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Jacques Maritain | |
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 Maritain in the 1930s | |
| Born | (1882-11-18)18 November 1882 |
| Died | 28 April 1973(1973-04-28) (aged 90) |
| Spouse | |
| Education | |
| Alma mater | University of Paris |
| Philosophical work | |
| Era | 20th-century philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| School | Existential Thomism |
| Main interests | |
| Notable works |
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Jacques Maritain (French:[ʒakmaʁitɛ̃]; 18 November 1882 – 28 April 1973) was a FrenchCatholic philosopher and theologian.
An author of more than 60 books, he helped to reviveThomas Aquinas for modern times, and was influential in the development and drafting of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights.Pope Paul VI presented his "Message to Men of Thought and of Science" at the close ofVatican II to Maritain, his long-time friend and mentor. The same pope had seriously considered making him alay cardinal, but Maritain rejected it.[1] Maritain's interest and works spanned many aspects of philosophy, includingaesthetics,political theory,philosophy of science,metaphysics, the nature of education,liturgy andecclesiology.
Maritain was born in Paris, the son of Paul Maritain, who was a lawyer, and his wife Geneviève Favre, the daughter of philosopher and educatorJulie Favre and statesman and lawyerJules Favre. His niece was librarian and Resistance memberÉveline Garnier, who he later made his principal legatee and introduced to her life partnerAndrée Jacob.[2][3][4] Maritain was reared in a liberal Protestant milieu. He was sent to theLycée Henri-IV. Later, he attended theSorbonne, studying the natural sciences: chemistry, biology and physics. At the Sorbonne, he metRaïssa Oumançoff, a Russian Jewish émigré. They married in 1904, but they madea private vow to abstain from sex.[5]
A noted poet and mystic, Raïssa participated as his intellectual partner in his search for truth. Raïssa's sister, Vera Oumançoff, lived with Jacques and Raïssa for almost all their married life. At the Sorbonne, Jacques and Raïssa soon became disenchanted withscientism, which could not, in their view, address the larger existential issues of life. In 1901, in light of this disillusionment, they made a pact to commit suicide together if they could not discover some deeper meaning to life within a year. They were spared from following through on this because, at the urging ofCharles Péguy, they attended the lectures ofHenri Bergson at theCollège de France. Bergson's critique of scientism dissolved their intellectual despair and instilled in them "the sense of the absolute." Then, through the influence ofLéon Bloy, they converted to theCatholic faith in 1906.[6]
In the fall of 1907, the Maritains moved toHeidelberg, where Jacques studied biology underHans Driesch. Hans Driesch's theory of neo-vitalism attracted Jacques because of its affinity with Henri Bergson. During this time, Raïssa fell ill, and during her convalescence, theirspiritual advisor, aDominican friar named Humbert Clérissac, introduced her to the writings of Thomas Aquinas. She read them with enthusiasm and, in turn, exhorted her husband to examine the saint's writings. In Thomas, Maritain found a number of insights and ideas that he had believed all along. He wrote:
Thenceforth, in affirming to myself, without chicanery or diminution, the authentic value of the reality of our human instruments of knowledge, I was already a Thomist without knowing it ... When several months later I came to theSumma Theologiae, I would construct no impediment to its luminous flood.
From the Angelic Doctor (the honorary title of Aquinas), he was led to "The Philosopher", as Aquinas calledAristotle. Still later, to further his intellectual development, he read theneo-Thomists. Beginning in 1912, Maritain taught at theCollège Stanislas. He later moved to theInstitut Catholique de Paris. For the 1916–1917 academic year, he taught at thePetit Séminaire de Versailles. In 1930 Maritain andÉtienne Gilson received honorary doctorates in philosophy from thePontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas,Angelicum.[7]
In 1933, Maritain gave his first lectures in North America inToronto at thePontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. He also taught atColumbia University; at the Committee on Social Thought,University of Chicago; at theUniversity of Notre Dame, and atPrinceton University. From 1945 to 1948, he was the French ambassador to the Holy See. Afterwards, Maritain returned to Princeton University. In 1952, he gave the inauguralA. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts. Four years later, he achieved the "Elysian status" (as he put it) of a professor emeritus. Raïssa Maritain died in 1960. After her death, Jacques published her journal under the title "Raïssa's Journal." For several years Maritain was an honorary chairman of theCongress for Cultural Freedom, appearing as a keynote speaker at its 1960 conference in Berlin.[8]
From 1961, Maritain lived with theLittle Brothers of Jesus in Toulouse, France. He had an influence on the order since its foundation in 1933 and became a Little Brother in 1970.[9] Maritain was also an oblate for theOrder of Saint Benedict.[10] In a 1938 interview published by theCommonweal magazine, they asked if he was a freemason. Maritain replied:
That question offends me, for I should have a horror of belonging to Freemasonry. So much the worse for well-intentioned people whose anxiety and need for explanations would have been satisfied by believing me to be one.[11]
Jacques and Raïssa Maritain are buried in the cemetery ofKolbsheim, a little French village inAlsace where he had spent many summers at the estate of his friends, Antoinette and Alexander Grunelius.[12]
The foundation of Maritain's thought is Aristotle, Aquinas, and theThomistic commentators, especiallyJohn of St. Thomas. He is eclectic in his use of these sources. Maritain's philosophy is based on evidence accrued by the senses and acquired by an understanding of first principles. Maritain defended philosophy as a science against those who would degrade it, and promoted philosophy as the "queen of sciences". In 1910, Jacques Maritain completed his first contribution to modern philosophy, a 28-page article titled, "Reason and Modern Science" published inRevue de Philosophie (June issue). In it, he warned that science was becoming a divinity, its methodology usurping the role of reason and philosophy, supplanting the humanities.[13]
In 1917, a committee of French bishops commissioned Jacques to write a series of textbooks to be used in Catholic colleges and seminaries. He wrote and completed only one of these projects, titledElements de Philosophie (Introduction of Philosophy) in 1920. It has been a standard text ever since in many Catholic seminaries. He wrote in his introduction:
If the philosophy of Aristotle, as revived and enriched byThomas Aquinas and his school, may rightly be called theChristian philosophy, both because the church is never weary of putting it forward as the only true philosophy and because it harmonizes perfectly with the truths of faith, nevertheless it is proposed here for the reader's acceptance not because it is Christian, but because it is demonstrably true. This agreement between a philosophic system founded by a pagan and the dogmas of revelation is no doubt an external sign, an extra-philosophic guarantee of its truth; but from its own rational evidence, it derives its authority as a philosophy.
During the Second World War, Jacques Maritain protested the policies of theVichy government while teaching at the Pontifical Institute for Medieval Studies in Canada. "Moving to New York, Maritain became deeply involved in rescue activities, seeking to bring persecuted and threatened academics, many of them Jews, to America. He was instrumental in founding theÉcole Libre des Hautes Études, a kind of university in exile that was, at the same time, the centre of Gaullist resistance in the United States". After the war, in a papal audience on 16 July 1946, he tried unsuccessfully to havePope Pius XII officially denounceantisemitism.[14]
Many of his American papers are held by theUniversity of Notre Dame, which establishedThe Jacques Maritain Center in 1957. The Cercle d'Etudes Jacques & Raïssa Maritain is an association founded by the philosopher himself in 1962 in Kolbsheim (nearStrasbourg, France), where the couple is also buried. The purpose of these centres is to encourage study and research of Maritain's thoughts and expand upon them. It is also absorbed in translating and editing his writings.
Maritain's philosophy is based on the view thatmetaphysics is prior toepistemology. Being is first apprehended implicitly insense experience, and is known in two ways. First, being is known reflexively by abstraction from sense experience. One experiences a particular being, e.g. a cup, a dog, etc. and through reflection ("bending back") on the judgement, e.g. "this is a dog", one recognizes that the object in question is an existent. Second, in light of attaining being reflexively through apprehension of sense experience, one may arrive at what Maritain calls "an Intuition of Being". For Maritain this is the point of departure for metaphysics; without the intuition of being one cannot be a metaphysician at all. The intuition of being involves rising to the apprehension ofens secundum quod est ens (being insofar as it is a being). InExistence and the Existent, he explains:
"It is being, attained or perceived at the summit of an abstractive intellection, of an eidetic or intensive visualization which owes its purity and power of illumination only to the fact that the intellect, one day, was stirred to its depths and trans-illuminated by the impact of the act of existing apprehended in things, and because it was quickened to the point of receiving this act, or hearkening to it, within itself, in the intelligible and super-intelligible integrity of the tone particular to it." (p. 20)
In view of this priority given to metaphysics, Maritain advocates an epistemology he calls "Critical Realism". Maritain's epistemology is not "critical" in Kant's sense, which held that one could only know anything after undertaking a thorough critique of one's cognitive abilities. Rather, it is critical in the sense that it is not a naive or non-philosophical realism, but one that is defended by way of reason. Against Kant's critical project, Maritain argues that epistemology is reflexive; you can only defend a theory of knowledge in light of knowledge you have already attained. Consequently, the critical question is not the question of modern philosophy – how do we pass from what is perceived to what is? Rather, "Since the mind, from the very start, reveals itself as warranted in its certitude by things and measured by an esse [the Latin verb 'to be', Aquinas' preferred term for 'existence'], independent of itself, how are we to judge if, how, on what conditions, and to what extent it is so both in principle and in the various moments of knowledge?"
In contrast, idealism inevitably ends up in contradiction, since it does not recognize the universal scope of the first principles of identity, contradiction, and finality. These become merely laws of thought or language, but not of being, which opens the way to contradictions being instantiated in reality. Maritain's metaphysics ascends from this account of being to a critique of the philosophical aspects of modern science, through analogy to an account of theexistence and nature of God as it is known philosophically and through mystical experience.
Maritain was a strong defender of anatural law ethics. He viewed ethical norms as being rooted inhuman nature. For Maritain, the natural law is known primarily, not through philosophical argument and demonstration, but rather through "Connaturality". Connatural knowledge is a kind of knowledge by acquaintance. We know the natural law through our direct acquaintance with it in our human experience. Of central importance, is Maritain's argument that natural rights are rooted in the natural law. This was key to his involvement in the drafting of the UN'sUniversal Declaration of Human Rights.
Another important aspect of his ethics was his insistence upon the need for moral philosophy to be conducted in a theological context. While a Christian could engage in speculative thought about nature or metaphysics in a purely rational manner and develop an adequate philosophy of nature of metaphysics, this is not possible with ethics. Moral philosophy must address the actual state of the human person, and this is a person in a state of grace. Thus, "moral philosophy adequately considered" must take into account properly theological truths. It would be impossible, for instance, to develop an adequate moral philosophy without giving consideration to proper theological facts such as original sin and the supernatural end of the human person in beatitude. Any moral philosophy that does not take into account these realities that are only known through faith would be fundamentally incomplete.[15]
Maritain corresponded with, and was a friend of,[16] the American radicalcommunity organizerSaul Alinsky,[17] as well as French Prime MinisterRobert Schuman.[18] In the studyThe Radical Vision of Saul Alinsky, author P. David Finks noted that "For years Jacques Maritain had spoken approvingly toMontini of the democratic community organizations built by Saul Alinsky". Accordingly, in 1958 Maritain arranged for a series of meetings betweenAlinsky andArchbishop Montini in Milan. Before the meetings, Maritain had written to Alinsky: "the new cardinal was reading Saul’s books and would contact him soon".[19]
Maritain advocated what he called "Integral Humanism" (or "Integral Christian Humanism").[20] He argued thatsecular forms ofhumanism were inevitably anti-human in that they refused to recognize the whole person. Once thespiritual dimension of human nature is rejected, we no longer have an integral, but merely partial humanism, one which rejects a fundamental aspect of the human person. Accordingly, inIntegral Humanism he explores the prospects for a newChristendom, rooted in his philosophical pluralism, in order to find ways Christianity could inform political discourse and policy in a pluralistic age. In this account he develops a theory of cooperation, to show how people of different intellectual positions can nevertheless cooperate to achieve common practical aims. Maritain's political theory was extremely influential and was a primary source behind theChristian Democratic movement.[citation needed]
Along withAlbert Einstein, Maritain was one of the sponsors of thePeoples' World Convention (PWC), also known as Peoples' World Constituent Assembly (PWCA), which took place in 1950–51 at Palais Electoral,Geneva, Switzerland.[21][22]
Citing the Integral humanism of Jacques Maritain'sL'humanisme intégral,Pope Paul VI declared inPopulorum progressio that the "ultimate goal is a full-bodied humanism".[23] SenatorJohn F. Kennedy (laterPresident of the United States), once quoted Maritain in a 1955 address toAssumption College.[24] In an interview from 2016,Pope Francis praised Maritain among a small list of French liberal thinkers.[25] American presidentJoe Biden has cited Maritain as immensely influential in his thinking.[26]
Major criticisms of Maritain have included:
Catholic philosopher and historianThomas Molnar, who praised Maritain as "a man of charity", also wrote that Maritain's work contained "baffling paradoxes". Molnar said that while Maritain's philosophy was "Orthodox and Thomist", he nonetheless unfortunately had "occasional excursions into strange semi-spiritual lands."[30] Catholic political theoristErik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn wrote that "Maritain knew a lot about theology, he was a philosopher, and he knew something about biology, but he knew next to nothing about politics and economics."[31] Catholic philosopherAlice von Hildebrand referred to Maritain as "treasonous" and criticized his negative views onEngelbert Dollfuss, whom Maritain had spoken of positively in the past, but later became critical of.[32]
A cause forbeatification of him and his wife Raïssa was being planned in 2011.[33] Since then, there have been no advancements in the case.
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