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Jê languages

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Language group of Brazil

For the Papuan language known as "Je", seeYei language.

Jê
Jê–Kaingang, Gê, Ye
Geographic distribution	Brazil
Ethnicity	Jê peoples
Linguistic classification	Macro-Jê Jê
Subdivisions	Paraná Cerrado
Language codes
Glottolog	`jeee1236`
Jê languages proper (clear yellow) and other Macro-Jê languages (dark yellow) in modern times. Shadowed area represent approximately extension in the past.

TheJê languages (also spelledGê,Jean,Ye,Gean), orJê–Kaingang languages, are spoken by theJê, a group ofindigenous peoples in Brazil.

Genetic relations

[edit]

The Jê family forms the core of theMacro-Jê family. Kaufman (1990) finds the proposal convincing.

Family division

[edit]

According to Ethnologue, the language family is as follows:

Northern Jê
- Apinayé (2,300 speakers)
- Mẽbengokre (Kayapó) (8,638 speakers)
- Panará (Kreen Akarore) (380 speakers)
- Suyá (350 speakers)
- Timbira (Canela-Krayô, with theCanela andKreye dialects) (5,100 speakers)
Central Jê
- Acroá (†)
- Xavante (9,600 speakers)
- Xerente (1,810 speakers)
- Xakriabá (†)
Southern Jê
- Xokleng (760 speakers)
- Kaingáng
  - Kaingáng (18,000 speakers)
  - São Paulo Kaingáng (†)
  - Ingain (†)
  - Guayana (†)

Ramirez (2015)

[edit]

Internal classification of the Jê languages according to Ramirez, et al. (2015):^[1]

Jê

Southern Jê (dialect continuum)
- Ingain ↔Xokleng ↔Kaigáng
Northern Jê
- Jê proper (Timbira-Kayapó dialect continuum)
  - Canela-Krahô ↔ Gavião-Krĩkati ↔Apinajé ↔Kayapó ↔Suyá-Tapayuna ↔Panará-Kayapó do Sul
- Akuwẽ (various microdialects)
  - Xavante
  - Xerente (includingXakriabá,Akroá, Gueguê)

Ramirez excludesJaikó as a possiblyspurious language.

Nikulin (2020)

[edit]

According to Nikulin (2020), the internal branching of the Jê language family is as follows:^[2]^[3]

Jê

Paraná
- Ingain
- Southern Jê
  - Kaingáng
  - Laklãnõ
Cerrado
- Akuwẽ
  - Xerénte
  - Xavánte
  - Xakriabá
  - Acroá
- Goyaz Jê
  - Southern Kayapó
    - Mossâmedes dialect
    - Triângulo dialect
      - Panará
  - Northern Jê
    - Timbíra
      - Parkatêjê;Kỳikatêjê
      - Core Timbíra
        Krikati;Pykobjê
        Krahô;Canela (dialects:Apànjêkra,Mẽmõrtũmre)
    - Trans-Tocantins
      - Apinajé
      - Trans-Araguaia
        Mẽbêngôkre (dialects:Xikrín,Kayapó)
        Tapajós
        Kĩsêdjê
        Tapayúna

Jaikó is treated as a separate branch of Macro-Jê.

Somesound changes andlexical innovations that define various Jê subgroups:^[4]

Proto-Southern Jê*a < *Proto-Jê*ô
Proto-Cerrado*wa < Proto-Jê*ô
Proto-Goyaz Jê:*am,*um,*ɨm >*ãm,*ũm,*ɨ̃m
- Proto-Northern Jê: replacement of*kakũm ‘dry season’ (as inPanaráakũŋ andProto-Central Jê transl. mis – transl. '*wahum) with*aŋgrə
- Proto-Timbíra:*c >*h
- Proto-Trans-Tocantins: replacement of*a-mbə ‘eat (intransitive)’ with*ap-ku

Varieties

[edit]

Below is a full list of Jê language varieties listed byLoukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.^[5]

Jê language varieties listed byLoukotka (1968)

Timbirá group

Mehin – language spoken in the village ofAraraparituya on the right bank of theGurupí River, Maranhão state. Now perhaps extinct.
Tajé /Timbirá – spoken in the village ofBacurí on the right bank of theMearim River, state of Maranhão.
Kukoekamekran – once spoken on the lower course of theGrajaú River, Maranhão. (Unattested.)
Kreapimkatajé /Krepúnkateye – spoken on the middle course of theGrajaú River.
Karákatajé – once spoken by the southern neighbors of the preceding tribe. (Unattested.)
Krenjé – spoken at the sources of theGurupí River.
Remkokamekran /Remako-Kamékrere /Merrime – spoken on theCorda River andAlpercatas River, especially in the village ofPonto.
Aponegicran /Apáñekra – language spoken at the sources of theCorda River.
Krenkatajé /Canella – extinct language once spoken in the village ofSuridade on theAlpercatas River.
Sakamekran /Chacamecran /Mateiros – spoken on theCodo River and Flores River.
Purekamekran – extinct language once spoken at the sources of theGrajaú River.
Makamekran /Pepuxi – once spoken on theManuel Alves Pequeno River.
Kenpokatajé – once spoken between theManuel Alves Grande River andManuel Alves Pequeno River. (Unattested.)
Kanakateyé – once spoken on theFarinha River, Maranhão. (Unattested.)
Apinagé – language spoken between theTocantins River andAraguaia River, near their confluence.
Karaho /Carauau – once spoken in theSerra do Estrondo, Goiás state.
Menren /Gavioes /Augutjé – spoken between theTocantins River andSurubiu River in the state of Pará. (Only a few words.)
Meitajé – spoken by a few individuals northeast ofItupiranga, Maranhão state.
Norokwajé /Nurukwayé – spoken south of the Apinagé tribe on theTocantins River, but perhaps extinct now. (Unattested.)

Krao group

Krahó /Krao – language spoken between theMacapá River and Balsas River and the Serra dasAlpercatas, Maranhão state.
Krikati /Krikatajé – spoken between theTocantins River andGrajaú River to the sources of thePindaré River, Maranhão.
Piokobjé /Bncobu /Pukobje – spoken at the sources of theGrajaú River.
Kapiekran – once spoken on the Balsas River, Maranhão.

Kayapó group

Kayapó /Ibirayára – originally in the interior of the state of Goiás, now between theAraguaia River andTapajós River, state of Pará. Dialects:
- Iraamráire /Meibenokre /Mekubengokrä /Cayapó do Rio Pau d'Arco – spoken on theArrais River andPau d'Arco River, state of Pará; now probably extinct.
- Gorotiré /Cayapó do Xingu – spoken as a dialect of Cayapó between theXingu River andPau d'Arco River.
- Chikrí /Xicri – spoken between theMacaxeira River andPardo River, south of theItacaiunas River, Pará.
- Kuben-Kran-Keñ – spoken on theAmbé River nearAltamira, Pará.
- Dzyoré – spoken at the sources of theCuxura River, Pará. (Unattested.)
- Purucaru – spoken between theFresco River and the sources of theItacaiunas River. (Unattested.)
- Metotíre /Chukahamai – spoken by a few individuals on theCuluene River near the falls ofVon Martius and on theJarina River, state of Mato Grosso.
- Kruatire – spoken on the right bank of theLiberdade River, Pará. (Unattested.)
- Krinkatíre – spoken by an unknown tribe in the state of Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
- Kren-Akárore – spoken by an unknown tribe, Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
- Mek-kran-noty – spoken on theIriri River, Pará state. (Unattested.)
- Kradahó /Gradaú – once spoken between theAraguaia River andSororó River, Pará, now perhaps extinct.
- Ushikrin – extinct dialect once spoken on theVermelho River south of the Carajá tribe, state of Goiás.

Central group

Southern Cayapó – incorrect name of a language the original name of which is unknown; originally spoken in the southern areas of the state of Mato Grosso on theTurvo River,Corumbá River,Meia Ponte River,Tijuco River,das Velhas River,Pardo River,Sucuriú River,Aporé River,Verde River, andTaquari River. Later found in the old mission ofSanta Ana de Paranaíba and now spoken by only a few families in a village on the confluence of theGrande River andParaná River, state of São Paulo. The following extinct languages may have been related:
- Panariá – extinct language spoken once nearUberaba, state of Minas Gerais.
- Mandimbóia – state of Minas Gerais on theVerde River andSapucai-Guasú River.
- Candindé – once spoken in theItapecerica Valley nearDivinópolis, Minas Gerais.
- Bocoani – once spoken between theTurvo River andPreto River, Minas Gerais.
- Morupak /Mirapác – once spoken between theSapucai-Guasú River andJaguari River, state of Minas Gerais.
- Katágua – once spoken on theJequiriçá River, Minas Gerais.
- Puxiauá – language of the neighbors of the Katágua tribe.
- Teremembe – once spoken on theParaopeba River,Paranaíba River,Grande River, andSapucai-Guasú River, Minas Gerais.
- Araxó – once spoken in the vicinity of the modern city ofAraxá, Minas Gerais.
- Araxué – once spoken between theSerra Canastra andMata de Corda.
- Carayá – unknown language spoken by a tribe from the northern area of theParaíba do Sul River, Minas Gerais.

Western

Suyá – language spoken by a tribe that once lived at the mouth of theSuia-Missu River on theXingu River; now in an unexplored area to the north.

Eastern

Goyá – extinct language once spoken at the sources of theVermelho River, Goiás state. (Unattested.)
Xavante /Akwẽ /Akuän /Kayamó – spoken in the state of Mato Grosso in theSerra do Roncador and between theTocantins River andAraguaia River in theSerra dos Chavantes.
Xerente – spoken between theTocantins River,Sono River andUrucuaí River in the interior of the state of Goiás
Xaraó – extinct language once spoken in the village ofPedro Afonso on theTocantins River. (Unattested.)
Xakriabá /Chicriabá – extinct language once spoken in the state of Goiás between thePalma River andCorumbá River.
Acroá /Coroá – extinct language once spoken at the sources of theParnaíba River andParanaíba River, state of Bahia.
Aricobé /Abroa – once spoken on thePreto River and in theSerra das Figuras, state of Bahia. Several families have been reported in this location. (Unattested.)
Takacuá – extinct language once spoken on the middle course of theSono River, state of Goiás. (Unattested.)
Guaiba – once spoken on Guaiba Island in theSão Francisco River near the city ofSão Romão, state of Minas Gerais. (Unattested.)
Krixá – once spoken in the São Marcos valley between theUrucuia River andParacatu River in the state of Minas Gerais. (Unattested.)
Goguez /Guegué – once spoken between theTocantins River andGurguéia River in the state of Piauí. (Unattested.)

Jeicó group

Jaicó /Zyeikó – extinct language once spoken on theCanindé River,Gurguéia River, andPiauí River, state of Piauí
Eastern Timbirá – once spoken in the state of Piauí between theItaim River andParnaíba River. (Unattested.)
Arua – once spoken in Piauí state between theItaim River andJaguaribe River. (Unattested.)
Ponti – once spoken on an island in theSão Francisco River near the city of Quebrobó (Cabrobó), Pernambuco state; Portuguese is now spoken. (Unattested.)

Vocabulary

[edit]

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items.^[5]

Language	Branch	head	eye	tongue	hand	one	two	three
Mehín	Timbirá I	i-xreː	ntó	i-yotó	i-nuxrá	püti	ibiaklüte	inklüt
Tajé	Timbirá I	pá-krẽ	ntó	pá-yõtó	pá-ushrá
Krenjé	Timbirá I	í-xu	ntó	pá-yõtó	pá-ükra	mbuchíd	ibyashüd	nkri
Remkoka-Mekran	Timbirá I	pa-krãn	pa-ntó	pa-ñató	pa-nukra	puchite	hibiakruke	inkri
Aponegikran	Timbirá I	i-kra	i-nthó	i-ñoto	i-ninkráy	hapuchiti	ipiakautu	inkré
Krenkatajé	Timbirá I			hõ-ató	hõ-krá	buchití	daikrut	donkré
Sakamekran	Timbirá II	i-krã	i-tó	yontou	u-krá
Purekamekran	Timbirá II	i-klan		i-notho
Makamekran	Timbirá II	i-kran	ñóto	i-nontó	ñukrá	püchit	äklúte	glé
Apinagé	Timbirá II	is-kran	i-nto	ñoto	ñukra	pushi	adkrúte	adrun-ati
Karaho	Timbirá II	i-kran	i-nto	yoto	ñukra	ita	ökrüd	inkrä
Menren	Timbirá II	pa-kran	i-tó		i-yukrá	pitit	emkröt	enkrí
Kayapó	Kayapó I	i-kran	i-ntó	i-ñoto	i-nikra	pudi	amaikrut
Iraamráire	Kayapó I	krã	no	i-ñoto	nikra	púdi	amaikrut
Gorotiré	Kayapó II	krã	nó	ñótó	nikra	püdyi	amaigru
Duludi	Kayapó II		hueh-noh	hue-nohdoh	hue-nigrah
Metotíre	Kayapó II	i-kran	i-nó	i-ñotó	i-nikra
Gradaú	Kayapó II	i-kran	i-naká	i-ñoto	i-nikra	podzyi	ameikrut
Xikrí	Kayapó II	krãn	nó	ontó	nikrá	pudí	amaikrut	amaikrutkieket
Usikrin	Kayapó II		no
Southern Kayapó	Kayapó II	i-ikran	i-ntó	tsuto	shikria
Kapiekran	Krao				ñukrá
Krahó	Krao	krãn	hitó	hioptó	nikrá	puchite	hibiakruke	nkri
Piokobjé	Krao	nkrãn	ntó	to	nkrá	pechäte	hibiakrót	nkri
Krikati	Krao	i-krã	i-tó		i-yukrá	itá pochet	netá ipekrot	itá ikri
Suyá	Eastern	wa-kurá	woa-ndó	wã-notó	wa-ñikó
Xavante	Eastern	da-kän	da-to	da-nonto	dé-iperé	simisi	maipoänä	skudaton
Xerente	Eastern	da-krãn	da-tó	da-noitó	da-nipikra	shimishi	poñkámen	mepráne
Xakriabá	Eastern	da-kran	da-toman		da-shipigrá	hemerotong	prané	eskumantong
Akroá	Eastern	ai-krán	aí-nthó	aso-inthó	as-subkrá
Jeicó	Jeicó	grang-blá	a-lepú	ä-netá	ä-nänong

Language	Branch	water	fire	sun	jaguar	tapir	bow
Mehín	Timbirá I	kú	kühü	pud	erb	kuxrüd	xúhi
Tajé	Timbirá I	kú	kúhü	püt	oróp	kuxüd	kúhi
Krenjé	Timbirá I	kú	kúxü	püd	orób	kukrüdn	kúhi
Remkoka-Mekran	Timbirá I	kó	kuxú	pud	oróbo	kukrúte	kuːhí
Aponegikran	Timbirá I	kó	koxʔhó	pútu	orópa
Krenkatajé	Timbirá I		goxé	put	oropi		kuhé
Sakamekran	Timbirá II	ko		put			kuhẽ
Purekamekran	Timbirá II	gó	kuhü	put	rop	guklüthe
Makamekran	Timbirá II	gó	köyhé	büt	róp	kokreyuti	kuché
Apinagé	Timbirá II	inkó	kukuvu	buré	robo	koklüte	gutye
Karaho	Timbirá II	kó	kukuvu	put	robo	kokräti	kuhä
Menren	Timbirá II	ko	koró	putiri	orótuk	kokrét	kuhẽ
Kayapó	Kayapó I	ngo	kuwú	mut	róp	kukrot	dzyuzyé
Iraamráire	Kayapó I	no	kuö	mút	rob	kukrüt	dzyudzye
Gorotiré	Kayapó II	ngó	kuwü	mud	rob	kukrüd	dyúdye
Duludi	Kayapó II
Metotíre	Kayapó II	ingo	kua	mut	rokronre	kukrut	dudzye
Gradaú	Kayapó II	ngo	kui	mut	rab	kukrit	dzyudzyä
Xikrí	Kayapó II	ngou	kuã	maːt	róp		diudieː
Usikrin	Kayapó II	ngo	kóã	mud	rokrari	kokrít	derätukä
Southern Kayapó	Kayapó II	piñkó	ichiú	itputi	napiá	idzhúta	ishé
Kapiekran	Krao	ku	kusshi	amikru
Krahó	Krao	kó	kuvrú	amkró	rob	kutkrút
Piokobjé	Krao	kó	kahó	amkró	ropkro	kokrät	kohé
Krikati	Krao	ko	kuhẽ	ankró
Suyá	Eastern	ngo	kustó	múrru	rauití	kukrit	tuté
Xavante	Eastern	kö	kushe	budu	hú	kuhodu	kumikã
Xerente	Eastern	kö	kuzé	bedö	rhúkú	kudu	komikan
Xakriabá	Eastern	kü	kuché	stakró	ukú	kutó	komekané
Akroá	Eastern		kuchio	put	hukutu	kuäté
Jeicó	Jeicó		ping	xügkrá	kolunong	xkünoniang

Proto-language

[edit]

Proto-Jê
Reconstruction of	Jê languages
Reconstructed ancestor	Proto-Macro-Jê

Nikulin (2020)

[edit]

Proto-Jê reconstructions by Nikulin (2020):^[2]

gloss	Proto-Jê
‘foot’	*par
‘arm, branch’	*pañ
‘tree, wood, firewood’	*pĩm
‘to rub, to clean’	*põ
‘to leave.PL’	*pôc
‘to fart’	pê/pê-k
‘hungry, to want’	*prə̃m’
‘coal, ember’	*prʏ
‘road’	pry (~ pryn)
‘wife’	*prũ
‘to hear, to understand’	*mba
‘liver’	*mba
‘to be afraid’	*-mbaŋ’
‘DAT’	*mə̃
‘to grab, to carry’	*mbə̂
‘tail’	*mbyn
‘celestial body’	*mbyt
‘good’	*mbec
‘PL; with’	*mẽ
‘liquid’	*mbên
‘husband’	*mbɪn’
‘to go.PL’	*mũ
‘ashes’	*mbrə
‘ant’	*mbrʊm’
‘relative by marriage’ (kinship term)	*mbre
‘to walk’	*wa
‘to take, to carry’	*wy
‘to untie’	*wô
‘to fly.SG’	*tə
‘tongue’	*ñũctə
‘INSTR’	*tə̃
‘strong, hard’	*tə̂t
‘to die’	*ty
‘capybara’	*k(r)Vmtym’
‘black, dark’	*tyk
‘fat’	*tom’
‘old’	*tʊm’
‘to carry’	*tu
‘horsefly’	*potu
‘NEG’	*tũ
‘to go.SG’	*tẽ
‘to dream’	*peti
‘to send’	*jandə
‘eye’	*ndəm
‘mother’	*nə̃
‘to lie.SG’	*nõ
‘bad or crooked’	pondʊ (~ pondʊn)
‘to hit’	*ra
‘wing; armpit’	*jara
‘celestial body’	*roñ
‘to transport liquid or to pour’	*ru
‘to leave, to abandon’	*re
‘to throw.PL’	*rẽ
‘root’	jarê (~ jarên)
‘to weed’	*-rê(C)
‘to look’	*rĩt
‘to weave’	*cy
‘seed’	*cym
‘to eat soft food, to suck’	*cô
‘leaf’	*côj
‘nest’	jacê ~ jVmcê
‘bandage, sling’	*-cĩ(C)
‘to chew’	*kapnĵa
‘bee, bumblebee’	*nĵy
‘to hang.SG’	*nĵô
‘to tickle’	*nĵê
‘to stand.SG’	*ja
‘to put vertically.SG’	*ja
‘nose’	*ñĩja
‘to eat.INTR, food’	*jañ
‘bitter’	*jə̂
‘smoke’	*ñĩjə̂
‘urine’	*jʏ
‘to sit.SG’	*ñỹ
‘tooth’	*jo
‘salt’	*kVjo
‘to tear, to rip’	*jô
‘pus’	*jʊ
‘postposition’	*jʊ
‘father’	*jʊm’
‘to hide’	*peju
‘to heat, to dry’	*nĵu
‘to sleep’	ũt/ñũt
‘thread, knot, cloth’	jê (~ jên)
‘female breast’	*ñũmjê(C)
‘vein’	*kujêk
‘to lay.SG’	*ji
‘name’	jiji ~ ñĩji
‘meat’	*ñĩ
‘hand (in compounds)’	*ñĩ(m)-
‘basket’	*kaj’
‘skin, bark’	*kyñ
‘lip’	*jar-kyñ
‘to dig’	*ko
‘mouth’	*jar-ko
‘sky’	*kVñko
‘fly, mosquito’	*kôp
‘tree, horn’	*kôm
‘horn’	*ñĩ-kôm
‘wind’	kôk ~ ka-kôk
‘to eat’	*kʊ
‘stone’	*kẽt
‘NEG’	*kêt
‘pit’	*kɪj
‘to split’	kɪ ~ kɪj ~ *kɪj’
‘offspring’	*kra
‘macaw’	*krat
‘head’	*krỹñ
‘knee’	*jVkrỹñ
‘chin, beak’	*krot
‘hole’	*kre
‘to plant’	*kre
‘thigh’	*krɪñ
‘to push against, to grind’	*ŋə̃(C)
‘feather, hair’	*ŋgoñ’
‘louse’	*ŋgô
‘to push against, to crumble’	*ŋũ
‘to enter.PL’	*ŋgɪ
‘toucan’	ŋrũ (~ ŋrũn)
‘egg’	*ŋgre
‘to dance’	*ŋgre
‘wrap’	*ŋrĩ(C)

For a more complete list of Proto-Jê reconstructions, as well as Proto-Southern Jê reconstructions, see the correspondingPortuguese article.

Ribeiro & van der Voort (2010)

[edit]

Proto-Jê reconstructions by Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010):^[6]

gloss	Proto-Jê
‘relational prefix’	*j-
‘dative’	*mã
‘to open’	*kje
‘wing’	*j-ar
‘mouth’	*j-arkua
‘mouth’	*j-ar-
‘head’	*krã
‘feather’	*j-ar
‘path’	*prɨ
‘causativizer’	*-n
‘chief’	*paʔi
‘to suck’	*so
‘to catch’	*wɨ
‘to eat, to bite’	*ku
‘body’	*hǝ
‘to sing, to dance’	*ŋrɛ
‘to lay’	j-i, s-i
‘hard’	*tǝt
‘to stand’	*j-am
‘thorn’	*j-ĩ
‘to speak’	*wẽ
‘fart’	*pek
‘tree, wood, horn’	*ko
‘wood, firewood’	*pĩ
‘ashes, dust’	*mrɔ
‘to wash’	*pe
‘tongue’	*j-õtɔ
‘hand’	*j-ĩ-
‘hand’	*ɲ-ĩkra
‘to kill’	*wĩ
‘nest’	*j-ase
‘bone’	*si
‘to hear, to know’	*ma
‘egg’	*ŋrɛ
‘stone’	*kɛn
‘skin, bark’	*kɨ
‘to plant’	*krɛ
‘1st person’	*ĩj-
‘2nd person’	*a-
‘3rd person’	*ĩ-
‘3rd person’	*s-
‘pus’	j-u, j-ur
‘tail’	*mɨ
‘root’	*j-are
‘seed’	*sɨ
‘to sit’	*j-ã
‘hunger’	*prãm
‘earth’	*pɨka
‘to come’	*tẽm

References

[edit]

Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms atAppendix:Proto-Jê reconstructions

^Ramirez, Henri; Vegini, Valdir; França, Maria Cristina Victorino de (2015)."Koropó, puri, kamakã e outras línguas do Leste Brasileiro".LIAMES: Línguas Indígenas Americanas.15 (2):223–277.doi:10.20396/liames.v15i2.8642302.
^^a ^bNikulin, Andrey (2020)."A reconstruction of Proto-Jê phonology and lexicon".Journal of Language Relationship.17 (1–2):93–127.doi:10.31826/jlr-2019-171-211.
^Nikulin, Andrey. 2020.Proto-Macro-Jê: um estudo reconstrutivo. Doctoral dissertation, University of Brasília.
^Nikulin, Andrey; De Carvalho, Fernando O. (2019)."Estudos diacrônicos de línguas indígenas brasileiras: Um panorama"(PDF).Macabéa: Revista Eletrônica do Netlli.8 (2):255–305.doi:10.47295/mren.v8i2.1910.
^^a ^bLoukotka, Čestmír (1968).Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
^Ribeiro, Eduardo Rivail (2010). "Nimuendajú was right: The inclusion of the jabutí language family in the Macro-Jê stock".International Journal of American Linguistics.76 (4):517–570.doi:10.1086/658056.hdl:2066/86080.

Panará

Trans-Tocantins	Apinajé Trans-Araguaia Mẽbêngôkre Tapajós Khĩsêtjê (Suyá) Tapayuna
Timbira	Canela–Krahô Pykobjê–Krĩkatí Pará Gavião Parkatêjê Kỳikatêjê Krẽjê

Central (Akuwẽ)

Jê of Paraná

Ingain

Southern	Kaingáng São Paulo Kaingáng Laklãnõ (Xokléng) Guayaná

Unclassified

Jaikó

Trans–São Francisco

Krenák	Guerén Krenak Nakrehé
Maxakalían	Malalí Maxakalí Ritual Maxakalí Pataxó Pataxó-Hãhãhãe Makoní Kapoxó Koropó
Kamakã ?	Kamakã Kotoxó Masakará Menién

Western

Mato Grosso	Ofayé Rikbáktsa
Jabutian	Arikapú Djeoromitxi

Karajá

Karajá
- Javaé [pt]
- Xambioá

Chiquitano ?

Migueleño Chiquitano
Tao
Piñoco [hr]
Penoqui
Cusiquia
Manasi
Sansimoniano
Churápa [hr]

Italics indicateextinct languages

Primary language families

Africa

Afroasiatic Austronesian Khoe–Kwadi Kx'a Niger–Congo? Atlantic–Congo Dogon Ijoid Katloid Kru Lafofa Mande Rashad Siamou Talodi–Heiban? Ubangian? Nilo-Saharan? Berta Bʼaga Central Sudanic Daju Eastern Jebel Furan Kadu Koman Gule Kresh Kuliak Kunama Nara Nilotic Nubian Nyima Maban Mimi of Decorse Saharan Songhay Surmic Taman Temein Tuu
Isolates	Bangime Hadza Jalaa Laal Meroitic? Ongota Sandawe Shabo

Eurasia
(Europe
andAsia)

Afroasiatic
Ainu
Austroasiatic
Austronesian
Chukotko-Kamchatkan
Dravidian
Eskaleut
Great Andamanese
Hmong–Mien
Hurro-Urartian
Indo-European
Japonic
Kartvelian
Koreanic
Kra–Dai
Mongolic
Nivkh
Northeast Caucasian
Northwest Caucasian
Ongan
Sino-Tibetan
Tungusic
Turkic
Tyrsenian
Uralic
Xiongnu
Yeniseian
Yukaghir
Arunachal?
- Digaro?
- Kho-Bwa?
- Mijiic?
- Miju?
- Siangic?

Isolates

New Guinea
andthe Pacific

Isolates

Australia

Bunuban Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Gunwinyguan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Maningrida Mirndi Northeastern Tasmanian Northern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly Tangkic Wagaydyic (Northern Daly?) Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan? Darwin Region? Marrku–Wurrugu? Yangmanic–Wagiman?
Isolates	Giimbiyu Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?) Tiwi Wagiman Wardaman Gaagudju? Kungarakany?

North
America

Algic Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskaleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yuki–Wappo Yuman–Cochimí
Isolates	Alsea Atakapa Cayuse Chimariko Chitimacha Coahuilteco Cotoname Esselen Haida Karuk Kutenai Natchez Salinan Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Tonkawa Tunica Waikuri Washo Yana Yuchi Zuni Keres? Yokuts?

Mesoamerica

Arawakan Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan
Isolates	Cuitlatec Huave Purépecha

South
America

Isolates

Sign
languages

Arab Australian Aboriginal BANZSL Chinese Francosign Germanosign Hand Talk Indo-Pakistani Japanese Mayan Original Thai Swedish Paraguay–Uruguay? Providencia–Cayman? Sudanese? Tanzanian? Vietnamese?
Isolates	Seelist of sign languages Village sign languages