Islamophobia in the United Kingdom refers to a set of discourses, behaviours and structures which express feelings of hatred, anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towardsIslam orMuslims in the United Kingdom.[1][2]Islamophobia can manifest itself in a wide range of ways; including, discrimination in the workforce, negative coverage in the media, and violence against Muslims.
Agreement on a legal, meaningful, and actionable definition of the term "Islamophobia" has, to date, proved difficult in the UK. A definition put forward by the All Party Parliamentary Group on British Muslims in May 2019[3] was rejected by both the police and Government, on the grounds that it was too broad to enforce and had potential consequences for freedom of speech.[4] In an interview with the All Party Parliamentary Group on British Muslims, ProfessorPeter Hopkins of the centre forHate Studies atUniversity of Leicester stated that by not adopting a concrete definition for Islamophobia it may "encourage some people to continue to deny that Islamophobia is an issue in society."
Many studies and surveys have concluded that Muslims face discrimination in the work force. Research in 2014 by Dr Nabil Khattab and Professor Ron Johnston using data from theOffice for National Statistics' Labour Force Survey found that "Muslim men were up to 76% less likely to have a job of any kind compared to white, male British Christians of the same age and with the same qualifications."[5] An April 2016 report by Nabil Khattab and Shereen Hussein found that first-generation Muslim women from Bangladesh were over six times more likely to be unemployed than White non-Muslim women when adjusting for factors such as "level of education, family situation and age." First generationMuslim Pakistani and MuslimBlack women faced less discrimination but were still four times more likely to be unemployed than White non-Muslim women when adjusting for those same factors.[6]
A September 2017Social Mobility Commission report concluded that Muslims were being held back in the workplace by widespread Islamophobia, racism and discrimination. Despite outperforming their non-Muslim counterparts in education, Muslims were roughly half as likely to hold higher managerial, administrative, and professional occupations. Almost 50% of Muslim households are considered to be in poverty, compared with less than 20% in the overall population. The report listed barriers to success including negative stereotypes about Muslims, a lack of Muslim staff or role models in the classroom, bullying, and harassment. The report revealed that women wearinghijab face particular discrimination once entering the workplace. Professor Jacqueline Stevenson ofSheffield Hallam University, which led the research, stated that "Muslims are being excluded, discriminated against or failed at all stages of their transition from education to employment."[7][8]
Islamophobia in schools is a growing concern for the United Kingdom, since projections show there may be an estimated 300,000 Muslim teenagers in the education system by 2021. Various incidents have occurred where students were attacked while near school or on campus. Studies show such actions are increasingly common after trigger incidences such as theManchester bombing.[9] Women and girls who wear the hijab are particularly targeted.[10][11] According to the Tell Measuring Anti-Muslim Attacks (Tell MAMA) organisation, it has been reported that around 6% or 53 accounts of reported incidents of Islamophobia have occurred in British educational institutions in 2017. Many of the incidents are associated with bullying and verbal abuse, such as calling a fellow peer a "terrorist" or taunting religious garments like the hijab.[12] The Muslim Student Survey was sent out from the National Union of Students in 2017 to try to gather data on the subject of Islamophobia in educational environments. In this survey, nearly 33% of Muslim students reported either abuse or crime in their place of study. Most of these reports are believed to be directly related to Islamophobia. It also shows a disconnect when relating to such students, since only about four in ten reported Muslim students feel their student governments understand their needs.[13]
Concerns were raised over comments made by Conservative candidateZac Goldsmith and his campaign team about the thenLabour candidate for mayor,Sadiq Khan, during the2016 London mayoral election, which attempted to link Khan to Islamist extremists.[14] Public opinion polling at the time showed that 31% of Londoners were "uncomfortable" with the prospect of a Muslim mayor.[15] The government issuedCasey Review into Integration and Opportunity which aimed to examine the conditions for immigrants to the United Kingdom was criticised for its over focus of the Muslim community, as well as deeper methodical failings.[16][17] In 2014, over a third of Muslims in the UK said politicians often make bigoted comments towards Muslims.[18]
In October 2017,Conservative MPBob Blackman was criticised for hosting a parliamentary event attended by far-right Hindu nationalist Tapan Ghosh.[19] The conference was also attended byHome SecretaryAmber Rudd andFirst Secretary of StateDamian Green, who distanced themselves from Ghosh's views a week later.[20] Prior to the event, Ghosh had praised thepersecution of Muslims in Myanmar,[21] said Muslims were "all jihadis,"[22] and that Muslims should be forced to leave their religion if they come to a western country.[21] Blackman responded to criticism by saying that he did not regret sharing a platform with Ghosh, and that Ghosh was not Islamophobic.[19] The Muslim Council of Britain condemned parliament for welcoming "a man who trades in propagating hatred against Muslims in India."[23] On 26 October, Labour MPNaz Shah wrote to Home Secretary Amber Rudd asking why Ghosh was granted a UK visa.[24]
In 2018, theMuslim Council of Britain wrote to the Conservative Party calling for an urgent inquiry, following a number ofallegations of Islamophobia.[25] A Conservative councillor, Stephen Ardley had been suspended after he allegedly posted Islamophobic comments about Sadiq Khan, who had by this point been elected as Mayor of London. Ardley had said it was "unbelievable" that a Muslim had been elected, and went on to describe those who voted for him as "blind".[26]
Boris Johnson, British Prime Minister from 2019 until 2022, was involved in several incidences of Islamophobic rhetoric, criticised by many Muslims, including Conservative peer and anti-Islamophobia campaignerBaroness Warsi.[27] In 2005, Johnson wrote in his bookThe Dream of Rome that Islam caused the Muslim World to be "literally centuries behind the West".[28] In the aftermath of the2005 London bombings, Johnson questioned the loyalty of British Muslims and wrote that "Islam is the problem."[29] Writing in a column inThe Daily Telegraph in August 2018, Johnson stated that Islamic full-face coverings made Muslim women look like "letterboxes".[27][30] A study byTell MAMA revealed that in the months following these comments, hate crime against Muslims rose by 375%, with many perpetrators directly referencing Johnson's comments.[30]
TheBritish media began adopting the term 'Islamophobia' in the late 1980s in order to describe the rise in negative feelings towards the Muslim community. A report from theRunnymede Trust later served to more dramatically move the issue into the public light in 1997.[31] British newspapers, especially those on the political right, frequently position Islam and Muslims as threats to security and as being incompatible with the British way of life.[32][33][34][35][36]
The media, particularly theDaily Mail and theDaily Express, were criticised in 2017 by the SETA Foundation for Political Economic and Social Research for Islamophobic comments on migrants.[37] A December 2015 survey by City University, London of journalists found an underrepresentation of Muslims in the field. Only 0.4% of British journalists identified as Muslim or Hindu, 31.6% were Christian, and 61.1% had "no religion."[38] Cited in a report covering the ethics of the British Press, Lord Justice Leveson wrote that "the evidence demonstrates that sections of the press betray a tendency, which is far from being universal or even preponderant, to portray Muslims in a negative light."[3]
An academic paper by Katy Sian published in the journalSouth Asian Popular Culture in 2011 explored the question of how "forced conversion narratives" arose around the Sikh diaspora in the United Kingdom.[39] Sian, who reports that claims of conversion through courtship on campuses are widespread in the UK, says that rather than relying on actual evidence they primarily rest on the word of "a friend of a friend" or on personalanecdote. According to Sian, the narrative is similar to accusations of "white slavery" lodged against the Jewish community and foreigners to the UK and the US, with the former having ties toantisemitism that mirror the Islamophobia betrayed by the modern narrative. Sian expanded on these views in 2013'sMistaken Identities, Forced Conversions, and Postcolonial Formations.[40]
On 16 June 2017,BBC Radio 4 acknowledged a complaint that it failed to properly introduce or challengeFrank Gaffney's "conspiracy theories about Muslims and Islam" when he appeared as a guest onToday.[41]
In an article forThe Independent, writer Sufyan Ismail was critical of the media coverage of the2017 Beckton acid attack, stating that most mainstream media failed to cover the incident or "at best relegated it to a minor story". Ismail suggested that had the roles of the victims and perpetrator been reversed the case would have been headline news. He compared the acid attack to violent hate-murders of Muslims that had received little coverage in contrast with themurder of Jo Cox or themurder of Lee Rigby.[42]
In August 2017,The Sun published a column byTrevor Kavanagh which questioned what actions British society should take to deal with "The Muslim Problem". Kavanagh cited an opinion piece byLabourShadow Secretary of State for Women and EqualitiesSarah Champion MP several days previously as a reason that it was "now acceptable" to describe Muslims as a "specific rather than cultural problem".[43] Sean O'Grady ofThe Independent said that the column used language reminiscent ofNazi propaganda andNazi phrases.[44] A joint complaint was made to IPSO by theBoard of Deputies of British Jews,Tell MAMA and Faith Matters. A statement by the groups said: "The printing of the phrase 'The Muslim Problem' – particularly with the capitalisation and italics for emphasis – in a national newspaper sets a dangerous precedent, and harks back to the use of the phrase 'TheJewish Problem' in the last century."[45] A cross-party group of over 100 MPs from the Conservatives, Labour, the Liberal Democrats and the Greens subsequently signed a letter to the editor ofThe Sun demanding action over the column. The letter stated the MPs "were truly outraged by the hate and bigotry" in Kavanagh's column.[43]
A ruling in March 2016 by the European Court of Human Rights effectively cleared of criminal responsibility security officials responsible for thekilling of Jean Charles de Menezes in 2005. De Menezes was trailed and then shot dead at London's Stockwell tube station by jumpy security officers who mistook him for a suicide bomber a fortnight aftermultiple bombings on the capital's transport network in 2005. Critics of the ruling claimed that it upheld the right of the authorities to kill potentially innocent people on the basis of mere supposition and racial/religious prejudice.[46]
As of 2017, arson attacks against mosques[47] andvehicle ramming have statistically risen against Muslims, predominantly in England and Scotland.[48][needs update]
In September 2017, police officers warned a Muslim doctor, Naila Imran, against pressing charges following anti-Muslim harassment as a counter claim could lead to her "being arrested."[49]
A 2017Runnymede Trust andUniversity of Greenwich study found that being black or Muslim doubles a prisoner's chances (40%) of having worse prison experiences, which includes having restraints used against them and being put into segregation in past six months, compared with white or non-Muslim prisoners (21%). They were also more likely to be on the lowest rung of the prison rewards and punishment scheme, more likely to be put into segregation and more likely to have restraint used against them. Almost a third of Muslim prisoners (29%) did not have prison jobs or attend education courses, compared with 17% of Christian prisoners. Runnymede stated that the discrepancy in treatment particularly affects rehabilitation.[50]
In June 2004, prior to the7/7 attacks on the London Underground, the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, warned that increased attacks against individuals and mosques, was resulting in bitterness that created violent "time-bombs".[51]
Some Muslims have been victims of violence because of their religion.[52] In 2005,The Guardian commissioned anICM poll which indicated an increase in anti-Muslim incidents, particularly after theLondon bombings in July 2005.[53][54] Another survey of Muslims, this by theOpen Society Institute, found that of those polled 32% believed they had suffered religious discrimination at airports, and 80% said they had experienced Islamophobia.[55][56]
In January 2010, a report by theUniversity of Exeter's European Muslim research centre noted that the number of anti-Muslimhate crimes has increased, ranging from "death threats and murder to persistent low-level assaults, such as spitting and name-calling," for which the media and politicians have been blamed with fueling anti-Muslim hatred. The Islamophobic incidents it described include: "Neil Lewington, a violent extremist nationalist convicted in July 2009 of a bomb plot; Terrance Gavan, a violent extremist nationalist convicted in January 2010 of manufacturing nail bombs and other explosives, firearms and weapons; a gang attack in November 2009 on Muslim students atCity University; the murder in September 2009 of Muslim pensioner, Ikram Syed ul-Haq; a serious assault in August 2007 on theImam atLondon Central Mosque; and an arson attack in June 2009 on Greenwich Islamic Centre."[57][58] Other Islamophobic incidents mentioned in the report include "Yasir, a young Moroccan," being "nearly killed while waiting to take a bus fromWillesden toRegent's Park in London" and "left in a coma for three months"; "Mohammed Kohelee," a "caretaker who suffered burns to his body while trying to prevent an arson attack against Greenwich Mosque"; "the murder" of "Tooting pensioner Ekram Haque" who "was brutally beaten to death in front of his three year old granddaughter" by a "race-hate" gang; and "police officers" being injured "during anEnglish Defence League (EDL) march inStoke."[59]
On 26 August 2007, fans of the English football clubNewcastle United directed anti-Muslim chants at EgyptianMiddlesbrough F.C. strikerMido. AnFA investigation was launched.[60] He revealed his anger at The FA's investigation, believing that they would make no difference to any future abuse.[61] Two men were eventually arrested over the chanting and were due to appear at Teesside Magistrates Court.[62]
A 2013 report by Professor Nigel Copsey ofTeesside University, concluded that between 40% and 60% of mosques and other Islamic centers in the UK had suffered vandalism or arson.[63]
In the week following theLondon Bridge attack in June 2017, anti-Muslim hate crimes increased fivefold. It was the largest increase in hate crimes against Muslims in the country since the similar backlash following the 2013Murder of Lee Rigby.[64] Acid attacks against Muslims such as the2017 Beckton acid attack have also risen.[65] Days after the London Bridge attack, a man named Darren Osborneintentionally rammed a van into Muslims coming out of a mosque in London, killing one and leaving 10 people injured.[66]
In August 2017,West Yorkshire Police launched a hate crime investigation after letters threatening acid attacks on Muslims were posted in Bradford. The police said the threats were "extremely seriously" increased patrols in Hanover Square, a mainly Muslim inner-city area where at least two residents received the letters last week. The literature shows an image of a sword and theSaint George's Flag with the words: "Kill scum Muslims."[67]
An October 2017Press Association investigation found that hate crimes targeting mosques and other Muslim places of worship across the UK more than doubled between 2016 and 2017.[68] The same month, during Hate Crime Awareness Week, Associate Professor of Criminology at Birmingham City University Imran Awan and Lecturer in Criminology at Nottingham Trent University Irene Zempi presented research at the House of Commons showing that some non-Muslim men suffered verbal, physical and emotional abuse because they looked Muslim.[69]
In April 2018, letters were sent to people inEast London calling for a "Punish a Muslim Day", with a points system to award people for acts of hatred toward Muslims. Police said there was no credible evidence of a planned attack,[70][71][72] and in June of the same year a man fromLincoln was arrested and charged with fourteen criminal offences in connection with the hate mail campaign.[73] At his trial at theOld Bailey in October 2018 he pleaded guilty to fifteen charges relating to the "Punish a Muslim Day" letters and other correspondences sent to individuals, public figures and organisations.[74]
A 2023 survey by ITV News and an anti-Muslim monitoring group found that almost 90% of mosques across the UK have experienced acts of hate crime in the last year and that Islamophobic hate crimes had increased by five times in the last decade.[75]
On 4 October 2025,two people were filmed setting fire to a mosque in Peacehaven, East Sussex. Two suspects arrested in connection with the attack were later charged with arson with intent to endanger life.[76][77]
Following themass stabbing attack against women and girls inSouthport on 29 July 2024, false rumours circulated on social media that the attacker was a Muslimasylum seeker.[78][79]
The day after the stabbings, a large crowd gathered outside Southport mosque, chanting slogans relating to anti-Islamic campaigner Tommy Robinson.[80] Protestors then attacked the police and disturbances continued for several hours.[81] Following these events, riots, protests and counter-protests occurred around the country for several days.[78]
During the disturbances, mosques and asylum seeker hostels were attacked and damaged, including a failed petrol bombing of a mosque inNewtownards and an attempt to burn down a hotel full of people inDoncaster.[82] Assaults against Muslims and people of colour also occurred.[78]
Shabna Begum, head of theRunnymede Trust, stated that the riots were the consequence of a dehumanising political and media discourse which led to "a normalisation of Islamophobic rhetoric".[78]
There were also reports of Muslim men attacking alleged EDL demonstrators. Two men were jailed for attacking protectors draped inUnion Jack flags.[83][84]
The emergence of theEnglish Defence League resulted in demonstrations in English cities with large Muslim populations.[85][86][87][88][89] The EDL was a far-right, anti-Islam[86][87][90][91][92]street protest movement which opposed what it considers to be a spread ofIslamism,Sharia law andIslamic extremism in the United Kingdom.[93][94][95] The EDL has been described as Islamophobic.[96] It has hadconfrontations with various groups, including supporters ofUnite Against Fascism (UAF) andAnonymous.[97][98][99]
Co-founder and political activistTommy Robinson left the group after four years to take on a more peaceful and political approach, and worried about the dangers of right-wing extremism.[100]
Of the online Islamophobic attack reports received in 2012 by the Tell Measuring Anti-Muslim Attacks (MAMA) organization, 69% had a connection to the far right including the English Defense League.[3]
The SDL are similar to their counterpart and are very closely associated with theEDL. They are seen as Scotland's main anti-Islamic group. The SDL hold regular demonstrations in Scottish cities. The group is mainly active in Edinburgh,[101] Fife and Glasgow.[102]
Two-time murdererRonnie Coulter was seen in attendance at a July 2016 SDL demonstration in Edinburgh.[103][104]
In July 2017, an SDL supporter was found guilty of kicking on the body and punching on the head of an anti-fascist protester who was handing out anti-racism leaflets in Edinburgh. It was alleged that he called the other fellow protesters, in particular a black South African woman, a monkey. He received 12 months community service.[105][106] Also in 2017, former Scottish Labour Party Deputy LeaderAnas Sarwar alleged that he faced death threats from the SDL.[107][108]
The British National Party (BNP) has been widely criticised for its anti-Islamic rhetoric and policies. It has called for the prohibition of immigration from Muslim countries and the building of newmosques in the UK.[109] It also called for the immediate deportation of radicalIslamist preachers from the country.[109] In 2005, the party stated that its primary issue of concern was the "growth of fundamentalist-militant Islam in the UK and its ever-increasing threat to Western civilization and our implicit values".[109]
Several organisations exist in the United Kingdom to combat Islamophobia.Tell MAMA is an organisation that monitors and records hate crimes against Muslims.[110] Following the passage ofExecutive Order 13769 by U.S. PresidentDonald Trump, protests took place all across the country by non-Muslim Britons in solidarity with British Muslims and Muslim refugees.[111]
Following a protest by the EDL in April 2017, theBirmingham Central Mosque held a tea party with the goal of countering those demonstrations and promoting interfaith dialogue. The tea party ended up receiving more participants than the original EDL march.[112]
J-Voice, a socialist and progressive Jewish community project, has condemned what it refers to as a "a rise in hatred towards Muslims" and called for Muslims and Jews in the UK to remain united against the "far-right."[113][114][115] Following a meeting between Manchester's Jewish community and Tommy Robinson, theBoard of Deputies of British Jews stated that "Robinson’s record of anti-Muslim provocation means that he could never be a partner of a respectable or mainstream Jewish organisation."[115]
Based out of London, the Islamic Human Rights Commission (IHRC) is a UK human rights organization that works to campaign for justice for the British Muslim community. Along with working closely with the United Nations, IHRC has produced and submitted numerous articles, reports, and general research on islamophobia to governments and international organisations to offer[116] Another group that works closely with the UK government is the British Muslim Network, co-founded in 2025 byAkeela Ahmed, with the aim of improving British policymaking and tackling Islamophobia.[117][118]
Robert Lambert and Graham Edward Geddes have compared Islamophobia and anti-Muslim street violence to that ofPaki-bashing, a form of racist violence that was perpetrated againstSouth Asians since the 1960s.[119][120] Lambert notes that a key difference is that, while theNational Front and the BNP targeted allSouth Asians (including Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs), the EDL specifically targetedBritish Muslims. Lambert also compares the media's role in fueling "Paki-bashing" in the late 20th century to its role in fueling anti-Muslim sentiment in the early 21st century.[119] Geddes notes that variations of the "Paki" racial slur are occasionally used by members of the EDL.[120]
British Asians (both Muslim and non-Muslim) faced increased discrimination followingEnoch Powell'sRivers of Blood speech and the establishment of theNational Front in the late 1960s. This included overt racism in the form ofPaki bashing, predominantly fromwhite power skinheads, the National Front, and theBritish National Party, throughout the 1970s and 1980s.[121] Drawing inspiration from thecivil rights movement, theblack power movement, and theanti-apartheid movement, youngBritish Pakistani andBritish Bangladeshi activists began a number ofanti-racist Asian youth movements in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Bradford Youth Movement in 1977, the Bangladeshi Youth Movement following the murder ofAltab Ali in 1978, and theNewham Youth Movement following the murder of Akhtar Ali Baig in 1980.[122]
Research on Muslims in the media suggests that Islam and Muslims are positioned as a "threat to security" by a section of the British news media that implies Islam as incompatible to mainstream British way of life.
In order to develop this arguement, the article provies a summary/ overview of how ethnic minorities have been represented in the British press and argues that the treatment of British Muslims and Islam follows these themes of 'deviance' and 'un-Britishness'.
During that 'normal week', of the 19 national newspapers analysed on a daily basis, 12 were identified as having entirely negatively framed or associated coverage of Islam and Muslims. Across all newspapers, 91% of all coverage was deemed to be negative. Almost 50% of all of the coverage referred to Muslims and/or Islam as posing a 'threat' whilst a further 34% related to crises. A significant majority (84%) represented Islam and Muslims either as 'likely to cause damage or danger' or as 'operating in a time of intense difficulty or danger'.
The way these topics are framed then, gives rise to the expression of a few central defining due to their involvement in deviant activities; that Muslims are a threat to British mainstream values and thus provoke integrative concerns; that there are inheritant cultural differences between Muslims and the host community which create tensions in interpersonal relations; that Muslims are increasingly making their presence felt in the public sphere.
Thus, as Muslims are demonised in dominant stereotypes, they become the Other. Representations of Islam portray a violent religion that is undermining of British norms and values that threatens British cultural identity and security.
