabhanu to submit to the Pandyan rule and to pay tributes to thePandyan Dynasty. But later on when Chandrabhanu became powerful enough he again invaded the Singhalese kingdom but he was defeated by the brother ofSadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I called Veera Pandyan I and Chandrabhanu lost his life.[26] Sri Lanka was invaded for the 3rd time by thePandyan Dynasty under the leadership of Arya Cakravarti who established the Jaffna kingdom.[26]
When Chandrabhanu embarked on a second invasion of the south, the Pandyas came to the support of the Sinhalese king and killed Chandrabhanu in 1262 and installedAryacakravarti, a minister in charge of the invasion, as the king.[1] When the Pandyan Empire became weak due toMuslim invasions, successive Aryacakravarti rulers made the Jaffna kingdom independent and a regional power to reckon with in Sri Lanka.[1][5] All subsequent kings of the Jaffna kingdom claimed descent from one Kulingai Cakravarti who is identified with Kalinga Magha by Swami Gnanaprakasar and Mudaliar Rasanayagam while maintaining their Pandyan progenitor's family name.[27][28]
Politically, the dynasty was an expanding power in the 13th and 14th century with all regional kingdoms paying tribute to it.[5] However, it met with simultaneous confrontations with theVijayanagar empire that ruled fromVijayanagara, southern India, and a reboundingKingdom of Kotte from the south of Sri Lanka.[29] This led to the kingdom becoming avassal of the Vijayanagar Empire as well as briefly losing its independence under the Kotte kingdom from 1450 to 1467.[5] The kingdom was re-established when Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan and his two son's returned fromMadurai with mercenaries to wrest the Jaffna Kingdom from Kotte's over lordship.[7][8] It maintained very close commercial and political relationships with theThanjavur Nayakar kingdom in southern India as well as theKandyan and segments of the Kotte kingdom. This period saw the building of Hindu temples and a flourishing of literature, both in Tamil and Sanskrit.[29][30][31]
The Kotte conquest of the Jaffna kingdom was led by kingParakramabahu VI's adopted son,Prince Sapumal. This battle took place in many stages. Firstly, the tributaries to the Jaffna kingdom in theVanni area, namely theVanniar chieftains of theVannimai were neutralised. This was followed by two successive conquests. The first war of conquest did not succeed in capturing the kingdom. It was the second conquest dated to 1450 that eventually was successful.
Apparently connected with this war of conquest was an expedition to Adriampet in modernSouth India, occasioned according to Valentyn by the seizure of a Lankan ship laden withcinnamon. TheTenkasi inscription of Arikesari Parakrama Pandya ofTinnevelly who saw the backs of kings atSingai,Anurai, and elsewhere, may refer to these wars; it is dated between 1449–50 and 1453–54.[32]
Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan the Aryacakravarti king fled to South India with his family. Then Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan and his two son's returned fromMadurai with mercenaries to wrest the Jaffna Kingdom from Kotte's overlordship.[7][8]
Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 where their initial forays were against the south-western coastal Kotte kingdom due to the lucrative monopoly on trade inspices that the Kotte kingdom enjoyed that was also of interest to the Portuguese.[33] The Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials in Colombo for multiple reasons which included their interference inRoman Catholic missionary activities,[33] (which was assumed to be patronizing Portuguese interests) and their support to anti-Portuguese factions of the Kotte kingdom, such as the chieftains fromSitawaka.[33] The Jaffna kingdom also functioned as a logistical base for theKandyan kingdom, located in the central highlands without access to any seaports, as an entryport for military aid arriving fromSouth India.[33] Further, due to its strategic location, it was feared that the Jaffna kingdom may become a beachhead for theDutch landings.[33] It was kingCankili I who resisted contacts with the Portuguese and even massacred 600–700ParavaCatholics in theisland of Mannar. These Catholics were brought from India to Mannar to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings.[34][35]
Thefirst expedition led by Viceroy DomConstantino de Bragança in 1560 failed to subdue the kingdom but wrestedMannar Island from it.[36] Although the circumstances are unclear, by 1582 the Jaffna king was paying a tribute of ten elephants or an equivalent in cash.[33][36] In 1591, during thesecond expedition led by André Furtado de Mendonça, kingPuvirasa Pandaram was killed and his sonEthirimanna Cinkam was installed as the monarch. This arrangement gave the Catholic missionaries freedom and a monopoly in elephant exports to the Portuguese,[36][37] which the incumbent king however resisted.[36][37] He helped theKandyan kingdom under kingsVimaladharmasuriya I and Senarat during the period 1593–1635 with the intent of securing help from South India to resist the Portuguese. He however maintained autonomy of the kingdom without overly provoking the Portuguese.[36][37]
With the death of Ethirimana Cinkam in 1617, his 3-year-old son was the proclaimed king with the late king's brotherArasakesari asregent.Cankili II, a usurper, and nephew of the late king killed all the princes of royal blood includingArasakesari and the powerful chiefPeriya Pillai Arachchi.[17][38] His cruel actions made him unpopular leading to a revolt by the nominal ChristianMudaliyars Dom Pedro and Dom Luis (also known asMigapulle Arachchi, the son of Periya Pillai Arachchi) and drove Cankili to hide inKayts in August–September 1618.[39] Unable to secure Portuguese acceptance of his kingship and to suppress the revolt, Cankili II invited military aid from theThanjavur Nayaks who sent a troop of 5000 men under the military commanderVarunakulattan.[17][40][41]
Cankili II was supported by the Kandy rulers. After the fall of the Jaffna kingdom, the two unnamed princesses of Jaffna had been married to Senarat's stepsons, Kumarasingha and Vijayapala.[20] Cankili II, as expected, received military support from the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom. In turn,Raghunatha Nayak of Thanjavur made attempts to recover the Jaffna kingdom for his protégé, the Prince of Rameshwaram.[20] However, all attempts to recover the Jaffna kingdom from the Portuguese met with failure.
By June 1619, there were two Portuguese expeditions: a naval expedition that was repulsed by theKaraiyars and another expedition byFilipe de Oliveira and his 5,000 strong land army which was able to inflict defeat on Cankili II.[17] Cankili, along with every surviving member of the royal family were captured and taken toGoa, where he was hanged. The remaining captives were encouraged to become monks or nuns in the holy orders, and as most obliged, it avoided further claimants to the Jaffna throne.[17] In 1620Migapulle Arachchi, with a troop of Thanjavur soldiers, revolted against the Portuguese and was defeated.[42] A second rebellion was led by a chieftain calledVarunakulattan with the support ofRaghunatha Nayak.[43]
According toIbn Batuta, a travelingMoroccan historian of note, by 1344, the kingdom had two capitals: one inNallur in the north and the other inPuttalam in the west during the pearling season.[5][31][45] The kingdom proper, that is the Jaffna peninsula, was divided into various provinces with subdivisions ofparrus meaning property or larger territorial units andur or villages, the smallest unit, was administered on a hierarchical and regional basis.[46] At the summit was the king whose kingship was hereditary; he was usually succeeded by his eldest son. Next in the hierarchy stood theadikaris who were the provincial administrators.[5][46] Then came themudaliyars who functioned as judges and interpreters of the laws and customs of the land.[46] It was also their duty to gather information of whatever was happening in the provinces and report to higher authorities. The title was bestowed on theKaraiyar generals who commanded the navy and also onVellalar chiefs.[47] Administrators of revenues calledkankanis or superintendents andkanakkappillais oraccountants came next in line. These were also known aspandarapillai. They had to keep records and maintain accounts.[46][48] The royalheralds whose duty was to convey messages or proclamations came from theParaiyar community.[49]
Maniyam was the chief of theparrus.[46] He was assisted bymudaliyars who were in turn assisted byudaiyars, persons of authority over a village or a group of villages.[46] They were the custodians of law and order and gave assistance to survey land and collect revenues in the area under their control.[46] The village headman was calledtalaiyari,pattankaddi oradappanar and he assisted in the collection of taxes and was responsible for the maintenance of order in his territorial unit.[46][50] The Adappanar were the headmen of the ports.[51] The Pattankaddi and Adappanar were from the maritimeKaraiyar andParavar communities.[52] In addition, eachcaste had a chief who supervised the performance of caste obligations and duties.[46][48]
Vannimais were regions south of the Jaffna peninsula in the present-day North Central and Eastern provinces and were sparsely settled by people. They were ruled by petty chiefs calling themselvesVanniar.[48] Vannimais just south of the Jaffna peninsula and in the easternTrincomalee district usually paid an annual tribute to the Jaffna kingdom instead of taxes.[9][48] The tribute was in cash, grains,honey,elephants, andivory. The annual tribute system was enforced due to the greater distance from Jaffna.[48] During the early and middle part of the 14th century, the Sinhalese kingdoms in western, southern and central part of the island also became feudatories until the kingdom itself was briefly occupied by the forces of Parakramabahu VI around 1450 for about 17 years.[53] Around the early 17th century, the kingdom also administered anexclave in Southern India called Madalacotta.[54]
The economy of the kingdom was almost exclusively based onsubsistence agriculture until the 15th century. After the 15th century, however, the economy became diversified and commercialized as it became incorporated into the expandingIndian Ocean.
Ibn Batuta, during his visit in 1344, observed that the kingdom of Jaffna was a major trading kingdom with extensive overseas contacts, who described that the kingdom had a "considerable forces by the sea", testifying to their strong reputed navy.[55] He witnessed a hundred ships of varying sizes belonging to the Jaffna kingdom on theMalabar Coast.[56] The kingdom's trades were oriented towards maritimeSouth India, with which it developed a commercial interdependence. The non-agriculture tradition of the kingdom became strong as a result of large coastal fishing and boating population and growing opportunities for seaborne commerce. Influential commercial groups, drawn mainly from south Indian mercantile groups as well as other, resided in the royal capital, port, and market centers. Artisan settlements were also established and groups of skilled tradesmen—carpenters, stonemasons, wavers, dryers, gold and silver smiths—resided in urban centers. Thus, a pluralistic socio-economic tradition of agriculture, marine activities, commerce and handicraft production was well established.[10]
Jaffna kingdom was less feudalized than other kingdoms in Sri Lanka, such as Kotte and Kandy.[11] Its economy was based on more money transactions than transactions on land or its produce. The Jaffna defense forces were not feudal levies; soldiers in the kings service were paid in cash.[11] The king's officials, namelyMudaliayars, were also paid in cash and the numerous Hindu temples seem not to have owned extensive properties, unlike the Buddhist establishments in the South. Temples and the administrators depended on the king and the worshippers for their upkeep.[11] Royal and Army officials were thus a salaried class and these three institutions consumed over 60% of the revenues of the kingdom and 85% of the government expenditure.[11] Much of the kingdom's revenues also came from cash except the elephants from theVanni feudatories.[11] At the time of the conquest by the Portuguese in 1620, the kingdom which was truncated in size and restricted to the Jaffna peninsula had revenues of 11,700pardaos of which 97% came from land or sources connected to the land. One was called land rent and another called paddy tax calledarretane.[11]
Apart from the land related taxes, there were other taxes, such as garden tax from compounds where, among others,plantain,coconut andarecanutpalms were grown and irrigated by water from the well. Tree tax on trees such aspalmyrah,margosa andiluppai and poll tax equivalent to a personal tax from each. Professional tax was collected from members of eachcaste orguild and commercial taxes consisting of, among others, stamp duty on clothes (clothes could not be sold privately and had to have official stamp),Taraku or levy on items of food, and Port and customs duties.Columbuthurai, which connected the Peninsula with the mainland atPoonakari with its boat services, was one of the chief port, and there were customs check posts at the sand passes ofPachilaippalai.[46] Elephants from the southern Sinhalese kingdoms and the Vanni region were brought to Jaffna to be sold to foreign buyers. They were shipped abroad from a bay called Urukathurai, which is now calledKayts—a shortened form of PortugueseCaes dos elephantess (Bay of Elephants).[33] Perhaps a peculiarity of Jaffna was the levy of license fee for thecremation of the dead.[46]
Not all payments in kind were converted to cash, offerings of rice,bananas, milk,dried fish, game meat andcurd persisted.[11] Some inhabitants also had to render unpaid personal services calleduliyam.[11]
The kings also issued many types of coins for circulation. Several types of coins categorized asSethu Bull coins issued from 1284 to 1410 are found in large quantities in the northern part of Sri Lanka. The obverse of these coins have a human figure flanked by lamps and the reverse has theNandi (bull) symbol, the legendSetu inTamil with a crescent moon above.[4][57]
Shaivism (a denomination ofHinduism) in Sri Lanka has had continuous history from the early period of settlers from India. Hindu worship was widely accepted even as part of theBuddhist religious practices.[58] During theChola period in Sri Lanka, around the 9th and 10th century, Hinduism gained status as an official religion in the island kingdom.[59]Kalinga Magha, whose rule followed that of the Cholas is remembered as a Hindu revivalist by the native literature of that period.[60]
As the state religion, Hinduism enjoyed all the prerogatives of the establishment during the period of the Jaffna kingdom. The Aryacakravarti dynasty was very conscious of its duties as a patron towards Hinduism because of the patronage given by its ancestors to theRameswaram temple, a well-known pilgrimage center of Indian Hinduism. As noted, one of the titles assumed by the kings wasSetukavalan or protector ofSetu another name for Rameswaram.Setu was used in their coins as well as in inscriptions as marker of the dynasty.[12]
.jpg)
Prince Sapumal (also known asChempaha Perumal inTamil), who ruled the Jaffna kingdom on behalf of the Kotte kingdom is credited with either building or renovating theNallur Kandaswamy temple.[9][61]Singai Pararasasegaram is credited with building the Sattanathar temple, the Vaikuntha Pillaiyar temple and the Veerakaliamman temple. He built a pond called Yamuneri and filled it with water from theYamuna river ofNorth India, which is considered holy by Hindus.[13] He was a frequent visitor of theKoneswaram temple, as was his son and successor KingCankili I.[62] KingJeyaveera Cinkaiariyan had the traditional history of the temple compiled as a chronicle in verse, entitledDakshina Kailasa Puranam, known today as theSthala Puranam of Koneshwaram Temple.[63] Major temples were normally maintained by the kings and a salary was paid from the royal treasury to those who worked in the temple, unlike in India and rest of Sri Lanka, where religious establishments were autonomous entities with large endowments of land and related revenue.[11]
Most acceptedShiva as the primary deity and thelingam, the universal symbol of Shiva, was consecrated in shrines dedicated to him. The other Hindu gods of the pantheon such asMurugan,Pillaiyar,Kali were also worshipped. At the village level,village deities were popular along with the worship ofKannaki whose veneration was common amongst theSinhalese in the south as well. Belief incharm andevil spirits existed, just as in the rest ofSouth Asia.[12]
There were many Hindu temples within the kingdom. Some were of great historic importance, such as theKoneswaram temple inTrincomalee,Ketheeswaram temple inMannar,Naguleswaram temple in Keerimalai along with hundreds of other temples that were scattered over the region.[64] The ceremonies and festivals were similar to those in modernSouth India, with some slight changes in emphasis. TheTamil devotional literature ofShaiva saints was used in worship. The Hindu New Year falling in the middle of April was more elaborately celebrated and festivals, such asNavarattiri,Deepavali,Sivarattiri, andThaiponkal, along with marriages, deaths and coming of age ceremonies were part of the daily life.[65]
Until around 1550, Buddhism continued to prevail in the Jaffna kingdom among the Sinhalese who had remained in the territory. However, around this timeCankili I expelled the Sinhalese Buddhists and destroyed their many places of worship.[66][67][68] Some important places of Buddhist worship in the Jaffna kingdom, which are mentioned in theNampota are: Naga-divayina (Nagadipa, modern Nainativu), Telipola, Mallagama, Minuvangomu-viharaya andKadurugoda (modern Kantharodai).[69][70] Of these only the Buddhist temple at Nagadipa survive today.[70]
The social organization of the people of the Jaffna kingdom was based on acaste system and amatrilinealkudi (clan) system similar to the caste structure ofSouth India.[71][72] The Aryacakravarti kings and their immediate family claimedBrahma-Kshatriya status, meaningBrahmins who took tomartial life.[73] TheMadapalli were theAristocrats andcooks, theAkampadayar's formed the palace servants, theParaiyar were the royalheralds and theSiviyar were the royalpalanquin bearers.[49][74][75] The army andnavy generals were from theKaraiyar caste, who also controlled thepearl trade and whose chiefs were known asMudaliyar,Paddankatti andAdapannar.[76] TheMukkuvar andThimilar were also engaged in the pearl fishery.[77] TheUdayars or village headmen and landlords of agriculture societies were mostly drawn from theVellalar caste.[50][59] The service providing communities were known asKudimakkal and consisted of various groups such as theAmbattar,Vannar,Kadaiyar,Pallar,Nalavar,Paraiyar,Koviyar andBrahmin.[78] The Kudimakkal had ritual importance in the temples and at funerals and weddings.[79] TheChettys were well known as traders and owners of Hindu temples and thePallar andNalavar castes composed of the agriculturist labours who tilled the land.[59] The weavers were the Paraiyars andSengunthar who gave importance to the textile trade.[49] Theartisans also known asKammalar were formed by theKollar,Thattar,Tatchar,Kaltatchar and theKannar.[80][81]
%2c_Neduntheevu.JPG)
Mercenaries of various ethnic and caste backgrounds from India, such as theTelugus (known locally asVadugas) andMalayalis from the Kerala region were also employed by the king as soldiers.[59]Muslim traders and sea pirates ofMapilla andMoor ethnicities as well as Sinhalese were in the kingdom.[5][82] The kingdom also functioned as a refuge for rebels from the south seeking shelter after failed political coups. According to the earliest historiographical literature of the Kingdom of Jaffna,Vaiyaapaadal, datable to 14th–15th century, in verse 77 lists the community ofPapparavar (Berbers specifically andAfricans in general) along withKuchchiliyar (Gujaratis) andChoanar (Arabs) and places them under the caste category ofPa’l’luvili who are believed to becavalrymen ofMuslim faith. The caste ofPa’l’luvili orPa’l’livili is peculiar to Jaffna. A Dutch census taken in 1790 in Jaffna records 196 male adults belonging to Pa’l’livili caste as taxpayers. That means the identity and profession existed until Dutch times. But, Choanakar, with 492 male adults and probably by this time generally meaning the Muslims, is found mentioned as a separate community in this census.[83]
During the rule of the Aryacakravarti rulers, the laws governing the society was based on a compromise between amatriarchal system of society that seemed to have had deeper roots overlaid with apatriarchal system of governance. These laws seemed to have existed side by side as customary laws to be interpreted by the localMudaliars. In some aspects such as in inheritance the similarity toMarumakattayam law of present-dayKerala andAliyasanatana of modernTulunadu was noted by later scholars. Further,Islamic jurisprudence andHindu laws of neighboring India also seemed to have affected the customary laws. These customary laws were later codified and put to print during theDutch colonial rule asThesavalamai in 1707.[84] The rule under earlier customs seemed to have been females succeeded females. But when the structure of the society came to be based on patriarchal system, a corresponding rule was recognized, that males succeeded males. Thus, we see the devolution ofmuthusam (paternal inheritance) was on the sons, and the devolution of thechidenam (dowry or maternal inheritance) was on the females. Just as one dowried sister succeeded another, we had the corresponding rule that if one's brother died instate, his properties devolved upon his brothers to the exclusion of his sisters. The reason being that in a patriarchal family each brother formed a family unit, but all the brothers beingagnates, when one of them died his property devolved upon his agnates.[84]
The kings of the dynasty provided patronage to literature and education. Temple schools and traditionalgurukulam classes inverandahs (known asThinnai Pallikoodam inTamil language) spread basic education in languages such as Tamil language andSanskrit and religion to the upper classes.[14] During the reign ofJeyaveera Cinkaiariyan rule, a work on medical science (Segarajasekaram), onastrology (Segarajasekaramalai)[14][85] and on mathematics (Kanakathikaram) were authored by Karivaiya.[14] During the rule ofGunaveera Cinkaiariyan, a work on medical sciences, known asPararajasekaram, was completed.[14] DuringSingai Pararasasegaram's rule, an academy for Tamil language propagation on the model of ancientTamil Sangams was established in Nallur. This academy performed a useful service in collecting and preserving ancient Tamil works inmanuscripts form in a library calledSaraswathy Mahal.[14] Singai Pararasasekaran's cousinArasakesari was credited with translating the Sanskrit classicRaghuvamsa into Tamil.[85] Pararasasekaran's brotherSegarajasekaran and Arasakesari collected manuscripts fromMadurai and other regions for the Saraswathy Mahal library.[86] Among other literary works of historic importance compiled before the arrival of European colonizers,Vaiyapatal, written by Vaiyapuri Aiyar, is well known.[14][87]
There were periodic waves ofSouth Indian influence over Sri Lankan art and architecture, though the prolific age of monumental art and architecture seemed to have declined by the 13th century.[89] Temples built by theTamils of Indian origin from the 10th century belonged to theMadurai variant ofVijayanagar period.[89] A prominent feature of the Madurai style was the ornate and heavily sculptured tower orgopuram over the entrance of temple.[89] None of the important religious constructions of this style within the territory that formed the Jaffna kingdom survived the destructive hostility of the Portuguese.[89]
Nallur, the capital was built with four entrances with gates.[90] There were two main roadways and four temples at the four gateways.[90] The rebuilt temples that exist now do not match their original locations which instead are occupied by churches erected by the Portuguese.[90] The center of the city wasMuthirai Santhai (market place) and was surrounded by a square fortification around it.[90] There were courtly buildings for the Kings, Brahmin priests, soldiers and other service providers.[90] The old Nallur Kandaswamy temple functioned as a defensive fort with high walls.[90] In general, the city was laid out like the traditional temple town according to Hindu traditions.[90]
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)தமிழரசர்காலத்திற் போலவே "அதிகாரம்' என்னுந் தலைமைக்காரர் பறங்கியர் காலத்திலும் நியமிக் கப்பட்டிருந்தாலும், வரியறவிடும் முக்கிய தலைமைக் காரர், இறைசுவர் (Recebedor) என்றும், அவர்களுக்குக் கீழுள்ளவர்கள் 'தலையாரிகள்' அல்லது மேயோருல், (Mayora) என்றும் அழைக்கப்பட்டார்கள். உத்தியோகங்களெல்லாம் உயர்ந்த சாதித் தலைவர்களுக்கே கொடுக்கப்பட்டன. தமிழரசர் காலத்தில் கப்பற்படைக்கு அதிபதிகளாயிருந்த கரையார்த் தலைவருக்கும், வேளாளருக்கு உதவியதுபோல் முதலியார்ப் பட்டமுங் கண்ணியமான உத்தியோகங்களுக்கு கொடுக்கப்பட்டன.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Jaffna kingdom topics | ||
|---|---|---|
| History | | |
| Monarchs | ||
| Culture | ||
| Landmarks | ||
| History |
| ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Politics |
| ||||||||||
| Society |
| ||||||||||
