Islamic socialism is apolitical philosophy that incorporates elements ofIslam into a system ofsocialism. As a term, it was coined by variousleft-wing Muslim leaders to describe a more spiritual form of socialism. Islamic socialists believe that the teachings of theQur'an and hadith, citing aspects of the religion likezakat, are not only compatible with principles of socialism, but also very supportive of them.
Some early figures in Islam, such asAbu Dharr al-Ghifari, acompanion ofMuhammad, and the firstCaliph,Abu Bakr, are sometimes regarded as forerunners of Islamic socialism for their advocacy of wealth redistribution. Interest in fusing Islam and socialism emerged in the nineteenth century, withIslamic Reformist thinkerJamal al-Din al-Afghani, whose writings on the topic were published in the 1930s and influenced many later thinkers. Social movements such as theWäisi movement inTatarstan, in theRussian empire, similarly drew on Islamic and socialist thought. In the twentieth century, the IndianDeobandi scholarUbaidullah Sindhi, theMovement of God-Worshipping Socialists inIran, theMuslim League inPakistan, and the Iranian scholarAli Shariati are among those to play a role in the history of the ideology.
Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, acompanion of Muhammad, is credited by some twentieth century scholars, such as EgyptianMuhammad Sharqawi andSami Ayad Hanna, as well as byAli Shariati (who translated his texts into Persian), as an early antecedent of Islamic socialism. He protested against the accumulation of wealth by the ruling class duringUthman'scaliphate and urged the equitableredistribution of wealth.[1][2][3][4][5]
The first MuslimCaliphAbu Bakr introduced aguaranteed minimum standard of income, granting each man, woman and child tendirhams annually—this was later increased to twenty dirhams.[citation needed]
In the 1890s, theIslamic Reformist thinkerJamal al-Din al-Afghani discussed topics of “Socialism and Social Justice” (Ar.al-ishtirākiyya wa al-ʿadāla al-ijtimāʿiyya) during his stay inParis. However, his thought was only published in a collection edited byMuḥammad al-Makhzūmi in 1931 due to censorship issues in the late Ottoman Empire.[6] Al-Makhzumi notes that al-Afghani conversed with divergent schools of thought, among them sympathisers with European Socialism whom he saw as "extravagant" and "wasteful".[7][8] He juxtaposed this with Islamic Socialism, which, he argued, was professed by theearly caliphs andsaḥāba (companions of the prophet),[7] among them Abu Dharr.[9]
As a response to a question about European socialism by "a prominent Turkish man of letters"[10] about the value of socialism in Europe, al-Afghani proclaimed that socialism had already been practiced by the Arabs even before the coming of Muhammad's revelation. He evokes the charitable Arab poetHatim al-Ta'i as proof of the generosity during that time.[8][11] This generosity, where the person retained their personal right to property, but saw it as their duty to provide for people in need, was retained and given divine ordinance in theQur'an. Al-Afghani cites several Qur'anic verses to showcase the call for mutual responsibility, charity, and the opposition to improper profit or usury (riba; such as Q 8:41, 2:271, 2:275-276, 9:60).[12]
In al-Afghani's account of theformative period of Islam, he understandsAbu Bakr andUmar to have successfully lived by the standards of Islamic Socialism.[13] During the reign ofUthman, however, extravagance would have taken over the Muslim leaders of Egypt, Syria, and Iraq.[14] Abu Dharr, one of the first converts to Islam, confronted the governor of Syria,Mu'awiyya, with this fact, but, after an attempt to bribe Abu Dharr, Mu'awiyya sent him away to the Caliph. It was over this matter that Abu Dharr chose to resign toal-Rabadha away from the Muslim community.[15] This historical narrative would be expanded and resuscitated by later advocates of Islamic Socialism.[16]
According to Sami A. Hanna andHanif Ramay, one of the first expressions of Islamic socialism was theWäisi movement inTatarstan, Russia, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement opposed the rule of theRussian Empire and was supported by Muslim farmers, peasants andpetite bourgeoisie. It suffered repression by the Russian authorities and went underground in the early 20th century, when it started cooperating with communists, socialists and social democrats in anti-government activity, and started identifying itself as an Islamic socialist movement in the wake of the1905 Russian Revolution. The movement aligned with theBolsheviks during theRussian Revolution of 1917,[17] during which the movement also established the first experimental Islamic commune. TheMuslim Socialist Committee of Kazan was also active at this time. After the death ofLenin in 1924, the Wäisi movement asserted its independence from the Communist Party; however, it was suppressed during theGreat Purge in the 1930s.[17]
Soviet decision makers recognized that revolutionary activity along theSoviet Union's southern border would draw the attention of capitalist powers and invite them to intervene. It was this understanding which prompted the Russian representation at theBaku Congress in September 1920 to reject the arguments of the national communists as impractical and counterproductive to the revolution in general, without elaborating their fear that the safety of Russia lay in the balance. It was this understanding, coupled with the Russian Bolsheviks' displeasure at seeing another revolutionary center proposed in their own domain revolutionary, that galvanized them into action against the national communists.[18]
According to Özgür Yılmaz,Hüseyin Hilmi, the founder of Turkish socialism, as well as his journalİştirak and party, theOttoman Socialist Party, "attempted to reconcile socialism with Islam", although "their publications were also open to non-Muslim Ottoman citizens, reflecting acosmopolitan outlook."[19]
In South Asia, theDeobandi scholar andIndian independence activistUbaidullah Sindhi travelled to Russia via Afghanistan in the 1910s. He remained in post-revolution Russia until 1923, where he studied socialism and engaged in discussions with communist revolutionaries. From Russia he moved on to Turkey, where he developed his ideas on Islamic socialism, drawing parallels between Islam and communism in their emphasis on the fair distribution of wealth. Alongside Sindhi, during the 1920s and the 1930s another lesser known scholar,Hifzur Rahman Seoharwi, also found Islam and Marxism to be compatible, with multiple common ideas about social structure and economics.[17]
Islamic socialism was also essential to the ideology ofPakistan, as its founder,Muhammad Ali Jinnah, to a crowd inChittagong on 26 March 1948 declared that "you are only voicing my sentiments and the sentiments of millions of Musalmans when you say that Pakistan should be based on sure foundations of social justice and Islamic socialism which emphasizes equality and brotherhood of man",[20] while Pakistan's first Prime Minister,Liaquat Ali Khan, on 25 August 1949, said in the same vein that:
There are a number of 'isms' being talked about now-a-days, but we are convinced that for us there is only one 'ism', namely Islamic Socialism, which in a nutshell, means that every person in this land has equal rights to be provided with food, shelter, clothing, education and medical facilities. Countries which cannot ensure these for their people can never progress. The economic programme drawn up some 1,350 years back is still the best economic programme for us. In fact, whatever systems people may try out they all ultimately return to Islamic Socialism by whatever name they may choose to call it.[21]
Jinnah'sMuslim League, which was the first ruling party in Pakistan, contained a number of Islamic socialists, although they were relatively marginal in the party. Also influential in Pakistan wasGhulam Ahmed Perwez, an Islamic scholar who advocatedQur'anism and a focus on the study of modern sciences. Although he was criticised by more conservative scholars, he became aligned with Jinnah andMuhammad Iqbal, the former of whom appointed him as the editor of the magazineTalu-e-Islam, where he wrote and published articles espousing a socialistic interpretation of the Qur'an, arguing that "socialism best enforces Qur'anic dictums on property, justice and distribution of wealth", and advocating a progressive, non-theocratic government and the application of science andagrarian reform to further economic development.[17] Perwez, as a part of his application of qur'anic thought to political ideology, stated that hell was a "... society in which men, dominated by its evil socio-economic system, struggle to accumulate wealth."[22]During the presidency ofMuhammad Ayub Khan in Pakistan in the 1960s, Hanif Ramay led a group of intellectuals in Lahore in developing Islamic socialist ideas, drawing on the thought of Perwez andKhalifa Abdul Hakim, along withBa'athist thinkers such asMichel Aflaq. Ramay and his co-thinkers influencedZulfikar Ali Bhutto when he founded thePakistan Peoples Party withJalaludin Abdur Rahim, and they were the primary ideological influence on the party's manifesto. Ramay outlined the priorities for the PPP's brand of Islamic socialism as including elimination offeudalism and uncontrolled capitalism, greater state regulation of the economy, nationalisation of major banks, industries and schools, encouragingparticipatory management in factories and building democratic institutions. They contextualised these policies as a modern extension of principles of equality and justice contained in the Qur'an and practiced under the authority ofMuhammad inMedina andMecca. However, during Bhutto's time in power during the 1970s, he scaled back his reform programme and deepened Pakistan's ties with the conservative, oil-richGulf monarchies following the1973 oil crisis, and purged the PPP's radical left and made concessions to Islamist parties in an effort to appease them.[17] The party in 1967 adopted the slogan "Islam is our faith; democracy is our politics; socialism is our economy; allpower to the people."[23]
The Iranian intellectualMuhammed Nakhshab is credited with the first synthesis betweenShi'ism and European socialism.[24] Nakhshab's movement was based on the tenet that Islam and socialism were not incompatible since both sought to accomplish social equality and justice. His theories had been expressed in hisB.A. thesis on the laws of ethics.[25] In 1943, Nakhshab founded theMovement of God-Worshipping Socialists, one of six original member organizations of theNational Front.[26] The organization was founded through the merger of two groupings, Nakhshab's circle of high school students at Dar al-Fanoun and Jalaleddin Ashtiyani's circle of about 25 students at the Faculty of Engineering atTehran University. The organization was initially known as League of Patriotic Muslims. It combined religious sentiments, nationalism and socialist thoughts.[27] After the1953 coup against the National Front-led government ofMohammad Mosaddegh, Islamic socialism in Iran took a more radical turn, with theOrganization of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class, using Marxist ideas under the influence ofAli Shariati and engaging in armed struggle against the government of theShah of Iran, culminating in its participation in theIranian Revolution which overthrew the Shah in 1979.[28][29][30] However, the movement fell foul of theIslamic Republic established after the Revolution.[17]
Influential figures such asJalal Al-e-Ahmad andAli Shariati have also been described as Muslim socialists.
In Indonesia, former CommunistTan Malaka was an influential Islamic socialist thinker during the country'sindependence struggle, arguing that communism and Islam were compatible and that they should form the foundation for Indonesia's national revolution, and believing that Islam could be used to unify the working classes across the Muslim world. Although Malaka died in 1949, the same year that Indonesia achieved independence, the nation's first presidentSukarno drew upon his ideas: he espoused ideological concepts which incorporated both religious and socialistic ideas, such asPancasila andNasakom.[17]
SeeNational Liberation Front (Algeria),Algerian nationalism
Although it wasMarxist, thePeople's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (which took power after the country'sSaur Revolution) started utilising rhetoric stressing similarities between socialism and Islam after its reforms provoked opposition from religious conservatives and landowners.[17]Nur Muhammad Taraki's, first president of theDemocratic Republic of Afghanistan, most acute dilemma was establishing a party line onIslam, balancing respect for its principles withMarxist–Leninist ideals. Despite leadingRamadan prayers and making conciliatory speeches, Article I of a secret PDPA constitution affirmed the party's belief in Marxist–Leninist ideals. Taraki aimed to reconcile this with Islam by proposing a "progressive, modern, pure Islam," free from "bad traditions, superstition and erroneous belief." This indicated Taraki’s effort to merge Islamic values withsocialist principles, reflecting a form of Islamic socialism, although it faced backlash from theIslamic clergy and the rural population.[31][32]
The Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) was created by themilitary regime ofSiad Barre in theSomali Democratic Republic under Soviet guidance in 1976 as an attempt to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion byadapting Marxist–Leninist precepts to local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core ofscientific socialism and its own accent onself-sufficiency, public participation and popular control as well as direct ownership of themeans of production. As part of Barre's socialist policies, major industries and farms werenationalized, including banks, insurance companies and oil distribution farms. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration still considered itself to be essentially socialist.[citation needed]
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As asyncretic ideology, "Islamic socialism" refers to the reconciliation ofsocialism withIslam. As such, it is a diverse ideology, with many internal tendencies. Some examples of influential Islamic socialist thinkers and leaders includeSiad Barre,Haji Misbach,Ali Shariati,Yasser Arafat,Abdullah al-Alayli,Sukarno,Jalal Al-e Ahmad,Mohammed Iqbal,Agus Salim,Jamal ad-Din Asad-Abadi,Musa al-Sadr,Malcolm X,Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev,Muammar Gaddafi,Modibo Keïta,Malala Yousafzai,Ahmed Ben Bella,Messali Hadj,Maulana Bhashani, andMahmud Shaltut.[citation needed] These authors all had different attitudes towards ideological issues—including (but not limited to)proletarian internationalism; the implementation of Islamic Sharia;decolonisation,postcolonialism, andnationalism;collective ownership of the means of production;world revolution andjihad;the role of the state;Islamic revival, the potential forpan-Islamic cooperation and the revival of theCaliphate; the role of theUlema; andfeminism (Islamic or otherwise). Many thinkers considered these and other ideological questions not just as matters of socio-political importance, but as explicitly-spiritual matters as well, as might be expected for a religious ideology.
They draw inspiration from thefirst Islamic state, which was established byMuhammad in the city ofMedina. This blend of Islam with socialist principles was popularized as a viable form ofanti-imperialism that could be widely accepted in theMuslim world. This is especially seen in the works of Egyptian writerSalama Moussa, who wrote extensively about socialism and aboutEgyptian nationalism againstBritish rule.[34]
Muslim socialist leaders believe in the derivation ofpolitical legitimacy from the public, and wish to implement a government based onsocial welfare and the concept of zakat. In practice, this has been seen throughguaranteed incomes, pensions, and welfare. These practical applications of the idea of Islamic socialism have a history going back to Muhammad and the first fewcaliphates, and have persisted through to modern Islamic political parties founded in the 1970s.
Islamic socialists often use the Qur'an to defend their positions. For instance, inPakistan, the verses "Man is entitled only to what is due to his effort" and "the land belongs toGod" have been used to argue in favor of Islamic socialism, and as an argument against the accretion of wealth through the manipulation of capital.[35]Anti-Capitalist Muslims, a political organization inTurkey, openly advocates socialism and frequently challengesright-wing Muslims to read the Qur'an and "try to disprove the fact that it is leftist".[36]
One of theFive Pillars of Islam,zakāt is the practice ofalmsgiving based on accumulated wealth (approximately 2.5% of all financial assets owned over the course of one lunar year). Unlikeṣadaqah, charity, it is obligatory for all financially able Muslim adults and is considered to be an act of piety through which one expresses concern for the well-being of fellow Muslims as well as preserving social harmony between the wealthy and the poor.[37] The zakat promotes a more equitable redistribution of wealth and fosters a sense of solidarity amongst members of theummah (meaning "community").[38]
Zakat is meant to discourage the hoarding of capital and stimulate investment. Because the individual must pay zakat on the net wealth, wealthy Muslims are compelled to invest in profitable ventures, or otherwise see their wealth slowly erode. Furthermore, means of production such as equipment, factories and tools are exempt from zakat, which further provides the incentive to invest wealth in productive businesses.[39] Personal assets such as clothing, household furniture and one residence are not considered zakatable assets.
Historically,Abul A'la Maududi championed the concept of Zakat.[40] According to Maududi, Zakat should be primarily in the form of taxation from a position called the exchequer, who would manage the Zakat collected and make sure that it was distributed correctly.[40] Should someone die with no family to pass on their wealth, then this wealth would be given to the exchequer for management.[40]
The concepts ofwelfare andpension were introduced in earlyIslamic law as forms of zakat, or charity. Zakat is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, and was implemented under theRashidun Caliphate in the 7th century. This practice continued well into theAbbasid era of the caliphate. Thetaxes (including zakat andjizya) collected in thetreasury of an Islamicgovernment were used to provideincome for theneedy, including the poor,elderly,orphans,widows and thedisabled. According to the Islamic juristAl-Ghazali (1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case adisaster orfamine occurred.[41][42]
During the Rashidun Caliphate, various welfare programs were introduced by CaliphUmar. Under his rule, equality was extended to all citizens, even to the caliph himself, as Umar believed that "no one, no matter how important, should live in a way that would distinguish him from the rest of the people." Umar himself lived "a simple life and detached himself from any of the worldly luxuries," like how he often wore "worn-out shoes and was usually clad in patched-up garments," or how he would sleep "on the bare floor of themosque." Limitations on wealth were also set for governors and officials, who would often be "dismissed if they showed any outward signs of pride or wealth which might distinguish them from the people." This was an early attempt at erasing "class distinctions which might inevitably lead to conflict." Umar also made sure that the public treasury was not wasted on "unnecessary luxuries" as he believed that "the money would be better spent if it went towards the welfare of the people rather than towards lifeless bricks."[42]
Umar's innovative welfare reforms during the Rashidun Caliphate included the introduction ofsocial security. This includedunemployment insurance, which did not appear in theWestern world until the 19th century. In the Rashidun Caliphate, whenever citizens were injured or lost their ability to work, it became the state's responsibility to make sure that their minimum needs were met, with the unemployed and their families receiving an allowance from the public treasury.[42]Retirement pensions were provided to elderly people,[41] who had retired and could "count on receiving astipend from the public treasury." Babies who were abandoned were also taken care of, with one hundreddirhams spent annually on each orphan's development. Umar also introduced the concept ofpublic trusteeship andpublic ownership when he implemented theWaqf, orcharitable trust, system, which transferred "wealth from the individual or the few to a social collective ownership," in order to provide "services to the community at large." For example, Umar bought land from the Banu Harithah and converted it into a charitable trust, which meant that "profit and produce from the land went towards benefiting the poor, slaves, and travelers."[42]
During thegreat famine of 18 AH (638 CE), Umar introduced further reforms such as the introduction of foodrationing usingcoupons, which were given to those in need and could be exchanged for wheat and flour. Another innovative concept that was introduced was that of apoverty threshold, with efforts made to ensure a minimumstandard of living. This made sure that no citizen across the empire would suffer from hunger. In order to determine the poverty line, Umar ordered anexperiment to test how manyseers of flour would be required to feed a person for a month. He found that 25 seers of flour could feed 30 people and so he concluded that 50 seers of flour would be sufficient to feed a person for a month. As a result, he ordered that the poor each receive a food ration of 50 seers of flour per month. In addition, the poor and disabled were guaranteed cash stipends. However, in order to avoid some citizens taking advantage of government services "begging and laziness were not tolerated" and "those who received government benefits were expected to be contributing members in the community."[42]
Further reforms later took place under theUmayyad Caliphate. Registered soldiers who were disabled in service received aninvalidity pension, while similar provisions were made for the disabled and poor in general. CaliphAl-Walid I assigned payments and services to the needy, which included money for the poor, guides for the blind, servants for the crippled, and pensions for all disabled people so that they would never need to beg. The caliphsAl-Walid II andUmar ibn Abdul-Aziz supplied money and clothes to the blind and crippled as well as servants for the latter. This continued with the Abbasid caliphAl-Mahdi.[43]Tahir ibn Husayn, governor of theKhurasan province of the Abbasid Caliphate, stated in a letter to his son that pensions from the treasury should be provided to the blind, to look after the poor and destitute in general, to make sure not to overlook victims of oppression who are unable to complain and are ignorant of how to claim theirrights and that pensions should be assigned to victims of calamities and the widows and orphans they leave behind. The "ideal city" described by theIslamic philosophers,Al-Farabi andAvicenna, also assigns funds to the disabled.[44]
When communities were stricken by famine, rulers would often support them though measures such as the remission of taxes, importation of food and charitable payments, ensuring that everyone had enough to eat. However, private charity through thetrust institution often played a greater role in the alleviation of famines than government measures did.[45] From the 9th century, funds from the treasury were also used towards the charitable trusts for the purpose of building and supporting public institutions, oftenMadrassah educational institutions andBimaristan hospitals.[46]
A guaranteed minimum income is a system[47] ofsocial welfare provision that guarantees that allcitizens orfamilies have an income sufficient to live on, provided they meet certain conditions. Eligibility is typically determined bycitizenship, ameans test and either availability for thelabour market or a willingness to performcommunity services. The primary goal of a guaranteed minimum income is tocombat poverty. If citizenship is the only requirement, the system turns into auniversal basic income. The first MuslimCaliphAbu Bakr introduced a guaranteed minimum standard of income, granting each man, woman and child tendirhams annually—this was later increased to twenty dirhams.[48] Some, but not all Islamic socialists advocate the renewal and expansion of this policy.[citation needed]
Muammar Gaddafi outlined his version of Islamic socialism inThe Green Book, which was published in three parts (1975, 1977, 1978).[49][50] TheGreen Book was heavily influenced by the pan-Arab, Egyptian leaderGamal Abdel Nasser and served as the basis for theIslamic Legion.[51]
TheGreen Book rejects modernliberal democracy based on electingrepresentatives as well ascapitalism and instead it proposes a type ofdirect democracy overseen by theGeneral People's Committee which allows directpolitical participation for all adult citizens.[52] The book states that "freedom of expression is the right of every natural person, even if a person chooses to behave irrationally, to express his or her insanity".The Green Book states thatfreedom of speech is based uponpublic ownership of book publishers, newspapers, television and radio stations on the grounds thatprivate ownership would be undemocratic.
A paragraph in the book about abolishing money is similar to a paragraph inFrederick Engels' "Principles of Communism",[53] Gaddafi wrote: "The final step is when the new socialist society reaches the stage where profit and money disappear. "It is through transforming society into a fully productive society, and through reaching in production a level where the material needs of the members of society are satisfied. On that final stage, profit will automatically disappear and there will be no need for money".[54]
In practical terms, although Gaddafi opposedIslamist movements, he pursued socially conservative policies such as banning the sale and consumption of alcohol, closing nightclubs and suppressing Marxist activity in universities and colleges.[17]
According to Raymond D. Gastil, theRUF was influenced by Gaddafi's Islamic Socialist philosophy.[55]
Anatolian Islamic Socialism was initially supported byÇerkes Ethem who was anOttoman militia leader ofCircassian origin who initially gained fame for fighting and gaining victories against the Allied powers invadingAnatolia in the aftermath ofWorld War I and afterwards during theTurkish War of Independence.[56][57][58]
The Kuvâ-yi Seyyâre was established a force of Circassian andAbkhazian volunteers led by Çerkes Ethem. The group saw themselves as a police force to fight against those who cause disturbance to the greater good of Anatolia.[59][60] In time, as Ethem's Islamic Socialist views grew more prevalent, it distanced itself fromKemal Atatürk'sTurkish National movement and eventually opposed it.[60][61][62]
Islamic Marxism attempts to applyMarxist economic, political, and social teachings within an Islamic framework. Traditional forms of Marxism are anti-religious and supportatheism, which has led many Muslims to reject Marxism. However, the affinity between Marxist and Islamic ideals of social justice has led some Muslims to embrace their own forms of Marxism since the 1940s. Islamic Marxists believe that Islam meets the needs of society and can accommodate or guide the social changes Marxism hopes to accomplish. Islamic Marxists are also dismissive of traditional Marxist views on materialism and religion.[63]
As a term, it has been used to describe Ali Shariati (inShariati and Marx: A Critique of an "Islamic" Critique of Marxism byAsef Bayat). It is also sometimes used in discussions of the 1979Iranian Revolution.
Founded by Bahawetdin Wäisev, the Wäisi movement was a religious, social, and political movement that took place in late-nineteenth and early-twentieth-century Tatarstan and otherTatar-populated parts of Russia. Wäisi doctrines promoted disobedience to civil law and authority in favor of following theQur'an and Sharia. Supporters of the movement evaded military service and refused to pay imposition or carry a Russian passport. The movement also incorporated elements of class struggle andnationalism. The Wäisi movement united Tatar farmers, craftsmen and petty bourgeoisie and enjoyed widespread popularity across the region.
Despite going underground in the aftermath of Bahawetdin Wäisev's arrest in 1884, the movement continued to maintain a strong following. Bahawetdin Wäisev's son Ğaynan Wäisev led the movement after his death in 1893. An estimated 100 members were arrested and exiled in 1897 after encouraging people not to participate in the population census. The Wäisi movement increased in size after the first Russian revolution in 1905–1907 and by 1908 there were nearly 15,000 followers in theKazan Governorate,Orenburg and otherguberniyas inCentral Asia. Wäisi followers supported the Soviet government in the aftermath of theOctober Revolution of 1917 and organized a regiment in theRed Army during theRussian Civil War. Members of the movement distanced themselves from the Russian Bolsheviks and founded the autonomous commune of Yaña Bolğar in Christopol during the 1920s, but were persecuted and disbanded during the Great Purge of the 1930s.
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Egyptian Arab Socialist PartyEgyptian Islamic Labour Party
National Liberation FrontSocial Justice PartyUmma PartyYoung Egypt Party
Islamic Socialist Party
Anti-capitalist Muslims
Yemeni Socialist Party
Democratic Homeland Party
National Awami Party (Bhashani)
Sarekat IslamNasakom
All-India Muslim LeagueMuslim League (1947–1958)
Muslim Socialist Committee of Kazan
Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party
Socialist Cooperation PartyKuva-yi SeyyareGreen Army Organisation
Young BukhariansYoung Khivans
Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution of Iran Organization[66]Movement of Militant MuslimsMajlis Wahdat-e-Muslimeen[67]Pakistan People's Party
Muslim Social Democratic PartyIslamic Nations PartyLiberation Movement of People of IranMovement of God-Worshipping SocialistsOffice for the Cooperation of the People with the PresidentParty of the Iranian People
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)"Our socialism is both Arab".
revolutionary committees.
Finally, when all capital, all production, all exchange have been brought together in the hands of the nation, private property will disappear of its own accord, money will become superfluous, and production will so expand and man so change that society will be able to slough off whatever of its old economic habits may remain.
A third topic which was addressed in the literature about Kawakibi was socialism, in particular since the early 1960s when Arab socialism became a state-sponsored ideology in Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Most writers interpreted the social critique of Kawakibi and his calls for social justice as being socialist, with Abd al-Rahman Burj avoiding anachronism and noting that what Kawakibi had in mind was 'what we call today socialism'. Muhammad Sa'd al-'Uryan went further in his analysis to explain the differences between Arab socialism, presumably pioneered by Kawakibi, and Communism. This explanation, a common practice among Arab intellectuals at the time, focused on the attitude to religion as a core differentiating element of the two ideologies.
