The Jōmon period was rich in tools and jewelry made from bone, stone, shell and antler;pottery figurines and vessels; andlacquerware. Jōmon pottery is noted for being decorated by having cords pressed into the wet outside of the pottery. Similar cultures developed inpre-Columbian cultures of the North American Pacific Northwest and especially theValdivia culture inEcuador because in these settings cultural complexity developed within a primarily hunting-gathering context with limited use ofhorticulture.
The approximately 14,000-year Jōmon period is conventionally divided into several phases, progressively shorter:Incipient (13,750–8,500 BCE),Initial (8,500–5,000 BCE),Early (5,000–3,520 BCE),Middle (3,520–2,470 BCE),Late (2,470–1,250 BCE), andFinal (1,250–500 BCE).[1][2][3] The fact that this entire period is given the same name by archaeologists should not be taken to mean that there was not considerable regional and temporal diversity. The time between the earliestJōmon pottery and that of the more well-known Middle Jōmon period is about twice as long as the span separating the building of theGreat Pyramid of Giza from the 21st century.[2][3] Dating of the Jōmon sub-phases is based primarily upon ceramictypology, and to a lesser extentradiocarbon dating.[4]
Recent findings have refined the final phase of the Jōmon period to 300 BCE.[5][6][7] TheYayoi period started between 500 and 300 BCE according toradio-carbon evidence, while Yayoi styled pottery was found in a Jōmon site in northernKyushu in 800 BC.[8][9][10]
The Japanese archipelago can be divided into 3 regions for which the chronology of the Jōmon period or its subsequent period are applied differently: Honshu and Kyushu, Okinawa and the Ryukyu Isles, and Hokkaido and Northern Tohōku.[11] In Okinawa and the Ryukyu Isles, the Jōmon period does not apply as the Jōmon people were mostly absent from these places. Instead, common chronology for the area uses theShellmidden Period,[11][12][13] or the Sakishima Prehistoric Period specifically for the island.[13] As for Hokkaido and Northern Tohoku, the Jōmon people were replaced not by the Yayoi people like in most of Japan, such as central and southern Honshu, but by the related people of the Zoku-Jomon which ushered in theZoku-Jōmon Period unique to the North.[14][15]
Probable migratory routes of Jōmon peoples from neighboring regions to the Japanese Archipelago.
The relationship ofJōmon people to the modernJapanese (Yamato people),Ryukyuans, andAinu is not clear. Morphological studies of dental variation and genetic studies suggest that the Jōmon people were rather diverse, andmitochondrial DNA studies indicate the Jōmon people were closely related to modern-dayEast Asians.[16] Some of the Jōmon ancestors came fromSoutheast Asia.[17] The contemporary Japanese people descended from a mixture of the various ancient hunter-gatherer tribes of the Jōmon period and theYayoi rice-agriculturalists, and these two major ancestral groups came to Japan over different routes at different times.[18][19][20][21][22][23][24]
The modern-day Japanese population carries approximately 30%paternal ancestry from the Jōmon. This is far higher than thematernal Jōmon contribution of around 15%, andautosomal contribution of 10% to the Japanese population. This imbalanced inheritance has been referred to as the "admixture paradox", and is thought to hold clues as to how the admixture between the Jōmon andYayoi cultures took place.[25] According toMitsuru Sakiya [ja] the Jōmon people are an admixture of severalPaleolithic populations. He suggests that Y-chromosome haplogroupsC1a1 andD-M55 are two of the Jōmon lineages. Recent studies suggest that D-M55 became dominant during the late Jōmon period, shortly before the arrival of the Yayoi, suggesting a population boom and bust.[26] The maternalhaplogroupsM7a,N9b, andG1b have been identified from ancient Jōmon specimens.[25]
The Jōmon period population ofHokkaido consisted of two distinctive populations which later merged to form the proto-Ainu in northern Hokkaido. The Ainu language can be connected to an "Okhotsk component" which spread southwards. They further concluded that the "dual structure theory" regarding the population history of Japan must be revised and that the Jōmon people had more diversity than originally suggested.[27]
The prehistoric Jōmon people descended from diverse paleolithic populations with multiple migrations into Jōmon-period Japan. They concluded: "In this respect, the biological identity of the Jōmon is heterogeneous, and it may be indicative of diverse peoples who possibly belonged to a common culture, known as the Jōmon".[28] The modern Japanese people descended from three primary groups: hunter-gatherers who arrived in Japan 15,000 BCE in the Jōmon era, farmers starting around 900 BCE—which introduced small-scale farming to the Jōmon and eventually leading to theYayoi period, and 300-700 CE during theKofun period.[29]
Jomon archaeological sites in Aomori Prefecture
A 2015 study found specific genealleles, related to facial structure and features among some Ainu individuals, which largely descended from local Hokkaido Jōmon groups. These alleles are typically associated with Europeans but absent from other East Asians (including Japanese people), which suggests geneflow from a currently unidentified source population into the Jōmon period population ofHokkaido. Although these specific alleles can explain the unusual physical appearance of certain Ainu individuals, compared to other Northeast Asians, the exact origin of these alleles remains unknown.[30][31] Matsumura et. al (2019), however, states that thesephenotypes were shared by prehistoric south Chinese and Southeast Asian peoples.[32]
Fullgenome analyses in 2020 and 2021 revealed further information regarding the origin of the Jōmon peoples. The genetic results suggest early admixture between different groups in Japan already during thePaleolithic, followed by constant geneflow from coastal East Asian groups, resulting in a heterogeneous population which then homogenized until the arrival of theYayoi people. Geneflow fromNortheast Asia during the Jōmon period is associated with the C1a1 and C2 lineages, geneflow from theTibetan Plateau andSouthern China is associated with the D1a2a (previously D1b) and D1a1 (previously D1a) lineages.[33]Geneflow from ancient Siberia into the northern Jōmon people of Hokkaido was also detected, with later geneflow from Hokkaido into parts of northern Honshu (Tohoku). The lineages K and F are suggested to have been presented during the early Jōmon period but got replaced by C and D. The analysis of a Jōmon sample (Ikawazu shell-mound,Tahara, Japan) and an ancient sample from theTibetan Plateau (Chokhopani, China) found only partially shared ancestry, pointing towards a "positive genetic bottleneck" regarding the spread of haplogroup D from ancient "East Asian Highlanders" (related to modern dayTujia people,Yao people, andTibetans, as well asTripuri people). The genetic evidence suggests that an East Asian source population, near theHimalayan mountain range, contributed ancestry to the Jōmon period population of Japan, and less to ancient Southeast Asians. This points to an inland migration through southern or central China towards Japan during the Paleolithic. Another ancestry component seem to have arrived fromSiberia into Hokkaido.[26][33][34] Archeological and biological evidence link the southern Jōmon culture of Kyushu, Shikoku and parts of Honshu to cultures of southern China andNortheast India. A common culture, known as the "broadleafed evergreen forest culture", ranged from southwestern Japan through southern China towards Northeast India and southern Tibet, and was characterized by the cultivation ofAzuki beans.[35]
Forensic reconstruction from a localNiigata Jōmon sample
Some linguists suggest that the Japonic languages were already present within theJapanese archipelago and coastal Korea, before the Yayoi period, and can be linked to one of theJōmon populations of southwestern Japan, rather than the later Yayoi orKofun period rice-agriculturalists.Japonic-speakers then expanded during the Yayoi period, assimilating the newcomers, adopting rice-agriculture, and fusing mainland Asian technologies with local traditions.[36]
Linguistics research based on specific Austronesian vocabulary loaned into the core vocabulary of (Insular) Japanese indicatesAustronesian peoples were in the Japanese archipelago during the Jōmon period. These Austronesian-speakers arrived in Japan during the Jōmon period and prior to the arrival of Yayoi period migrants, associated with the spread of Japonic languages. These Austronesian-speakers were subsequently assimilated into the Japanese ethnicity. Evidence for non-Ainuic, non-Austronesian, and non-Koreanloanwords are found among Insular Japonic languages, and probably derived from unknown and extinct Jōmon languages.[17][37]
The Japanese archipelago, during the last glaciation in around 20,000 BCE
The earliest "Incipient Jōmon" phase began while Japan was still linked to continental Asia as a narrow peninsula.[38] As the glaciers melted following the end of thelast glacial period (approximately12,000 BCE), sea levels rose, separating theJapanese archipelago from the Asian mainland; the closest point (inKyushu) about 190 km (120 mi) from theKorean Peninsula is near enough to be intermittently influenced by continental developments, but far enough removed for the peoples of the Japanese islands to develop independently. The main connection between the Japanese archipelago and Mainland Asia was through the Korean Peninsula to Kyushu andHonshu. In addition,Luzon,Taiwan,Ryukyu, and Kyushu constitute a continuous chain of islands, connecting the Jōmon withSoutheast Asia, while Honshu,Hokkaido andSakhalin connected the Jōmon withSiberia.
Within the archipelago, the vegetation was transformed by the end of the Ice Age. In southwestern Honshu,Shikoku, and Kyushu, broadleafevergreen trees dominated the forests, whereas broadleafdeciduous trees and conifers were common in northeastern Honshu and southernHokkaido. Many native tree species, such asbeeches,buckeyes,chestnuts, andoaks produced edible nuts and acorns. These provided substantial sources of food for both humans and animals.[39] These nuts were preserved in winter, especially in the eastern part of Japan, and were stored in underground pits. The acorns ofQuercus crispula contain astringent tannins and cannot be eaten as they are, but must be processed to become edible.[40]
In the northeast, the plentiful marine life carried south by theOyashio Current, especiallysalmon, was another major food source. Settlements along both theSea of Japan and thePacific Ocean subsisted on immense amounts of shellfish, leaving distinctivemiddens (mounds of discarded shells and other refuse) that are now prized sources of information for archaeologists. Other food sources meriting special mention includeSika deer,wild boar (with possible wild-pig management),[41] wild plants such asyam-like tubers, and freshwater fish. Supported by the highly productive deciduous forests and an abundance of seafood, the population was concentrated in Honshu and Kyushu, but Jōmon sites range fromHokkaido to theRyukyu Islands.[42]
The Early Jōmon period saw an explosion in population, as indicated by the number of larger aggregated villages from this period.[1] This period occurred during theHolocene climatic optimum, when the local climate became warmer and more humid.[43]
An apparently domesticated variety ofpeach appeared very early at Jōmon sites in 6700–6400 BP (4700–4400 BCE).[46] This was already similar to modern cultivated forms. This domesticated type of peach was apparently brought into Japan from China. Although the domestication of wild peaches started in China long before this period, a variety closest to our modern peaches is currently attested in China itself only at a later date of 5300–4300 BP.[46]
Evidence of plant domestication by the Jōmon people came from a genomic study of the adzuki bean. All present-day adzuki cultivars descended from the wild adzuki in eastern Japan, at about 3000–5000 BP. Mutations conferring key domestication syndromes also had a single origin in Japan. These mutations originated and continued to increase in frequency since about 10,000 BP, suggesting that domestication syndromes were being selected much earlier than clear archaeological traces of large-scale cultivation.[47]
Jōmondomen clay mask, bearing similarities to clay masks found in theAmur region[48]
Highly ornate potterydogū figurines and vessels, such as the so-called "flame style" vessels, and lacquered wood objects remain from that time. Although the ornamentation of pottery increased over time, the ceramic fabric always remained quite coarse. During this timemagatama curved stone beads make a transition from being a common jewelry item found in homes into serving as agrave goods.[49][50][51][52][53] This is a period where there are large burial mounds and monuments.[1]
This period saw a rise in complexity in the design ofpit-houses, the most commonly used method of housing at the time,[54][55] with some even having paved stone floors.[56] A study in 2015 found that this form of dwelling continued up until theSatsumon culture.[56] Using archaeological data on pollen count, this phase is the warmest of all the phases.[57] By the end of this phase the warm climate starts to enter a cooling trend.[1]
After1500 BCE, theclimate cooled entering a stage ofneoglaciation, and populations seem to have contracted dramatically.[1] Comparatively few archaeological sites can be found after 1500 BCE.
The Japanese chestnut,Castanea crenata, becomes essential, not only as a nut bearing tree, but also because it was extremely durable in wet conditions and became the most used timber for building houses during the Late Jōmon phase.[58]
During the Final Jōmon period, a slow shift was taking place in western Japan: steadily increasing contact with theKorean Peninsula eventually led to the establishment of Korean-type settlements in western Kyushu, beginning around 900 BCE. The settlers brought with them new technologies such aswet rice farming and bronze and iron metallurgy, as well as new pottery styles similar to those of theMumun pottery period. The settlements of these new arrivals seem to have coexisted with those of the Jōmon andYayoi for around a thousand years.[59][60]
Outside Hokkaido, the Final Jōmon is succeeded by a new farming culture, theYayoi (c. 300 BCE – AD 300), named after an archaeological site near Tokyo.[50] Within Hokkaido, the Jōmon is succeeded by theOkhotsk culture andZoku-Jōmon (post-Jōmon) or Epi-Jōmon culture, which later replaced or merged with theSatsumon culture around the 7th century.
At the end of the Jōmon period the local population declined sharply. Scientists suggest that this was possibly caused by food shortages and other environmental problems. They concluded that not all Jōmon groups suffered under these circumstances but the overall population declined.[61] Examining the remains of the people who lived throughout the Jōmon period, there is evidence that these deaths were not inflicted by warfare or violence on a large enough scale to cause these deaths.[62]
The earliest pottery in Japan was made at or before the start of the Incipient Jōmon period, as Jōmon period hunter-gatherers crafted the world’s oldest known ceramics around 14,500 BCE.[63][64] Small fragments, dated to14,500 BCE, were found at theOdai Yamamoto I site in 1998. Pottery of roughly the same age was subsequently found at other sites such as in Kamikuroiwa and theFukui cave.[38][65][66]
Jōmon pottery in the Yamanashi museum
The name "cord-marked" was first applied by the American zoologist and orientalistEdward S. Morse, who discoveredsherds of pottery in 1877 and subsequently translated "straw-rope pattern" intoJapanese asJōmon.[67] Thepottery style characteristic of the first phases of Jōmon culture was decorated by impressing cords into the surface of wet clay and is generally accepted to be among the oldest in the world. It has now been found in a large number of sites.[68] The pottery of the period has been classified by archaeologists into some 70 styles, with many more local varieties of style.[67] The antiquity of Jōmon pottery was first identified afterWorld War II, throughradiocarbon dating methods.[50][a] The earliest vessels were mostly smallish round-bottomed bowls 10–50 cm (3.9–20 in) high that are assumed to have been used for boiling food and, perhaps, storing it beforehand. They belonged tohunter-gatherers and the size of the vessels may have been limited by a need for portability. As later bowls increase in size, this is taken to be a sign of an increasingly settled pattern of living. These types continued to develop, with increasingly elaborate patterns of decoration, undulating rims, and flat bottoms so that they could stand on a flat surface.[69]
Spray style Jōmon pottery
The manufacture of pottery typically implies some form ofsedentary life because pottery is heavy, bulky, and fragile and thus unsuitable for fully nomadic people.[38] It seems that food sources were so abundant in the natural environment of the Japanese islands that they could support fairly large, semi-sedentary populations. The Jōmon people usedchipped stone tools,ground stone tools, traps, andbows. They made tools and jewelry from bone, stone, shell and antler;[49][50][51][52] and were evidently skillful coastal and deep-water fishers.[70]
Theorigin myths ofJapanese civilization extend back to periods now regarded as part of the Jōmon period, but they show little or no relation to the current archaeological understanding of Jōmon culture. The traditional founding date of the Japanese nation byEmperor Jimmu is February 11, 660 BCE. That version of Japanese history, however, comes from the country's first written records, theKojiki and theNihon Shoki, dating from the 6th to the 8th centuries, after Japan had adoptedChinese characters (Go-on/Kan-on).[85]
Some elements of modern Japanese culture may date from the period and reflect the influences of a mingled migration from the northern Asian continent and the southern Pacific areas and the localJōmon peoples. Among those elements are the precursors toShinto, architectural styles, and technological developments such aslacquerware, laminated bows calledyumi, and metalworking.[86][87][88][89]
Modern public perception of Jōmon has gradually changed from primitive and obsolete to captivating:[90]
In the early 21st century, Jōmon cord marking style was revived and used on clothing, accessories, and tattoos. Archaeologist Jun Takayama has theorized that the patterns onDogū depicted tattoos.
In the 1970s, a movement started to reproduce the ancient techniques of Jōmon-style ceramics. Contemporary Jōmon pottery is based on Jōmon-style ceramics and earthenware that has been replicated with ancient techniques, such as a bonfire.
The motifs of Jōmon artifacts are used as inspiration for vessels and origami, cookies, candies, notebooks, and neckties.
In 2018, a Jōmon exhibition at theTokyo National Museum saw 350,000 visitors, 3.5 times more than expected.
Jōmon-style pit houses have been recreated in places such as the Jōmon Village Historic Garden.
Magazines such asJōmonzine cover the prehistoric period.
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