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Theculture of Italy encompasses the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, and customs of theItalian peninsula throughout history. Italy has been a pivotal center of civilisation, playing a crucial role in the development ofWestern culture. It was the birthplace of theRoman civilisation, theCatholic Church, and theRenaissance, and significantly contributed to global movements such as theBaroque,Neoclassicism, andFuturism.[1]
Italy is one of the primary birthplaces ofWestern civilisation and acultural superpower.[2][3]
The essence of Italian culture is reflected in its art, music, cinema, style, and food. Italy gave birth toopera and has been instrumental inclassical music, producing renowned composers such asAntonio Vivaldi,Gioachino Rossini,Giuseppe Verdi, andGiacomo Puccini. Its rich cultural heritage includes significant contributions toballet, folk dances such astarantella, and the improvisational theater ofcommedia dell'arte.[4]
The country boasts iconic cities that have shaped world culture.Rome, the ancient capital of the Roman civilisation and seat of the Catholic Church, stands alongsideFlorence, the heart of the Renaissance.Venice, with its unique canal system, andMilan, a global fashion capital, further exemplify Italy's cultural significance. Each city tells a story of artistic, historical, and innovative achievement.[5]
Italy has been the starting point of transformative global phenomena, including theRoman Republic, theLatin alphabet,civil law, theAge of Discovery, and theScientific Revolution. It is home to the mostUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites (61) and has produced numerous notable individuals who have made lasting contributions to human knowledge and creativity.
According to various ranks, Italy is also the country with most cultural influence.[6][7]
Italian art has influenced several major movements throughout the centuries and has produced several great artists, including painters, architects, and sculptors. Today, Italy has an essential place in the international art scene, with several major art galleries, museums, and exhibitions; major artistic centres in the country include Rome, Florence, Venice, Milan, Turin, Genoa, Naples, Palermo, and other cities. Italy ishome to 61World Heritage Sites, the largest number of any country in the world.
Since ancient times,Greeks andEtruscans have inhabited the south, centre, and north of the Italian peninsula respectively. The very numerousrock drawings in Valcamonica are as old as 8,000 BC, and there are rich remains ofEtruscan art from thousands of tombs, as well as rich remains from the Greek cities atPaestum,Agrigento, and elsewhere.Ancient Rome finally emerged as the dominant Italian and European power. The Roman remains in Italy are of extraordinary richness, from the grand Imperial monuments ofRome itself to the survival of exceptionally preserved ordinary buildings inPompeii and neighbouring sites. Following thefall of the Roman Empire, in theMiddle Ages Italy, remained an important centre, not only of theCarolingian art andOttonian art of theHoly Roman Emperors, but for theByzantine art ofRavenna and other sites.
Italy was the main centre of artistic developments throughout theRenaissance (1300–1600), beginning with theProto-Renaissance ofGiotto and reaching a particular peak in theHigh Renaissance ofLeonardo da Vinci,Michelangelo, andRaphael, whose works inspired the later phase of the Renaissance, known asMannerism. Italy retained its artistic dominance into the 17th century with theBaroque (1600–1750).Cultural tourism andNeoclassicism (1750–1850) became a major prop to an otherwise faltering economy. Both Baroque and Neoclassicism originated in Rome[8][9] and were the last Italian-born styles that spread to allWestern art.
However, Italy maintained a presence in the international art scene from the mid-19th century onwards, with cultural movements such as theMacchiaioli,Futurism,Metaphysical,Novecento Italiano,Spatialism,Arte Povera, andTransavantgarde.
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Italy is renowned for its rich architectural heritage, fromancient Rome to modern design. Italian architects pioneered the use of arches, domes, and vaults, laid the foundations ofRenaissance architecture, and inspired movements such asPalladianism andNeoclassicism. Italian cities are home to a wide range of historical styles that influenced the built environment worldwide.
Architecture in Italy began withEtruscan andGreek settlements, which influenced the development ofRoman architecture. Roman achievements included aqueducts, amphitheatres, temples, and urban planning. The legacy of Roman engineering is visible in structures such as theColosseum and thePantheon, as well as in sites such asPompeii.[10]
WithChristianity's spread, Roman forms were adapted into thebasilica—long, rectangular churches richly decorated with mosaics.[11]Ravenna became a center ofByzantine art and architecture, whileOld St. Peter's Basilica, begun in the 4th century, set the template for medieval church design.
Between the 9th and 12th centuries, Romanesque architecture flourished, marked by rounded arches, vaults, and elaborate cloisters. Notable examples include theLeaning Tower of Pisa and theBasilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan.[12]
TheItalian Renaissance (14th–16th centuries) revived classical forms and emphasised symmetry and proportion.Filippo Brunelleschi's dome forFlorence Cathedral andDonato Bramante's work onSt. Peter's Basilica exemplify this era's innovations.[13]Andrea Palladio's harmonious villas in theVeneto region, such as theVilla La Rotonda, became a model for Western architecture.[14]
In the 17th century,Baroque architecture emerged, emphasising grandeur and theatricality, as seen in churches and palaces throughout Rome and Naples.[15] The style continued intoRococo and was later tempered by the classical restraint ofNeoclassicism.[16][17]
The history ofItalian cinema began a few months after theLumière brothers began motion picture exhibitions.[19][20] The first Italian director is considered to beVittorio Calcina, a collaborator of the Lumière Brothers, who filmedPope Leo XIII in 1896.[21] In the 1910s the Italian film industry developed rapidly.[22] In 1912, the year of the greatest expansion, 569 films were produced in Turin, 420 in Rome and 120 in Milan.[23]Cabiria, a 1914 Italianepic film directed byGiovanni Pastrone, is considered the most famous Italiansilent film.[22][24] It was also the first film in history to be shown in theWhite House.[25][26][27] The oldest Europeanavant-garde cinema movement,Italian futurism, took place in the late 1910s.[28]
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After a period of decline in the 1920s, the Italian film industry was revitalised in the 1930s with the arrival ofsound film. A popular Italian genre during this period, theTelefoni Bianchi, consisted of comedies with glamorous backgrounds.[31]Calligrafismo was instead in a sharp contrast toTelefoni Bianchi-American style comedies and is ratherartistic, highlyformalistic,expressive in complexity, and deals mainly with contemporary literary material.[32] Cinema was later used byBenito Mussolini, who founded Rome's renownedCinecittà studio also for the production ofFascist propaganda until World War II.[33]
After the war, Italian film was widely recognised and exported until an artistic decline around the 1980s.[34]Notable Italian film directors from this period includeFederico Fellini,Sergio Leone,Pier Paolo Pasolini,Duccio Tessari,Luchino Visconti,Vittorio De Sica,Michelangelo Antonioni, andRoberto Rossellini; some of these are recognised among the greatest and most influential filmmakers of all time.[35][36] Films include world cinema treasures such asBicycle Thieves,La dolce vita,8½,The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, andOnce Upon a Time in the West. The mid-1940s to the early 1950s was the heyday ofneorealist films, reflecting the poor condition of post-war Italy.[37]
As the country grew wealthier in the 1950s, a form of neorealism known as pink neorealism succeeded, and starting from the 1950s through thecommedia all'italiana genre, and otherfilm genres, such assword-and-sandal followed asspaghetti Westerns, were popular in the 1960s and 1970s.[38] Actresses such asSophia Loren,Giulietta Masina, andGina Lollobrigida achieved international stardom during this period. Erotic Italian thrillers, orgialli, produced by directors such asMario Bava andDario Argento in the 1970s, also influenced the horror genre worldwide.[39] In recent years, the Italian scene has received only occasional international attention, with films such asCinema Paradiso, written and directed byGiuseppe Tornatore;Mediterraneo, directed byGabriele Salvatores;Il Postino: The Postman, withMassimo Troisi;Life Is Beautiful, directed byRoberto Benigni; andThe Great Beauty, directed byPaolo Sorrentino.[40]
The aforementioned Cinecittà studio is today the largest film and television production facility inEurope,[18] where many international box office hits were filmed. In the 1950s, the number of international productions being made there led to Rome's being dubbed "Hollywood on the Tiber". More than 3,000 productions have been made on its lot, of which 90 received anAcademy Award nomination and 47 of these won it, from some cinema classics to recent rewarded features (such asRoman Holiday,Ben-Hur,Cleopatra,Romeo and Juliet,The English Patient,The Passion of the Christ, andGangs of New York).[41]
Italy is the most awarded country at theAcademy Awards forBest Foreign Language Film, with 14 awards won, 3Special Awards, and 28nominations.[42] As of 2016[update], Italian films have also won 12Palmes d'Or,[43] 11Golden Lions,[44] and 7Golden Bears.[45] The list of the100 Italian films to be saved was created with the aim to report "100 films that have changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978".[46]
Italian comics (Fumetti) officially began on 27 December 1908 with the first issue ofCorriere dei Piccoli. Attilio Mussino contributed various characters, includingBilbolbul, a little Black child whose surreal adventures unfolded in a fantastical Africa.
In 1932, publisher Lotario Vecchi launchedJumbo, featuring only North American authors.[47] With a circulation of 350,000, it cemented comics as a mainstream medium in Italy. Vecchi later brought the title to Spain.
That same year, the first Italian Disney comic,Topolino (Mickey Mouse), debuted, published by Nerbini in Florence. In 1935, Mondadori's subsidiary API took over the franchise.
In 1945,Hugo Pratt, withMario Faustinelli andAlberto Ongaro, createdAsso di Picche while at the Venice Academy of Fine Arts. Their distinct style earned them recognition as the Venetian school of comics.
In 1948,Gian Luigi Bonelli launched the successful Western seriesTex Willer, which became the prototype forBonelliani—adventure comics in digest format. Later series includedZagor (1961),Mister No (1975),Martin Mystère (1982), andDylan Dog (1986). These focused on adventure themes—Western, horror, mystery, or science fiction—and remain the most popular comic format in Italy.
Italy also produces manyDisney comics, featuring characters from theMickey Mouse universe andScrooge McDuck universe. After the 1960s, American output declined, and Italy (alongside Denmark and South America) became a key producer. The Italian 'Scuola disneyana' introduced several innovations: a standard story length (30 pages), literary parodies, and long-form stories of up to 400 pages.
Notable Disney artists includeBonvi,Marco Rota,Romano Scarpa,Giorgio Cavazzano,Giovan Battista Carpi, andGuido Martina. The best-known Italian Disney character isPaperinik (Duck Avenger or Phantom Duck).
Italy also produces children's and teen comics, includingGormiti (based on a toy line), andAngel's Friends andWinx Club, both tied to popular animated series.
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Italian folk dance has been an integral part ofItalian culture for centuries. Dance has been a continuous thread in Italian life fromDante through theRenaissance, the advent of thetarantella in southern Italy, and the modern revivals offolk music and dance. One of the earliest attempts to systematically collect folk dances is Gaspare Ungarelli's 1894 workLe vecchie danze italiane ancora in uso nella provincia bolognese ('Old Italian dances still in use in theprovince of Bologna') which gives brief descriptions and music for some 30 dances.[48] An interest in preserving and fostering folk art, music and dance amongItalian Americans and the dedication and leadership of Elba Farabegoli Gurzau led to the formation of the Italian Folk Art Federation of America (IFAFA) in May 1979. The group sponsors an annual conference and has published a newsletter,Tradizioni, since 1980.[49]
Italian fashion hasa long tradition. Milan, Florence and Rome are Italy's mainfashion capitals. According toTop Global Fashion Capital Rankings 2013 byGlobal Language Monitor, Rome ranked sixth worldwide while Milan was twelfth. Previously, in 2009, Milan was declared as the "fashion capital of the world" by Global Language Monitor itself.[50] Currently, Milan and Rome, annually compete with other major international centres, such as Paris, New York, London, and Tokyo.
The Italian fashion industry is one of the country's most important manufacturing sectors. The majority of the older Italian couturiers are based in Rome. However, Milan is seen as the fashion capital of Italy because many well-known designers are based there and it is the venue for the Italian designer collections. Major Italian fashion labels, such asGucci,Armani,Prada,Versace,Valentino,Dolce & Gabbana,Missoni,Fendi,Moschino,Max Mara,Trussardi,Benetton, andFerragamo, to name a few, are regarded as among the finest fashion houses in the world.
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Accessory and jewellery labels, such asBulgari,Luxottica, andBuccellati have been founded in Italy and are internationally acclaimed, and Luxottica is the world's largest eyewear company. Also, the fashion magazineVogue Italia, is considered one of the most prestigious fashion magazines in the world.[51] The talent of young, creative fashion is also promoted, as in the ITS young fashion designer competition in Trieste.[52]
Italy is also prominent in the field of design, notably interior design, architectural design,industrial design, and urban design. The country has produced some well-known furniture designers, such asGio Ponti andEttore Sottsass, and Italian phrases such asBel Disegno andLinea Italiana have entered the vocabulary of furniture design.[53] Examples of classic pieces of Italianwhite goods and pieces of furniture includeZanussi's washing machines and fridges,[54] the "New Tone" sofas by Atrium,[54] and the post-modern bookcase by Ettore Sottsass, inspired by Bob Dylan's song "Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again".[54]
Italy is recognised as a worldwide trendsetter and leader in design.[55] Italy today still exerts a vast influence onurban design,industrial design,interior design, andfashion design worldwide.[55] Today, Milan and Turin are the nation's leaders in architectural design and industrial design. The city of Milan hosts theFieraMilano, Europe's biggest design fair.[56] Milan also hosts major design and architecture-related events and venues, such as theFuori Salone and theSalone del Mobile, and has been home to the designersBruno Munari,Lucio Fontana,Enrico Castellani, andPiero Manzoni.[57]
Formal Latin literature began in 240 BC with the first stage play performed in Rome.[59] Latin literature has remained highly influential, with notable writers such asPliny the Elder,Pliny the Younger,Virgil,Horace,Propertius,Ovid, andLivy. The Romans were also known for their oral tradition, poetry, drama, and epigrams.[60] In the early 13th century,Francis of Assisi was considered by literary critics as the first Italian poet, with his religious songCanticle of the Sun.[61]
A literary movement also emerged in 13th-century Sicily, at the court of Emperor Frederick II, where lyrics inspired by Provençal themes were composed in a refined vernacular. Among the poets was notaryGiacomo da Lentini, credited with inventing thesonnet, although the most famous early sonneteer wasPetrarch.[62]
Guido Guinizelli is regarded as the founder of theDolce Stil Novo, a school that introduced a philosophical approach to love poetry. Its pure style influencedGuido Cavalcanti andDante Alighieri, whose works helped establish modernItalian. Dante's masterpiece,Divine Comedy, is considered one of the finest literary achievements worldwide;[63] he also developed the intricate poetic form known asterza rima.
The 14th century sawPetrarch andGiovanni Boccaccio imitate classical models while cultivating individual artistic voices. Petrarch's collectionIl Canzoniere became a cornerstone of lyric poetry, while Boccaccio'sThe Decameron remains one of the most celebrated short story collections.[64]
Renaissance authors such asNiccolò Machiavelli wrote enduring works such asThe Prince, a realist treatise on power.Ludovico Ariosto continued the chivalric romance withOrlando Furioso, andBaldassare Castiglione outlined the ideal courtier inThe Book of the Courtier.Torquato Tasso's epicJerusalem Delivered blended Christian themes with classical form, adhering to Aristotelian unity.
Italian writers also pioneered the fairy tale genre.Giovanni Francesco Straparola'sThe Facetious Nights of Straparola (1550–1555) andGiambattista Basile'sPentamerone (1634) are among the earliest printed fairy tales in Europe.[67][68][69]
In the early 17th century,Giambattista Marino's mythological poemL'Adone exemplified Baroque excess, whileGalileo Galilei pioneered clear scientific prose.Tommaso Campanella'sThe City of the Sun envisioned a utopian society. Later, theAcademy of Arcadia promoted classical simplicity, seen inMetastasio's heroic melodramas. In the 18th century, playwrightCarlo Goldoni modernised Italian theatre with realistic depictions of the middle class.
Romanticism aligned with theRisorgimento, Italy's unification movement. Poets such asVittorio Alfieri,Ugo Foscolo, andGiacomo Leopardi championed patriotic and philosophical themes.Alessandro Manzoni, the leading Romantic, advanced a unified literary language with his novelThe Betrothed, which glorifies Christian ideals and remains a landmark in Italian literature.[65][70]
In the late 19th century, the realist movementVerismo emerged, led byGiovanni Verga andLuigi Capuana. At the same time,Emilio Salgari published popular adventure novels, including theSandokan series.[71] In 1883,Carlo Collodi releasedThe Adventures of Pinocchio, now among the most translated non-religious books globally.[72]
In the early 20th century,Futurism introduced experimental language glorifying speed and modernity, exemplified byFilippo Tommaso Marinetti'sManifesto of Futurism.[73]
Modern literary figures includeGabriele D'Annunzio; Nobel laureatesGiosuè Carducci (1906),Grazia Deledda (1926),Luigi Pirandello (1936),Salvatore Quasimodo (1959),Eugenio Montale (1975), andDario Fo (1997); and internationally acclaimed writers such asItalo Calvino andUmberto Eco.[74]
Fromfolk music toclassical, music is an intrinsic part of Italian culture. Instruments associated with classical music, including the piano and violin, were invented in Italy,[75][76] and many of the prevailing classical music forms, such as thesymphony, concerto, andsonata, can trace their roots back to innovations of 16th- and 17th-century Italian music.
Italy's most famous composers include theRenaissance composersPalestrina,Monteverdi andGesualdo, theBaroque composersScarlatti,Corelli andVivaldi, theClassical composersPaisiello,Paganini andRossini, and theRomantic composersVerdi andPuccini. Modern Italian composers such asBerio andNono proved significant in the development ofexperimental andelectronic music. While the classical music tradition still holds strong in Italy, as evidenced by the fame of its innumerable opera houses, such asLa Scala of Milan andSan Carlo of Naples (the oldest continuously active venue for public opera in the world),[77] and performers such as the pianistMaurizio Pollini and tenorLuciano Pavarotti,Italians have been no less appreciative of their thriving contemporary music scene.
Italy is widely known for being the birthplace of opera.[79]Italian opera was believed to have been founded in the early 17th century, in cities such asMantua andVenice.[79] Later, works and pieces composed by native Italian composers of the 19th and early 20th centuries, such asRossini,Bellini,Donizetti,Verdi, andPuccini, are among the most famous operas ever written and today are performed in opera houses across the world. La Scala opera house in Milan is also renowned as one of the best in the world. Famous Italian opera singers includeEnrico Caruso andAlessandro Bonci.
Introduced in the early 1920s,jazz took a particularly strong foothold in Italy, and remained popular despite the xenophobic cultural policies of the Fascist regime. Today, the most notable centres of jazz music in Italy include Milan, Rome, and Sicily. Later, Italy was at the forefront of theprogressive rock and pop movement of the 1970s, with bands such asPFM,Banco del Mutuo Soccorso,Le Orme,Goblin, andPooh.[80] The same period saw diversification in thecinema of Italy, andCinecittà films included complex scores by composers includingEnnio Morricone,Armando Trovaioli,Piero Piccioni, andPiero Umiliani. In the early 1980s, the first star to emerge from theItalian hip hop scene was singerJovanotti.[81] Italian metal bands includeRhapsody of Fire,Lacuna Coil,Elvenking,Forgotten Tomb, andFleshgod Apocalypse.
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Italy contributed to the development ofdisco andelectronic music, withItalo disco, known for its futuristic sound and prominent use of synthesisers anddrum machines, being one of the earliest electronic dance genres, as well as European forms of disco aside fromEuro disco (which later went on to influence several genres such asEurodance andNu-disco).[83] By the latter half of the 1990s, a subgenre of Eurodance known asItalo dance emerged. Taking influences from Italo disco and Italo house, Italo dance generally included synthesiser riffs, a melodic sound, and the usage of vocoders. Notable Italian DJs and remixers includeGabry Ponte (member of the groupEiffel 65),Benny Benassi,Gigi D'Agostino, and the trioTacabro.
Producers such asGiorgio Moroder, who won threeAcademy Awards and fourGolden Globes for his music, were highly influential in the development ofelectronic dance music.[82] Today, Italian pop music is represented annually with theSanremo Music Festival, which served as inspiration for theEurovision song contest, and theFestival of Two Worlds inSpoleto.[84] Singers such asMina,Andrea Bocelli,Grammy winnerLaura Pausini,Zucchero,Eros Ramazzotti,Elisa, andTiziano Ferro have attained international acclaim.Gigliola Cinquetti,Toto Cutugno, andMåneskin won theEurovision Song Contest, in1964,1990, and2021 respectively.
Italian folk music has a deep and complex history.National unification came quite late to theItalian peninsula, so its many hundreds of separate cultures remained un-homogenised until quite recently. Moreover, Italian folk music reflects Italy's geographic position at the south ofEurope and in the centre of theMediterranean Sea:Slavic,Arabic,Greek,Spanish, andByzantine influences are readily apparent in the musical styles of the Italian regions. Today, Italy's folk music is often divided into several spheres of geographic influence, a classification system proposed byAlan Lomax in 1956 and often repeated since.[85]
Over the ages, Italian philosophy and literature had a vast influence onWestern philosophy, beginning with the Greeks and Romans, and going ontoRenaissance humanism, theAge of Enlightenment andmodern philosophy.[86] Philosophy was brought to Italy byPythagoras, founder of the Italian school of philosophy inCrotone,Magna Graecia.[87] Major Italian philosophers of the Greek period includeXenophanes,Parmenides,Zeno,Empedocles, andGorgias. Roman philosophers includeCicero,Lucretius,Seneca the Younger,Musonius Rufus,Plutarch,Epictetus,Marcus Aurelius,Clement of Alexandria,Sextus Empiricus,Alexander of Aphrodisias,Plotinus,Porphyry,Iamblichus,Augustine of Hippo,Philoponus of Alexandria, andBoethius.[86]
Italian Medieval philosophy was mainly Christian, and included philosophers and theologians such asThomas Aquinas, the foremost classical proponent ofnatural theology and the father ofThomism, who reintroducedAristotelian philosophy to Christianity.[92] Notable Renaissance philosophers include:Giordano Bruno, one of the major scientific figures of the western world;Marsilio Ficino, one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the period; andNiccolò Machiavelli, one of the main founders of modernpolitical science. Machiavelli's most famous work wasThe Prince, whose contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between politicalrealism and politicalidealism.[93] Italy was also affected by theEnlightenment, a movement which was a consequence of the Renaissance.[94] University cities such as Padua, Bologna and Naples remained centres of scholarship and the intellect, with several philosophers such asGiambattista Vico (widely regarded as being the founder of modern Italian philosophy)[95] andAntonio Genovesi.[94]Cesare Beccaria was a significant Enlightenment figure and is now considered one of the fathers ofclassical criminal theory as well as modernpenology.[90] Beccaria is famous for hisOn Crimes and Punishments (1764), a treatise that served as one of the earliest prominent condemnations of torture and the death penalty and thus a landmark work in anti-death penalty philosophy.[94]
Italy also had a renowned philosophical movement in the 1800s, withIdealism,Sensism, andEmpiricism. The main Sensist Italian philosophers wereMelchiorre Gioja andGian Domenico Romagnosi.[95] Criticism of the Sensist movement came from other philosophers such asPasquale Galluppi (1770–1846), who affirmed thata priori relationships were synthetic.[95]Antonio Rosmini, instead, was the founder ofItalian idealism. During the late 19th and 20th centuries, there were also several other movements which gained some form of popularity in Italy, such asOntologism (whose main philosopher wasVincenzo Gioberti),[96] Christian democracy, communism, socialism, futurism, fascism, andanarchism.Giovanni Gentile andBenedetto Croce were two of the most significant 20th-century Idealist philosophers. Anarcho-communism first fully formed into its modern strain within the Italian section of theFirst International.[97]Antonio Gramsci remains a relevant philosopher within Marxist and communist theory, credited with creating the theory ofcultural hegemony. Italian philosophers were also influential in the development of the non-Marxistliberal socialism philosophy, includingCarlo Rosselli,Norberto Bobbio,Piero Gobetti, andAldo Capitini. In the 1960s, many Italian left-wing activists adopted theanti-authoritarian pro-working class leftist theories that would become known asautonomism andoperaismo.[98]
EarlyItalian feminists includeSibilla Aleramo,Alaide Gualberta Beccari, andAnna Maria Mozzoni, although proto-feminist philosophies had previously been touched upon by earlier Italian writers such asChristine de Pizan,Moderata Fonte, andLucrezia Marinella. Italian physician and educatorMaria Montessori is credited with the creation of thephilosophy of education that bears her name, an educational philosophy now practised throughout the world.[91]Giuseppe Peano was one of the founders of analytic philosophy and contemporary philosophy of mathematics. Recent analytic philosophers includeCarlo Penco,Gloria Origgi,Pieranna Garavaso, andLuciano Floridi.[86]
The art of sculpture in the Italian peninsula has its roots in ancient times. In the archaic period, when Etruscan cities dominated central Italy and the adjacent sea, Etruscan sculpture flourished. The name of an individual artist,Vulca, who worked at Veii, has been identified. He has left aterracottaApollo and other figures, and can perhaps claim the distinction of being the most ancient master in the long history of Italian art.
A significant development of this art occurred between the 6th century BC and 5th century AD during the growth of theRoman Empire. The earliest Roman sculpture was influenced by the Etruscans to the north of Rome and by Greek colonists to the south. During the Empire period, the pure realism of the Republican period portrait busts was joined to Greek idealism. The result, evident inAugustus of Primaporta, was often a curious juxtaposition of individualised heads with idealised, anatomically perfect bodies in Classical poses.
During theMiddle Ages, large sculpture was largely religious.Carolingian artists (named after Charlemagne's family) in northern Italy created sculpture for covers of Bibles, as decoration for parts of church altars, and forcrucifixes and giant candlesticks placed on altars.
In the late 13th century,Nicola Pisano and his sonGiovanni began the revolutionary changes that led up to the Renaissance in Italian sculpture, drawing influences from Romansarcophagi and other remains. Both are noted for their reliefs and ornamentation on pulpits.The Massacre of the Innocents by Giovanni Pisano is an example.
The greatest sculptor of the early Renaissance wasDonatello.[99] In 1430, he produced a bronze statue ofDavid, which re-established the classical idea of beauty in the naked human body. Conceived fully in the round and independent of any architectural surroundings, it was the first major work of Renaissance sculpture. Among the other brilliant sculptors of the 15th century wereJacopo della Quercia,Michelozzo,Bernardo andAntonio Rossellino,Giambologna, andAgostino di Duccio.
Michelangelo's great brooding sculptures, such as the figures ofNight andDay in theMedici Chapel in Florence, dominatedHigh Renaissance Italian sculpture. HisDavid, is perhaps, the most famous sculpture in the world.[100] It differs from previous representations of the subject in that David is depicted before his battle with Goliath and not after the giant's defeat. Instead of being shown victorious over a foe much larger than he, David looks tense and ready for combat.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini was the most important sculptor of theBaroque period.[101] He combined emotional and sensual freedom with theatrical presentation and an almost photographic naturalism. Bernini's saints and other figures seem to sit, stand, and move as living people—and the viewer becomes part of the scene. This involvement of the spectator is a basic characteristic of Baroque sculpture. One of his most famous works isEcstasy of Saint Teresa.
TheNeoclassical movement arose in the late 18th century. The members of this very international school restored what they regarded as classical principles of art. They were direct imitators of ancient Greek sculptors, and emphasised classical drapery and the nude. The leading Neoclassical artist in Italy wasAntonio Canova, who like many other foreign neoclassical sculptors includingBertel Thorvaldsen was based in Rome. His ability to carve pure white Italian marble has seldom been equalled. Most of his statues are in European collections, but theMetropolitan Museum of Art in New York City owns important works, includingPerseus and Cupid andPsyche.
In the 20th century, many Italians played leading roles in the development of modern art.Futurist sculptors tried to show how space, movement, and time affected form. These artists portrayed objects in motion, rather than their appearance at any particular moment. An example isUmberto Boccioni'sUnique Forms of Continuity in Space.
Italian theatre originates from theMiddle Ages, with its background dating back to the times of theancient Greek colonies ofMagna Graecia, in southern Italy,[102] the theatre of theItalic peoples[103] and thetheatre of ancient Rome. It can therefore be assumed that there were two main lines of which the ancient Italian theatre developed in the Middle Ages. The first, consisting of the dramatization of Catholic liturgies and of which more documentation is retained, and the second, formed by pagan forms of spectacle such as the staging for city festivals, the court preparations of the jesters and the songs of thetroubadours.[104] TheRenaissance theatre marked the beginning of the modern theatre due to the rediscovery and study of the classics, the ancient theatrical texts were recovered and translated, which were soon staged at the court and in the curtensi halls, and then moved to real theatre. In this way, the idea of theatre came close to that of today: a performance in a designated place in which the public participates. In the late 15th century two cities were important centres for the rediscovery and renewal of theatrical art:Ferrara andRome. The first, vital centre of art in the second half of the 15th century, saw the staging of some of the most famous Latin works byPlautus, rigorously translated into Italian.[105]
During the 16th century and on into the 18th century,commedia dell'arte was a form ofimprovisational theatre, and it is still performed today. Travelling troupes of players would set up an outdoor stage and provide amusement in the form ofjuggling,acrobatics and, more typically, humorous plays based on a repertoire of established characters with a rough storyline, calledcanovaccio. Plays did not originate from written drama but from scenarios calledlazzi, which were loose frameworks that provided the situations, complications, and outcome of the action, around which the actors would improvise. The characters of thecommedia usually represent fixed social types andstock characters, each of which has a distinctcostume, such as foolish old men, devious servants, or military officers full of falsebravado. The main categories of these characters include servants, old men, lovers, and captains.[106]
The first recorded commedia dell'arte performances came from Rome as early as 1551,[107] and was performed outdoors in temporary venues by professional actors who were costumed and masked, as opposed tocommedia erudita, which were written comedies, presented indoors by untrained and unmasked actors.[108] By the mid-16th century, specific troupes ofcommedia performers began to coalesce, and by 1568 theGelosi became a distinct company.Commedia often performed inside in court theatres or halls, and also in some fixed theatres such as Teatro Baldrucca in Florence. Flaminio Scala, who had been a minor performer in the Gelosi published the scenarios of the commedia dell'arte around the start of the 17th century, really in an effort to legitimise the form—and ensure its legacy. These scenarios are highly structured and built around the symmetry of the various types in duet: twoZanni,vecchi,innamorate andinnamorati, among others.[109]
In the commedia dell'arte, female roles were played by women, documented as early as the 1560s, making them the first known professional actresses in Europe since antiquity.Lucrezia Di Siena, whose name is on a contract of actors from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian actress known by name, withVincenza Armani andBarbara Flaminia as the first primadonnas and the first well-documented actresses in Europe.[113]
TheBallet dance genre also originated in Italy. It began during the Italian Renaissance court as an outgrowth of court pageantry,[114] where aristocratic weddings were lavish celebrations. Court musicians and dancers collaborated to provide elaborate entertainment for them.[115]Domenico da Piacenza was one of the first dancing masters. Along with his students,Antonio Cornazzano andGuglielmo Ebreo, he was trained in dance and responsible for teaching nobles the art. Da Piacenza left one work:De arte saltandi et choreus ducendi ('On the art of dancing and conducting dances'), which was put together by his students.
At first, ballets were woven into the midst of an opera to allow the audience a moment of relief from the dramatic intensity. By the mid-17th century, Italian ballets in their entirety were performed in between the acts of an opera. Over time, Italian ballets became part of theatrical life: ballet companies in Italy's major opera houses employed an average of four to twelve dancers; in 1815 many companies employed anywhere from eighty to one hundred dancers.[116]
Carlo Goldoni, who wrote a few scenarios starting in 1734, superseded the comedy of masks and the comedy of intrigue by representations of actual life and manners through the characters and their behaviours. He rightly maintained that Italian life and manners were susceptible to artistic treatment such as had not been given them before. Italian theatre has been active in producing contemporary European work and in staging revivals, including the works ofLuigi Pirandello andDario Fo.
TheTeatro di San Carlo in Naples is the oldest continuously active venue for public opera in the world, opening in 1737, decades before both Milan'sLa Scala and Venice'sLa Fenice theatres.[77]
The history of Italian visual arts is significant to the history ofWestern painting. Since ancient times,Greeks andEtruscans have inhabited the south, centre and north of the Italian peninsula respectively. The very numerousrock drawings in Valcamonica are as old as 8,000 BC, and there are rich remains ofEtruscan art.
Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting. Roman painting does have its own unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas inCampania, in southern Italy. Such paintings can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods[117] and may contain the first examples oftrompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.[118]
Panel painting becomes more common during theRomanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons. Towards the middle of the 13th century,Medieval art andGothic painting became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the depiction of volume and perspective in Italy withCimabue and then his pupilGiotto. From Giotto onwards, the treatment of composition in painting became much more free and innovative.
TheItalian Renaissance is said by many to be thegolden age of painting; roughly spanning the 14th through the mid-17th centuries with a significant influence also out of the borders of modern Italy. In Italy artists such asPaolo Uccello,Fra Angelico,Masaccio,Piero della Francesca,Andrea Mantegna,Filippo Lippi,Giorgione,Tintoretto,Sandro Botticelli,Leonardo da Vinci,Michelangelo Buonarroti,Raphael,Giovanni Bellini, andTitian took painting to a higher level through the use ofperspective, the study ofhuman anatomy and proportion, and through their development of refined drawing and painting techniques.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, theHigh Renaissance gave rise to a stylised art known asMannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterised art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures ofPiero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions ofPontormo and the emotional intensity ofEl Greco.
In the 17th century, among the greatest painters ofItalian Baroque areCaravaggio,Annibale Carracci,Artemisia Gentileschi,Mattia Preti,Carlo Saraceni, andBartolomeo Manfredi. Subsequently, in the 18th century,Italian Rococo was mainly inspired by French Rococo, since France was the founding nation of that particular style, with artists such asGiovanni Battista Tiepolo andCanaletto.
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In the 19th century, major ItalianRomantic painters wereFrancesco Hayez,Giuseppe Bezzuoli, andFrancesco Podesti.Impressionism was brought from France to Italy by theMacchiaioli, led byGiovanni Fattori andGiovanni Boldini; andRealism byGioacchino Toma andGiuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo. In the 20th century, withFuturism, primarily through the works ofUmberto Boccioni andGiacomo Balla, Italy rose again as a seminal country for artistic evolution in painting. Futurism was succeeded by the metaphysical paintings ofGiorgio de Chirico, who exerted a strong influence on theSurrealists and generations of artists to follow such asBruno Caruso andRenato Guttuso.
Metaphysical painting is an Italian art movement, born in 1917 with the work of Carlo Carrà andGiorgio de Chirico in Ferrara. The wordmetaphysical, adopted by De Chirico himself, is core to the poetics of the movement;Novecento movement, a group of Italian artists, formed in 1922 in Milan, that advocated a return to the great Italian representational art of the past. The founding members of the Novecento ('20th century') movement were the criticMargherita Sarfatti and seven artists:Anselmo Bucci,Leonardo Dudreville,Achille Funi, Gian Emilio Malerba, Piero Marussig, Ubaldo Oppi, and Mario Sironi.
Spatialism was founded by the Italian artistLucio Fontana as themovimento spaziale, its tenets were repeated in manifestos between 1947 and 1954. Combining elements of concrete art,dada and tachism, the movement's adherents rejected easel painting and embraced new technological developments, seeking to incorporate time and movement in their works. Fontana's slashed and pierced paintings exemplify his thesis.Arte Povera is an artistic movement that originated in Italy in the 1960s, combining aspects of conceptual, minimalist, and performance art, and making use of worthless or common materials such as earth or newspaper, in the hope of subverting the commercialization of art.
Transavantgarde is the Italian version ofNeo-expressionism, an art movement that swept through Italy and the rest of Western Europe in the late 1970s and 1980s. The termtransavanguardia was coined by the Italian art critic,Achille Bonito Oliva,[119] originating in the "Aperto '80" at theVenice Biennale,[120][121] and literally means 'beyond theavant-garde'.
Italian cuisine is aMediterranean cuisine[122] consisting of theingredients,recipes, andcooking techniques developed inItaly sinceRoman times, and later spread around the world together with waves ofItalian diaspora.[123][124][125] Italian cuisine includes deeply rooted traditions common to the whole country, as well as all theregional gastronomies, different from each other, especially betweenthe north,the centre, andthe south of Italy, which are in continuous exchange.[126][127][128] Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated with variations throughout the country.[129][130] The cuisine has influenced several other cuisines around the world, chieflythat of the United States in the form ofItalian-American cuisine.[131]
One of the main characteristics of Italian cuisine is its simplicity, with many dishes made up of few ingredients, and therefore Italian cooks rely on the quality of the ingredients, rather than the complexity of preparation.[132][133] The most popular dishes and recipes, over the centuries, have often been created by ordinary people more so than bychefs, which is why many Italian recipes are suitable for home and dailycooking, respecting regional specificities, privileging only raw materials and ingredients from the region of origin of the dish and preserving its seasonality.[134][135][136]
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Italian cuisine has developed through centuries of social and political changes, it has its roots in ancient Rome.[137]Artichokes,peas,lettuce,parsley,melons, andapples, as well aswine andcheese, many types ofmeat, andgrains were all enjoyed by ancient Romans. For feasts Roman cooks used many spices, developed recipes forcheesecake andomelets, and roasted all types of meat.[137] From this noble beginning a sophisticated and flavorful cuisine has emerged. Significant changesoccurred with the discovery of the New World and the introduction ofpotatoes,tomatoes,bell peppers, andmaize, now central to the cuisine but not introduced in quantity until the 18th century.[138]
Italian cuisine, like other facets of the culture, speaks with highly inflected regional accents. There are certain self-consciously national constants: spaghetti with tomato sauce and pizza are highly common, but this nationalisation of culinary identity didn't start to take hold until after the Second World War, when southern immigrants flooded to the north in search of work, and even those classics vary from place to place; small enclaves still hold fast to their unique local forms of pasta and particular preparations. Classics such aspasta e fagioli, while found everywhere, are prepared differently according to local traditions. Gastronomic explorations of Italy are best undertaken by knowing the local traditions and eating the local foods.
Northern Italy, mountainous in many parts, is notable for the alpine cheeses of the Valle d'Aosta, thepesto of Liguria and, in Piedmont, the Alba truffle. In the Alto Adige, the influence of neighbouring Austria may be found in a regional repertoire that includes speck and dumplings. In the north,risotto andpolenta have tended to serve the staple function taken by pasta across the rest of the country. Italy's centre includes the celebrated culinary regions of Tuscany, famous for its olive oil and bean dishes, and Emilia-Romagna, home of foods such asprosciutto di Parma,Parmigiano Reggiano, andragù alla bolognese. Southern Italy includes the hearty food of Lazio in which meat and offal frequently figure, but also the vegetable-focused fare of Basilicata, historically one of Italy's poorest regions. The islands of Sicily and Sardinia have distinctively different foodways. The former is notable for its many sweet dishes, seafood, and citrus fruit, while Sardinia has traditionally looked to its hilly and mountainous interior with acuisine centred on lamb,suckling pig, bread, and cheese.
It is in the food of Naples and Campania, however, that many visitors would recognise the foods that have come to be regarded as quintessentially Italian:pizza,spaghetti withtomato sauce,parmigiana, and so on.
Also, Italy exports and produces the highest level of wine,[141][142] exporting over 2.38 million tonnes in 2011. As of 2005[update], Italy was responsible for producing approximately one-fifth of the world's wine.[143] Some Italian regions are home to some of the oldest wine-producing traditions in the world. Etruscans and Greek settlers produced wine in the country long before the Romans started developing their own vineyards in the 2nd century BC. Roman grape-growing and winemaking were prolific and well-organised, pioneering large-scale production andstorage techniques such asbarrel -making and -bottling.[144] Famous and traditional Italian wines includeBarbaresco,Barbera,Barolo,Brunello di Montalcino,Chianti,Corvina,Dolcetto, andNero d'Avola, to name a few.
The country is also famous for itsgelato, or traditional ice-cream often known as Italian ice cream abroad. There aregelaterie or ice-cream vendors and shops all around Italian cities, and it is a very popular dessert or snack, especially during the summer. Siciliangranitas, or a frozen dessert of flavoured crushed ice, more or less similar to asorbet or asnow cone, are popular desserts not only in Sicily or their native towns of Messina and Catania, but all over Italy (although the northern and central Italian equivalent,grattachecca, commonly found in Rome or Milan, is slightly different from the traditionalgranita siciliana). Italy also boasts an assortment of desserts.
Christmas in Italy (Italian:Natale,Italian:[naˈtaːle]) begins on 8 December, with theFeast of the Immaculate Conception, the day on which traditionally theChristmas tree is mounted and ends on 6 January, of the following year with theEpiphany (Italian:Epifania,Italian:[epifaˈniːa]).[145] The Christmas cakespandoro andpanettone are popular in the north (pandoro is from Verona, whilst panettone is from Milan); however, they have also become popular desserts in other parts of Italy and abroad.Colomba pasquale is eaten all over the country on Easter day, and is a more traditional alternative to chocolateeaster eggs.Tiramisu is a very popular and iconic Italian dessert from Veneto which has become famous worldwide. Other Italian cakes and sweets includecannoli,cassata, fruit-shapedmarzipans, andpanna cotta.
Coffee, and more specificallyespresso, has become highly important to the cuisine of Italy.Cappuccino is also a famous Italian coffee drink, which is usually sweeter and less dark than espresso, and can be served with foam or cream on top, on which chocolate powder and sugar are usually sprinkled.Caffè latte is a mixture of coffee and milk, and is usually drunk at breakfast time (unlike most other Italian coffee types, children and adults drink it).Bicerin is Turin's own coffee, a mix between cappuccino and hot chocolate.
Milan is home to the oldest restaurant in Italy and the second in Europe, theAntica trattoria Bagutto, which has existed since at least 1284.[146]Italian meal structure is typical of theEuropean Mediterranean region and differs from North, Central, and Eastern European meal structure, although it still often consists ofbreakfast (colazione),lunch (pranzo), andsupper (cena).[147] However, much less emphasis is placed on breakfast, and breakfast itself is often skipped or involves lighter meal portions than are seen in non-Mediterranean Western countries.[148] Late-morning and mid-afternoon snacks, calledmerenda (pl.:merende), are also often included in this meal structure.[149]
Italian cuisine is one of the most popular and copied around the world.[150][151] The lack or total unavailability of some of its most characteristic ingredients outside of Italy, also and above all to falsifications (or food fraud), leads to the complete denaturalization of Italian ingredients.[152] This phenomenon, widespread in all continents, is better known as "Italian Sounding", consisting in the use of words as well as images, colour combinations (theItalian tricolour), geographical references, brands evocative of Italy to promote and market agri-food products which in reality have nothing to do with Italian cuisine.[153] Italy is home to 395Michelin star-rated restaurants.[154][155]
Education in Italy is free and mandatory from ages six to sixteen,[156] and consists of five stages: kindergarten (scuola dell'infanzia), primary school (scuola primaria),lower secondary school (scuola secondaria di primo grado),upper secondary school (scuola secondaria di secondo grado), and university (università).[157]
Primary education lasts eight years. Students are given a basic education in Italian, English, mathematics, natural sciences, history, geography, social studies, physical education, and visual and musical arts. Secondary education lasts for five years and includes three traditional types of schools focused on different academic levels: theliceo prepares students for university studies with a classical or scientificcurriculum, while theistituto tecnico and theistituto professionale prepare pupils for vocational education.
In 2018, the Italian secondary education was evaluated as below theOECD average.[160] Italy scored below the OECD average in reading and science, and near OECD average in mathematics.[160]Trento andBolzano scored at an above the national average in reading.[160] A wide gap exists betweennorthern schools, which perform near average, and schools in thesouth, that had much poorer results.[161]
Tertiary education in Italy is divided betweenpublic universities, private universities, and the prestigious and selectivesuperior graduate schools, such as theScuola Normale Superiore di Pisa. 33 Italian universities were ranked among the world's top 500 in 2019, the third-largest number in Europe after the United Kingdom and Germany.[162]Bologna University, founded in 1088, is theoldest university in continuous operation, and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the worduniversitas was coined at its foundation,[163][164][165][166] as well as one of the leading academic institutions in Italy and Europe.[167] TheSapienza University of Rome, founded with thePapal bullIn supremae praeminentia dignitatis issued on 20 April 1303 byPope Boniface VIII, is the largestEU university by enrollments,[168] and at the same time it is present in all major international university rankings.[169][170][171][172]
Milan'sBocconi University has been ranked among the top 20 best business schools in the world byThe Wall Street Journal international rankings, especially thanks to itsMaster of Business Administration program, which in 2007 placed it no. 17 in the world in terms of graduate recruitment preference by major multinational companies.[173] In addition,Forbes has ranked Bocconi no. 1 worldwide in the specific category Value for Money.[174] In May 2008, Bocconi overtook several traditionally top global business schools in theFinancial Times executive education ranking, reaching no. 5 in Europe and no. 15 in the world.[175] Other top universities and polytechnics include thePolytechnic University of Milan andPolytechnic University of Turin.
In 2009, an Italian research ranked theSapienza University of Rome and theUniversity of Milan as the best in Italy (over indicators such as scientific production, attraction of foreign students, and others),[176] whose research and teaching activities have developed over the years and have received important international recognitions. The University of Milan is the only Italian member of theLeague of European Research Universities, a prestigious group of twenty research-intensive European Universities.Sapienza is member of several international groups, such asEuropean Spatial Development Planning,Partnership of a European Group of Aeronautics and Space Universities,CINECA,Santander Network,Institutional Network of the Universities from the Capitals of Europe, andMediterranean Universities Union.
Folklore of Italy refers to thefolklore andurban legends ofItaly. On the Italian territory, in fact, different peoples have followed one another over time, each of which has left its traces in the popular imagination. Some tales also come fromChristianization, especially those concerningdemons, which are sometimes recognised by Christiandemonology.
In Italian folklore, theBefana is an old woman whodelivers gifts to children throughout Italy onEpiphany Eve (the night of 5 January) in a similar way toSanta Claus or theThree Magi Kings.[177] A popular belief is that her name derives from theFeast of Epiphany (Italian:Festa dell'Epifania).[178][179] In popular folklore, the Befana visits all the children of Italy on the eve of the Feast of the Epiphany to fill their socks withcandy and presents if they are good, or a lump ofcoal or dark candy if they are bad. In many poorer parts of Italy and in particular rural Sicily, a stick in a stocking was placed instead of coal. Being a good housekeeper, many say she will sweep the floor before she leaves. To some, the sweeping meant the sweeping away of the problems of the year. The child's family typically leaves a small glass ofwine and a plate with a few morsels of food, often regional or local, for the Befana.[179]
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TheBadalisc is amythical creature of theVal Camonica in thesouthern central Alps.[180] The Badalisc is represented today as a creature with a big head covered with agoat skin, two small horns, a huge mouth and glowing eyes. According to legend the Badalisc lives in the woods around the village ofAndrista (comune ofCevo) and is supposed to annoy the community: each year it is captured during the period of Epiphany (5 & 6 January) and led on a rope into the village by musicians and masked characters, includingil giovane ('the young man'),il vecchio ('the old man'),la vecchia ('the old woman'), andla signorina ('the young woman'), who is "bait" for the animal's lust. There are also some oldwitches, who beat drums, and bearded shepherds, and ahunchback (un torvo gobetto) who has a "rustic duel" with the animal. Traditionally only men take part, although some aredressed as women. In medieval times women were prohibited from participating in the exhibition, or even seeing or hearing the Badalisc's Speech; if they did so they would be deniedHoly Communion the following day.
Anegg of Columbus refers to a brilliant idea or discovery that seems simple or easy after the fact. The expression refers to anapocryphal story, dating from at least the 16th century, in which it is said thatChristopher Columbus, having been told that finding a new trade route was inevitable and no great accomplishment, challenges his critics to make anegg stand on its tip. After his challengers give up, Columbus does it himself by tapping the egg on the table to flatten its tip. The story is often alluded to when discussingcreativity.[181] The term has also been used as the trade name ofa tangram puzzle andseveral mechanical puzzles. It also shows that anything can be done by anyone with the right set of skills; however, not everyone knows how to do it.
Alberto da Giussano is alegendary character of the 12th century who would have participated, as a protagonist, in thebattle of Legnano on 29 May 1176.[182] In reality, according to historians, the actual military leader of theLombard League in the famous military battle withFrederick Barbarossa wasGuido da Landriano.[183] Historical analyses made over time have indeed shown that the figure of Alberto daGiussano never existed.[184] In the past, historians, attempting to find a real confirmation, hypothesised the identification of his figure withAlbertus de Carathe (Alberto daCarate) andAlbertus Longus (Alberto Longo), both among the Milanese who signed the pact inCremona in March 1167 which established the Lombard League, or in an Alberto da Giussano mentioned in an appeal of 1196 presented toPope Celestine III on the administration of thechurch-hospital of San Sempliciano. These, however, are all weak identifications, given that they lack clear and convincing historical confirmation.[182][185]
TheVal Camonica witch trials were two largewitch trials which took place inVal Camonica, in Italy, in 1505–1510 and 1518–1521. They were among the biggest Italian witch trials, and caused the deaths of about 60 persons, in each trial: 110 in total. The best source for the trials is considered to be the VenetianMarin Sanudo, who was the chronicler to theCouncil of Ten from 1496 to 1536. The documentary evidence was destroyed by order ofGiacinto Gaggia, thebishop of Brescia, to prevent it from being used by the anticlerical opposition.
Mythology of Italy refers to themythology of people living in Italy. Major pantheons belong toRoman mythology andEtruscan mythology. Roman mythology is the body ofmyths ofancient Rome as represented in theliterature andvisual arts of the Romans. One of a wide variety of genres ofRoman folklore,Roman mythology may also refer to the modern study of these representations, and to the subject matter as represented in the literature and art of other cultures in any period. Roman mythology draws from the mythology of theItalic peoples and ultimately fromProto-Indo-European mythology. Roman mythology also draws directly onGreek mythology, potentially as early as Rome'sprotohistory, but primarily during theHellenistic period of Greek influence and through theRoman conquest of Greece, via the artistic imitation ofGreek literary models by Roman authors.[186]
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Ancient Italy is identified with Rome and the so-calledRomanophilia. Despite the fall of the Roman Empire, its legacy continued to have a significant impact on the cultural and political life in Europe. For the medieval mind, Rome came to constitute a central dimension of the European traditionalist sensibility. The idealisation of this Empire as the symbol of universal order led to the construction of theHoly Roman Empire. Writing before the outbreak of the First World War, the historian Alexander Carlyle noted that "we can without difficulty recognise" not only "the survival of the tradition of the ancient empire", but also a "form of the perpetual aspiration to make real the dream of the universal commonwealth of humanity".[187]
During much of the Middle Ages (about the 5th century through the 15th century), the Roman Catholic Church had great political power in Western Europe. Throughout its history, the Catholic faith has inspired many great works of architecture, art, literature, and music. These works include French medieval Gothic cathedrals, the Italian artist Michelangelo's frescoes in the Vatican, the Italian writer Dante's epic poemDivine Comedy, and the Austrian composerWolfgang Amadeus Mozart'sRequiem.
As for Italian artists they were in demand almost all over Europe.Torrigiano andZuccari worked in England,Masolino in Hungary,Luca Cambiasi andPellegrino Tibaldi in Spain,Jacopo Sansovino in Portugal,Morando, and others in Poland. The demand seems to have been greatest in France, more especially at the French court, which employed (among others)Leonardo da Vinci,Rosso,Primaticcio,Niccolò dell'Abbate, andSebastiano Serlio. Italian craftsmen were engaged to work on building sites from Munich to Zamość. Italian actors performed at the courts of France, Spain, Poland, and elsewhere.
The Italian language was fashionable, at court for example, as well as Italian literature and art. The famous lexicographerJohn Florio of Italian origin was the most important humanist in Renaissance England.[188] and contributed to the English language with over 1,969 words.[189]William Shakespeare's works show an important level ofItalophilia, a deep knowledge of Italy and the Italian culture, like inRomeo and Juliet andThe Merchant of Venice. According to Robin Kirkpatrick, Professor of Italian and English Literatures at Cambridge University, Shakespeare shared "with his contemporaries and immediate forebears a fascination with Italy".[190] In 16th-century Spain, cultural Italophilia was also widespread (while the Spanish influence in southern Italy was also great) and king Philip IV himself considered Italian as his favourite foreign language.
The movement of "international Italophilia" around 1600 certainly held the German territories in its sway, with one statistic suggesting that up to a third of all books available in Germany in the early 17th century were in Italian.[191] Themes and styles fromIl pastor fido were adapted endlessly by German artists, includingOpitz, who wrote several poems based on Guarini's text, andSchütz himself, whose settings of a handful of passages appeared in his 1611 book of Italian madrigals. Emperors Ferdinand III and Leopold I were great admirers of Italian culture and made Italian (which they themselves spoke perfectly) a prestigious language at their court. German baroque composers or architects were also very much influenced by their Italian counterparts.
During the 18th century, Italy was in the spotlight of the European grand tour, a period in which learned and wealthy foreign, usually British or German, aristocrats visited the country due to its artistic, cultural and archaeological richness. Since then, throughout the centuries, many writers and poets have sung of Italy's beauty; fromGoethe toStendhal toByron, Italy's natural beauty and her people's creativity inspired their works.Percy Bysshe Shelley famously said that Italy is "the paradise of exiles".[192]
Italiophilia was not uncommon in the United States.Thomas Jefferson was a great admirer of Italy and ancient Rome. Jefferson is largely responsible for the neo-classical buildings in Washington, D.C. that echo Roman and Italian architectural styles.
Spain provided an equally telling example of Italian cultural admiration in the 18th century. The installation of a team of Italian architects and artists, headed byFilippo Juvarra, has been interpreted as part of Queen Elisabeth Farnese's conscious policy to mould the visual culture of the Spanish court along Italian lines. The engagement ofCorrado Giaquinto from Molfetta and eventually the VenetianJacopo Amigoni as the creators of the painted decorative space for the new seat of the Spanish court was a clear indication of this aesthetic orientation, while the later employment ofGiovanni Battista Tiepolo and his sonGiovanni Domenico confirmed the Italophile tendency.
TheVictorian era in Great Britain saw Italophilic tendencies. Britain supported its own version of the imperialPax Romana, calledPax Britannica.John Ruskin was a Victorian Italophile who respected the concepts of morality held in Italy.[193] Also the writerHenry James has exhibited Italophilia in several of his novels. However,Ellen Moers writes that, "In the history of Victorian Italophilia no name is more prominent than that ofElizabeth Barrett Browning....[She places] Italy asthe place for the woman of genius ..."[194]
Italian patriot Giuseppe Garibaldi, along with Giuseppe Mazzini and Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, led the struggle for Italian unification in the 19th century. For his battles on behalf of freedom in Europe and Latin America, Garibaldi has been dubbed the "Hero of Two Worlds". Many of the greatest intellectuals of his time, such asVictor Hugo,Alexandre Dumas, andGeorge Sand showered him with admiration. He was so appreciated in the United States thatAbraham Lincoln offered him a command during the Civil War (Garibaldi turned it down).[195]
During theFascist era, several leaders in Europe and Latin America modelled their government and economic system on Italian Fascism.Adolf Hitler was an avid admirer of Benito Mussolini.[196] To justify his Italophilia, Hitler had to convince himself that northern Italians were somehowracially Aryan—"from the cultural point of view", he once remarked, "we are more closely linked with the Italians than with any other people"[197]—and that the veins of Mussolini, Dante and other heroes pulsed with nocontaminating blood from theinferior "Mediterranean race". Or "The Italians have a splendid foundation of the peasantry. Once when I was travelling to Florence, I thought, as I passed through it, what a paradise this land of southern France is! But when I reached Italy – then I realised what a paradise on earth can really be!".[198] The Führer also dreamed of touringTuscany andUmbria: "my dearest wish would be to be able to wander about Italy as an unknown painter."[198]
In 1940Walt Disney Productions producedPinocchio based on the Italian children's novelThe Adventures of Pinocchio byCarlo Collodi, themost translated non-religious book in the world and one of thebest-selling books ever published, as well as a canonical piece of children's literature. The film was the second animated feature film produced by Disney.
After World War II, such brands asFerrari andAlfa Romeo became well known for racing and sports cars. Since then Italy has experienced strong economic growth, particularly in the 1950s and 1960s, which lifted the country to the position of being one of the most industrialised nations in the world.[199] Italian product design, fashion, film, and cuisine and the notion of Italy as the embodiment ofLa dolce vita for German tourism—all left an imprint on contemporary Italophilia.
The Italian peninsula has been at the heart of Western cultural development at least since Roman times.[200] Important poets of the Roman republic and empire wereLucretius,Catullus,Virgil,Horace, andOvid. Also prominent in Latin literature were the orator-rhetoricianCicero, the satiristJuvenal, the prose writersPliny the Elder and his nephewPliny the Younger, and the historiansSallust,Livy, andSuetonius.Julius Caesar, renowned as a historian and prose stylist, is even more famous as a military and political leader. Roman jurists founded and developedRoman law, which still today represents the basic framework ofcivil law, the most widespread legal system in the world. Among the most famous jurists areGaius,Ulpianus,Papinianus, andPaulus. Italy, as the center ofMagna Graecia, was also the land that gave birth to personalities such asArchimedes,Pythagoras,Parmenides,Zeno, andGorgia. The first of the Roman emperors was Octavian, better known by the honorificAugustus. Noteworthy among later emperors are the tyrantsCaligula andNero, the philosopher-statesmanMarcus Aurelius, andConstantine I, who was the first to accept Christianity. The history of the Christian Church during the medieval period would not be complete without mention of such men of Italian birth asBenedict of Nursia,Pope Gregory I,Francis of Assisi, and the philosopher-theologiansAnselm of Canterbury,Joachim of Fiore, andThomas Aquinas.
Sicilian kings and emperors such asRoger II of Sicily andFrederick II of the Kingdom of Sicily had a significant impact on Italian culture and unified Italy for the first time. No land has made a greater contribution to the visual arts.[200] In the 13th and 14th centuries there were the sculptorsNicola Pisano and his sonGiovanni; the paintersCimabue,Duccio, andGiotto; and, later in the period, the sculptorAndrea Pisano. Among the many great artists of the 15th century—the golden age of Florence and Venice—were the architectsFilippo Brunelleschi,Lorenzo Ghiberti, andLeon Battista Alberti; the sculptorsDonatello,Luca della Robbia,Desiderio da Settignano, andAndrea del Verrocchio; and the paintersFra Angelico,Stefano di Giovanni,Paolo Uccello,Masaccio, FràFilippo Lippi,Piero della Francesca,Giovanni Bellini,Andrea Mantegna,Antonello da Messina,Antonio del Pollaiuolo,Luca Signorelli,Pietro Perugino,Sandro Botticelli,Domenico Ghirlandaio, andVittore Carpaccio.
During the 16th century, the High Renaissance, Rome shared with Florence the leading position in the world of the arts.[200] Major masters included the painter-designer-inventorLeonardo da Vinci; the painter-sculptor-architectMichelangelo Buonarroti; the architectsDonato Bramante andAndrea Palladio; the sculptorBenvenuto Cellini; and the paintersTitian,Giorgione,Raphael,Andrea del Sarto, andAntonio da Correggio. Among the great painters of the late Renaissance wereTintoretto andPaolo Veronese.Giorgio Vasari was a painter, architect, art historian, and critic.
Among the leading artists of the Baroque period were the sculptors-architectsGian Lorenzo Bernini andFrancesco Borromini; the architectsBartolomeo Rastrelli,Filippo Juvarra, andLuigi Vanvitelli; and the paintersCaravaggio,Guido Reni,Annibale Carracci,Pietro da Cortona,Luca Giordano,Andrea Pozzo,Guercino,Domenichino,Giovanni Battista Tiepolo,Canaletto,Pietro Longhi, andFrancesco Guardi. Leading figures in modern painting wereUmberto Boccioni,Amedeo Modigliani,Giorgio de Chirico,Lucio Fontana,Alberto Burri, andGiorgio Morandi. A noted contemporary architect wereGiuseppe Terragni,Marcello Piacentini,Adalberto Libera,Pier Luigi Nervi,Gio Ponti,Aldo Rossi, andRenzo Piano.
Music, an integral part of Italian life, owes many of its forms as well asits language to Italy. The inventor ofGregorian chant was the Roman Pope Gregory I. The musical staff was either invented or established byGuido of Arezzo. A leading 14th-century composer was the blind Florentine organistFrancesco Landini. Leading composers of the High Renaissance and early Baroque periods wereGiovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina; the madrigalistsLuca Marenzio andCarlo Gesualdo, prince of Venosa; the Venetian organistsAndrea Gabrieli andGiovanni Gabrieli;Claudio Monteverdi, one of the founders of opera; organist-composerGirolamo Frescobaldi; andGiacomo Carissimi. One of the father of French opera, and master of French baroque style, was the Italian composer, after naturalised French,Jean-Baptiste Lully. Important figures of the later Baroque era wereArcangelo Corelli,Antonio Vivaldi,Luigi Boccherini,Alessandro Scarlatti, and his sonDomenico Scarlatti. Italian-bornLuigi Cherubini was the central figure of French music in the Napoleonic era, whileAntonio Salieri andGaspare Spontini played important roles in the musical life of Vienna and Berlin, respectively.
Composers of the 19th century who made their period the great age of Italian opera wereGioacchino Rossini,Gaetano Donizetti,Vincenzo Bellini, and, above all,Giuseppe Verdi.Niccolò Paganini was the greatest violinist of his time. More recent operatic composers includeRuggero Leoncavallo,Giacomo Puccini, andPietro Mascagni. Renowned operatic singers includeEnrico Caruso,Luisa Tetrazzini,Titta Ruffo,Amelita Galli-Curci,Beniamino Gigli,Ezio Pinza, andLuciano Pavarotti.Ferruccio Busoni,Ottorino Respighi,Luigi Dallapiccola,Alfredo Casella,Luigi Nono, andLuciano Berio.Arturo Toscanini is generally regarded as one of the greatest operatic and orchestral conductors of his time; two noted contemporary conductors areClaudio Abbado andRiccardo Muti. In the field of music for cinema, great Italian composers wereEnnio Morricone,Nino Rota,Armando Trovajoli, andGiorgio Moroder, the father of disco music. The foremost makers of stringed instruments wereGasparo da Salò of Brescia,Nicolò Amati,Antonio Stradivari, andGiuseppe Guarneri of Cremona.Bartolomeo Cristofori invented the piano.
Italian literature and literary language began withDante Alighieri, author ofDivine Comedy.[200] Literary achievements—such as the poetry ofPetrarch,Torquato Tasso, andLudovico Ariosto, and the prose ofGiovanni Boccaccio,Niccolò Machiavelli, andBaldassare Castiglione—exerted a huge and lasting influence on the subsequent development of Western culture. Outstanding film directors areFederico Fellini,Sergio Leone,Pier Paolo Pasolini,Luchino Visconti,Vittorio De Sica,Michelangelo Antonioni,Roberto Rossellini,Paolo Sorrentino,Franco Zeffirelli,Bernardo Bertolucci,Lina Wertmüller, and Italian-bornFrank Capra. Famous film stars include Italian-bornRudolph Valentino,Marcello Mastroianni,Gina Lollobrigida, andSophia Loren.
In philosophy, exploration, and statesmanship, Italy has produced many world-renowned figures: the travelerMarco Polo; the statesman and patron of the artsCosimo de' Medici; the statesman, clergyman, and artistic patron Rodrigo Borgia, who becamePope Alexander VI; the soldier, statesman, and artistic patronLorenzo de' Medici, the son of Cosimo; the explorerJohn Cabot; the explorerChristopher Columbus; the explorerAmerigo Vespucci, after whom the Americas are named; the admiral and statesmanAndrea Doria;Caterina de medici, queen of France;Niccolò Machiavelli, author ofThe Prince and the outstanding political theorist of the Renaissance; the statesman and clergymanCesare Borgia, the son of Rodrigo; the explorerSebastian Cabot, the son of John; the historianFrancesco Guicciardini; the explorerGiovanni da Verrazzano; the explorerPietro Savorgnan di Brazzà, who gave his name to the city ofBrazzaville, capital of the Republic of Congo; the philosopherBernardino Telesio; the explorer, missionary, and sinologistMatteo Ricci; the mathematician, astronomer, and philosopherGiordano Bruno; the scholarPaolo Sarpi, so well versed in many fields of human knowledge to be called the "Oracle of the century"; the philosopherTommaso Campanella; theCardinal Mazarin, a statesman, diplomat, and prime minister of France under Louis XIV; the imperial field marshal and statesmanPrince Eugene of Savoy;[205] the political philosopherGiambattista Vico; the noted juristCesare Beccaria;Giuseppe Mazzini, the leading spirit of theRisorgimento;Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, its prime statesman; andGiuseppe Garibaldi, its foremost soldier and man of action.
The French military and political leaderNapoleon was of Italian family and was born in the same year that theRepublic of Genoa (former Italian state) ceded the region of Corsica to France.
Notable intellectual and political leaders of more recent times include the Nobel Peace Prize winner in 1907,Ernesto Teodoro Moneta; the sociologist and economistVilfredo Pareto; the political theoristGaetano Mosca; the educatorMaria Montessori; the philosopher, critic, and historianBenedetto Croce, with his idealistic antagonistGiovanni Gentile;Benito Mussolini, the founder of Fascism and dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1943;Carlo Sforza,Alcide De Gasperi, andGiulio Andreotti, famous latter-day statesmen; and the Communist leadersAntonio Gramsci,Palmiro Togliatti, andEnrico Berlinguer.
Princess Marie-José was one of the very few diplomatic channels between the German/Italian camp and the other European countries involved in the war; she sympathised with the partisans and, while she was a refugee in Switzerland, smuggled weapons, money, and food for them.Virginia Oldoini, mistress of Emperor Napoleon III of France, was a significant figure in the early history of photography.
Italian scientists and mathematicians of note includeGalileo Galilei,Fibonacci,Guglielmo Marconi,Antonio Meucci, Italian-AmericanEnrico Fermi,Gerolamo Cardano,Bonaventura Cavalieri,Evangelista Torricelli,Francesco Maria Grimaldi,Marcello Malpighi,Giuseppe Luigi Lagrangia,Luigi Galvani,Alessandro Volta,Amedeo Avogadro,Stanislao Cannizzaro,Giuseppe Peano,Angelo Secchi,Camillo Golgi,Ettore Majorana,Emilio Segrè,Tullio Levi-Civita,Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro,Daniel Bovet,Giulio Natta,Rita Levi-Montalcini, Italian-AmericanRiccardo Giacconi, andGiorgio Parisi.Elena Cornaro Piscopia was the first female Ph.D. graduate in the world history.
The Romantic English poetLord Byron described the Italian language as «that soft bastard Latin, which melts like kisses from a female mouth, and sounds as if it should be writ on satin».[206] Byron's description is not an isolated expression of poetic fancy but, in fact, a popular view of the Italian language across the world, often called the language of "love", "poetry", and "song".[207]
Italian evolved from adialect spoken in Tuscany, which is the birthplace of writers such asDante,Boccaccio, andPetrarch. Thanks to its cultural prestige, this dialect was progressively adopted by theItalian states and then, upon their unification in 1861, by theKingdom of Italy. It may be considered somewhat intermediate, linguistically and geographically, between theItalo-Dalmatian languages of the centre-south and theGallo-Italic languages of the north, becoming the centre of adialect continuum. Its development was also influenced by the otherItalian languages and by the Germanic language ofpost-Roman invaders.
There are only a few communities in Italy in which Italian is not spoken as the first language, but many speakers are native bilinguals of both Italian and Italy'sregional languages, which historically predate today's national language. These include native communities of non-Romance and Indo-European languages such asAlbanian,Croatian, andGreek in southern Italy,Slovene andGerman varieties in northern Italy, as well as dozens of various Romance languages, such asArpitan,Catalan,Friulan,Ladin,Lombard,Neapolitan,Occitan,Sardinian,Sicilian, and many others.
Italian is often natively spoken in aregional variety, not to be confused with Italy's regional and minority languages;[208][209] however, the establishment of a national education system led to a decrease in variation in the languages spoken across the country during the 20th century. Standardisation was further expanded in the 1950s and 1960s due to economic growth and the rise ofmass media and television (the state broadcasterRAI helped set a standard Italian).
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Italy is one of the world's greatest centres of architecture, art, and books. Among its many libraries, the most important are in the national library system, which contains two central libraries, inFlorence (5.3 million volumes) andRome (5 million), and four regional libraries, inNaples (1.8 million volumes),Milan (1 million),Turin (973,000), andVenice (917,000).[210] The existence of two national central libraries, while most nations have one, came about through the history of the country, as Rome was once part of the Papal States and Florence was one of the first capitals of the unifiedKingdom of Italy. While both libraries are designated as copyright libraries, Florence now serves as the site designated for the conservation and cataloguing of Italian publications and the site in Rome catalogues foreign publications acquired by the state libraries.[210]
In 1986, the first internet connection in Italy was experimented inPisa, the third in Europe after Norway and the United Kingdom.[211] Already in the late 1970s, Pisan researchers, firstly with Luciano Lenzini, were in contact with U.S. researchers who had written thehistory of the Internet. Among them wereVint Cerf andBob Kahn, who were the first to inventTCP and IP, the two protocols at the heart of the internet, and are hence considered the "Fathers of the Internet".
Currently, Internet access is available to businesses and home users in various forms, including dial-up, cable, DSL, and wireless. The.it is the Internet country codetop-level domain (ccTLD) for Italy. The.eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.
According to data released by the fibre-to-the-home (FTTH) Council Europe, Italy represents one of the largestFTTH markets in Europe, with more than 2,5 million homes passed by fibre at end-December 2010;[212] at the same date the country reported around 348,000 fibre subscribers.[212] The "Fibre for Italy" project (with the participation of providersFastweb,Vodafone, andWind in a co-investment partnership) aims to reach 20 million people in Italy's 15 largest cities by 2015,[212] and Telecom Italia plans to connect 138 cities by 2018.[212] The government has also started the Italia Digitale project, which aims to provide at least 50% of Italians with high-speed internet access by 2020. The government aims to extend the fibre-optic network to rural areas.
Figures published by theNational Institute of Statistics showed at end-2011 that 58,8% of Italian families had a personal computer (up slightly from 57,6% in 2010);[213] 54,5% had access to the internet (up from 52,4%);[213] and 45,8% had broadband access (up from 43,4%).[213] Over one-fourth (26,3%, down slightly from 26,4% in 2010) of Italian internet users aged 14 and older made an online purchase during 2011.[213]
As of 2002[update], there were about 90 daily newspapers in the country, but not all of them had national circulation.[210] According to Audipress statistics, the major daily newspapers (with their political orientations and estimated circulations) are:la Repubblica, left-wing, 3,276,000 in 2011;[214]Corriere della Sera, independent, 3,274,000 in 2011;[214]La Stampa, liberal, 2,132,000 in 2011;[214]Il Messaggero, left of centre, 1,567,000 in 2011;[214]il Resto del Carlino, right of centre, 1,296,000 in 2011;[214]Il Sole 24 Ore, a financial news paper, 1,015,000 in 2011;[214]il Giornale, independent, 728,000 in 2011;[214] andl'Unità, Communist, 291,000 in 2011.[214]TV Sorrisi e Canzoni is the most popular news weekly with a circulation of 677,658 in July 2012.[215] The periodical press is becoming increasingly important. Among the most important periodicals are the pictorial weeklies—Oggi,L'Europeo,L'Espresso, andGente.Famiglia Cristiana is a Catholic weekly periodical with a wide readership.
The majority of papers are published in northern and central Italy, and circulation is highest in these areas. Rome and Milan are the most important publication centres. A considerable number of dailies are owned by political parties, the Roman Catholic Church, and various economic groups.[210]
The law provides for freedom of speech and the press, and the government is said to respect these rights in practice.[210]
Of all the claimants to the title of the "Father of Radio", the one most associated with it is the Italian inventorGuglielmo Marconi.[216] He was the first person to send radio communication signals in 1895. By 1899 he flashed the first wireless signal across theEnglish Channel and two years later received the letter "S", telegraphed fromEngland toNewfoundland. This was the first successful transatlantic radiotelegraph message in 1902.
Today, radio waves that are broadcast from thousands of stations, along with waves from other sources, fill the air around us continuously. Italy has three state-controlled radio networks that broadcast day and evening hours on both AM and FM.[nb 1] Program content varies from popular music to lectures, panel discussions, as well as frequent newscasts and feature reports. In addition, many private radio stations mix popular and classical music. A short-wave radio, although unnecessary, aids in the reception of VOA, BBC,Vatican Radio in English and the Armed Forces Network in Germany and in other European stations.
The first form of televised media in Italy was introduced in1939, when the first experimental broadcasting began. However, this lasted for a very short time: when fascist Italy entered World War II in 1940, all the transmissions were interrupted, and were resumed in earnest only nine years after the end of the conflict, in 1954.
There are two main national television organisations responsible for most viewing: state-ownedRAI, funded by a yearly mandatory licence fee andMediaset, a commercial network founded by Silvio Berlusconi. CurrentlyLa7 is considered the third major network in Italy, it is owned by Telecom Italia Media, the media branch of the telephone companyTelecom Italia, which also owns 51% ofMTV Italia. While many other networks are also present, both nationally and locally, RAI and Mediaset together, with their six traditional ex-analogue stations[nb 2] plus a number of new free to air digital channels, reach almost 70% of the TV ratings.
The television networks offer varied programs, including news,soap operas,reality TV shows, dating shows, game shows, sitcoms, cartoons, and films-all in Italian. All programs are in colour, except for the old black-and-white films. Most Italians still depend on VHF/UHF reception, but both cable systems and direct satellite reception is increasingly common. Conventional satellite dishes can pick up European broadcasts, including some in English.
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National symbols of Italy are thesymbols that uniquely identifyItaly reflectingits history and culture.[217] They are used to represent theNation throughemblems,metaphors,personifications, andallegories, which are shared by the entireItalian people.
The three main official symbols, are:[218]
Of these only the flag is explicitly mentioned in the Italian Constitution; this puts the flag under the protection of the law, with criminal penalties for contempt of it.[220]
Other official symbols, as reported by the Presidency of the Italian Republic,[218] are:
The teaching in the schools of the "Il Canto degli Italiani", an account of theRisorgimento events, and on the adoption of the flag of Italy are prescribed by law n. 222 of 23 November 2012.[221][222]
There are also other symbols or emblems of Italy which, although not defined by law, are part of the Italian identity:
Public holidays celebrated in Italy include religious, national, and regional observances. Italy's National Day, theFesta della Repubblica ('Republic Day'),[231] is celebrated on 2 June each year, with the main celebration taking place inRome, and commemorates thebirth of the Italian Republic in 1946.[232] The ceremony of the event organised in Rome includes the deposition of alaurel wreath as a tribute to theItalian Unknown Soldier at theAltare della Patria by thepresident of the Italian Republic and amilitary parade alongVia dei Fori Imperiali in Rome.
Liberation Day is a national holiday inItaly that commemorates the victory of theItalian resistance movement againstNazi Germany and theItalian Social Republic,puppet state of the Nazis andrump state of the fascists, in theItalian Civil War, acivil war in Italy fought duringWorld War II, which takes place on 25 April. The date was chosen by convention, as it was the day of the year 1945 when theNational Liberation Committee of Upper Italy (CLNAI) officially proclaimed the insurgency in a radio announcement, propounding the seizure of power by the CLNAI and proclaiming the death sentence for all fascist leaders (includingBenito Mussolini, who was shot three days later).[233]
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National Unity and Armed Forces Day is anItalian national day since 1919 which commemorates the victory inWorld War I, a war event considered the completion of the process ofunification of Italy. It is celebrated every 4 November, which is the anniversary of thearmistice of Villa Giusti becoming effective in 1918, declaringAustria-Hungary's surrender.[234] Italy entered the World War I in 1915 with the aim of completing national unity: for this reason, the Italian intervention in the World War I is also considered theFourth Italian War of Independence,[235] in a historiographical perspective that identifies in the latter the conclusion of the unification of Italy, whose military actions began during therevolutions of 1848 with theFirst Italian War of Independence.[236][237] TheTreaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and theTreaty of Rapallo (1920) allowed the annexation ofTrentino Alto-Adige,Julian March,Istria, andKvarner, as well as theDalmatian city ofZara; the subsequentTreaty of Rome (1924) led to the annexation of the city ofFiume to Italy.[nb 3]
TheAnniversary of the Unification of Italy is anational day that falls annually on 17 March and celebrates the birth of Italy as modernnation state, which took place following theproclamation of the Kingdom of Italy on 17 March 1861; however, the complete unification of Italy took place only in the following years. In 1866,Veneto and theprovince of Mantua were annexed after theThird Italian War of Independence, then in 1870Lazio after thecapture of Rome, and finally in 1918Trentino-Alto Adige andJulian March after the World War I. The anniversary of the birth of the Italian state was solemnly celebrated in 1911 (50 years), in 1961 (100 years), and in 2011 (150 years).[238]
TheTricolour Day, officially National Flag Day, is theflag day of Italy. Celebrated on 7 January, it was established by Law 671 on 31 December 1996. It is intended as a celebration, although not a public holiday.[239] The official celebration of the day is held inReggio Emilia, the city where theItalian tricolour was first adopted by an Italian sovereign state, theCispadane Republic, on 7 January 1797. In Rome, at theQuirinal Palace, the ceremonial foresees instead the change of theGuard of honour in solemn form with the deployment and the parade of theCorazzieri Regiment in gala uniform and the Fanfare of theCarabinieri Cavalry Regiment.[240] This solemn rite is carried out only on three other occasions, during the celebrations of the Anniversary of the Unification of Italy (17 March), of theFesta della Repubblica (2 June), and of theNational Unity and Armed Forces Day (4 November).[240]
TheNational Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe is an Italian celebration for the memory of thevictims of the Foibe and theIstrian–Dalmatian exodus, which led to the emigration of hundreds of thousands (between 230,000 and 350,000) of local ethnicItalians (Istrian Italians andDalmatian Italians) fromYugoslavia after the end of theWorld War II.[241][242] The Italian Law 92 of 30 March 2004 instituted aDay of Remembrance on 10 February to commemorate the victims of Foibe and the forced exodus of nearly the entire population of Italian origin living inDalmatia andJulian March brought about by Yugoslavia.[243] The law also instituted a special medal to be conferred on relatives of victims.[243] The date of 10 February is the day on which thepeace treaties of Paris were signed. These treaties transferred the previously Italian areas ofIstria,Kvarner, the Dalmatian city ofZadar, and most of Julian March to Yugoslavia.[244]
Natale di Roma, historically known asDies Romana and also referred to as Romaia, is the festival linked to thefoundation of Rome, celebrated on 21 April.[245] According tolegend,Romulus is said to have founded the city ofRome on 21 April,753 BC. From this date, the Roman chronology derived its system, known by theLatin phraseAb urbe condita, meaning 'from the founding of the city', which counted the years from this presumed foundation.
In 2017, the proportion ofItalians who identified themselves asRoman Catholic Christians was 74.4%.[247] Since 1985, Catholicism is no longer officially thestate religion.[248] Italy has theworld's fifth-largest Catholic population, and is the largest Catholic nation in Europe.[249]
TheHoly See, theepiscopal jurisdiction of Rome, contains the central government of theCatholic Church. It is recognised by other subjects of international law as asovereign entity, headed by thepope, who is also the bishop of Rome, with whichdiplomatic relations can be maintained.[250][nb 4] Often incorrectly referred to as "the Vatican", the Holy See is not the same entity as theVatican City State because the Holy See is the jurisdiction and administrative entity of the pope.[251] The Vatican City came into existence only in 1929.
In 2011, minority Christian faiths in Italy included an estimated 1.5 million Orthodox Christians, or 2.5% of the population,[252] 500,000Pentecostals andEvangelicals (of whom 400,000 are members of theAssemblies of God), 251,192Jehovah's Witnesses,[253] 30,000 Waldensians,[254] 25,000Seventh-day Adventists, 26,925Latter-day Saints, 15,000 Baptists (plus some 5,000 Free Baptists), 7,000Lutherans, and 4,000Methodists (affiliated with the Waldensian Church).[255]
One of the longest-established minority religious faiths in Italy isJudaism,Jews having been present inancient Rome since before the birth of Christ. Italy has for centuries welcomed Jews expelled from other countries, notably Spain. However, about 20% of Italian Jews were killed during theHolocaust.[258] This, together with the emigration which preceded and followed World War II, has left only around 28,400 Jews in Italy.[259]
Soaring immigration in the last two decades has been accompanied by an increase in non-Christian faiths. Following immigration from the Indian subcontinent, in Italy there are 120,000Hindus,[260] 70,000Sikhs, and 22gurdwaras across the country.[261]
The Italian state, as a measure to protect religious freedom, devolves shares of income tax to recognised religious communities, under a regime known asEight per thousand. Donations are allowed to Christian, Jewish, Buddhist, and Hindu communities; however, Islam remains excluded, since no Muslim communities have yet signed a concordat with the Italian state.[262] Taxpayers who do not wish to fund a religion contribute their share to the state welfare system.[263]
It is noteworthy to pinpoint that owing to theItalian Renaissance, church art in Italy is extraordinary, including works byLeonardo da Vinci,Michelangelo,Sandro Botticelli,Gian Lorenzo Bernini,Fra Carnevale,Tintoretto,Titian,Raphael,Giotto, and others. Italian church architecture is equally spectacular and historically important toWestern culture, notablySt. Peter's Basilica in Rome,Cathedral of St. Mark's inVenice, andBrunelleschi'sFlorence Cathedral, which includes the "Gates of Paradise" doors at the Baptistery byLorenzo Ghiberti.
The most popular sport in Italy isfootball.[264][265] Italy'smen's national football team is one of the world's most successful teams, with fourFIFA World Cup victories (1934, 1938, 1982, and 2006).[266] Italian clubs have won 48 major European trophies, making Italy thesecond most successful country in European football. Italy's top-flight club football league is namedSerie A and is followed by millions of fans around the world.[267]
Other popular team sports in Italy includebasketball,volleyball, andrugby.[268] Italy'smale andfemale national volleyball teams are oftenfeatured among the world's best. TheItalian national basketball team's best results were gold atEurobasket 1983 andEuroBasket 1999, as well as silver at the Olympics in2004.Lega Basket Serie A is widely considered one of the most competitive in Europe.[269] Italy'srugby national team competes in theSix Nations Championship, and is a regular at theRugby World Cup. Themen's volleyball team won three consecutiveWorld Championships (in 1990, 1994, and 1998) and earned theOlympic silver medal in 1996, 2004, and 2016.
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Italy has a long and successful tradition in individual sports as well.Bicycle racing is a familiar sport in the country.[271]Italians have won theUCI World Championshipsmore than any other country, exceptBelgium. TheGiro d'Italia is a cycling race held every May, and constitutes one of the threeGrand Tours.Alpine skiing is also a widespread sport in Italy, and the country is a popular international skiing destination, known for its ski resorts.[272] Italian skiers achieved good results inWinter Olympic Games,Alpine Ski World Cup, andtennis has a significant following in Italy, ranking as the fourth most practised sport in the country.[273] TheRome Masters, founded in 1930, is one of the most prestigious tennis tournaments in the world.[274] Italian professional tennis players won theDavis Cup in 1976 and theFed Cup in 2006, 2009, 2010, and 2013.
Motorsports are also extremely popular in Italy.[268] Italy has won, by far,the most MotoGP World Championships. ItalianScuderia Ferrari is the oldest surviving team inGrand Prix racing,[275] having competed since 1948, and statistically themost successful Formula One team in history with a record of 232 wins. TheItalian Grand Prix ofFormula 1 is the fifth oldest surviving Grand Prix, having been held since 1921.[276] It is also one of the two Grand Prix present in every championship since the first one in1950.[277] Every Formula 1 Grand Prix (except for the1980) has been held atAutodromo Nazionale Monza.[278] Formula 1 was also held atImola (1980–2006,2020–2024) andMugello (2020). Other successful Italian car manufacturers in motorsports areAlfa Romeo,Lancia,Maserati, andFiat.[279]
Historically, Italy has been successful in theOlympic Games, taking part from thefirst Olympiad and in 47 Games out of 48, not having officially participated in the1904 Summer Olympics.[280]Italian sportsmen have won 522 medals at theSummer Olympic Games, and another 106 at theWinter Olympic Games, for a combined total of 628 medals with 235 golds, which makes them thefifth most successful nation in Olympic history for total medals. The country hosted two Winter Olympics and will host a third (in1956,2006, and2026), and one Summer games (in1960).
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Italian traditions reflect a rich cultural tapestry woven from religious, seasonal, and local celebrations that have evolved over centuries. These traditions blend ancient rituals, religious observances, and local customs, creating a vibrant cultural landscape that varies significantly across different regions of the country.
Christmas in Italy is a major holiday beginning on 8 December with theImmaculate Conception and ending on 6 January with theEpiphany.[145] The termNatale derives from Latin, with traditional greetings includingbuon Natale ('Merry Christmas') andfelice Natale ('Happy Christmas').[281]
Thenativity scene tradition originates in Italy, attributed toSaint Francis of Assisi. His 1223 living nativity scene inGreccio is commemorated in Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican liturgical calendars.[282][283]
The Epiphany features theBefana, a folkloric figure who brings gifts to children, whileSaint Lucy's Day (13 December) is celebrated in some regions as a children's holiday similar to Christmas.
New Year's Eve in Italy is marked by traditional rituals, including wearing red underwear and a rarely followed custom of discarding old items by dropping them from windows. Dinner is traditionally shared with family and friends, typically featuringzampone orcotechino with lentils. At 20:30, thepresident of Italy delivers a television greeting, and at midnight fireworks illuminate the country. A folklore tradition involves eating one spoonful of lentil stew per bell stroke, symbolising good fortune and prosperity.[284]
Asagra is a local festival typically celebrating regional cuisine or honouring a patron saint. These festivals often showcase specific local foods, such as theSagra dell'uva inMarino or theSagra della Cipolla inCannara. Commonsagre celebrate local products such as olive oil, wine, pasta, chestnuts, and cheese.
The national patronal day on 4 October honours Saints Francis and Catherine. Each city also celebrates its patron saint's day, such as Rome (Saints Peter and Paul), Milan (Saint Ambrose), and Naples (Saint Januarius). Notable festivals include thePalio di Siena horse race,Holy Week rites, and theFestival of Saint Agatha.
In 2013,UNESCO recognised several Italian festivals asintangible cultural heritage, including theVaria di Palmi and thefaradda di li candareri inSassari. The uniquecalcio storico fiorentino, an early form of football originating in the Middle Ages, continues to be played annually in Florence.
Carnival traditions vary across Italy. In theAmbrosian rite regions around Milan, Carnival ends on the first Sunday ofLent. TheCarnival of Venice andCarnival of Viareggio are particularly renowned, featuring sophisticated masquerades and parades. InSardinia, a distinct carnival form survives, possibly rooted in pre-Christian winter rituals of awakening the earth.
Ferragosto on 15 August marks the peak of the summer vacation period, coinciding with theAssumption of Mary.
TheUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)World Heritage Sites are places of exceptional cultural or natural heritage as defined in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention of 1972.[285] The convention defines cultural heritage as including monuments, architectural works, archaeological sites, and groups of buildings, while natural heritage encompasses geological formations, biological landscapes, and sites of scientific or conservation significance.Italy ratified the convention on 23 June 1978.[286]
The first Italian site, theRock Drawings in Valcamonica, was listed during the World Heritage Committee's 3rd Session inCairo andLuxor, Egypt, in 1979.[287] Italy currently holds the world's highest concentration of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. As of 2025[update], Italy has 61 inscribed sites—the most of any country—with 55 cultural and 6 natural sites.[288]
Notable Italian UNESCO World Heritage Sites include significant cultural and natural landmarks such as:
Seven sites are transnational. The Historic Centre of Rome is shared with theVatican;Monte San Giorgio and theRhaetian Railway withSwitzerland; theVenetian Works of Defence withCroatia andMontenegro; thePrehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps with 5 other countries; theGreat Spa Towns of Europe with 6 other countries; and theAncient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe are shared with 17 other countries.[289][290]
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)National symbols are defined as the symbols or icons of a national community (such as England), used to represent that community in a way that unites its people.
He was responsible for staging the first living Nativity scene or creche, in Christian history; and he was also Christianity's first stigmatic. He shares the honor of being patron saint of Italy with Saint Catherine of Siena. His feast day is celebrated on October 4, the day of his death; many churches, including the Anglican, Lutheran, and Episcopal churches, commemorate this with the blessing of the animals.
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