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Islamic mythology is the body ofmyths associated withIslam and theQuran. Islam is a religion that is more concerned with social order and law than with religious rituals ormyths.[1][2] The primary focus of Islam is the practical and rational practice and application of theIslamic law. Despite this focus, Islamic myths do still exist.[1]The Oxford Companion to World Mythology identifies a number of traditional narratives as "Islamic myths".[1] These include acreation myth and avision of afterlife, which Islam shares with the otherAbrahamic religions, as well as the distinctively Islamic story of theKaaba.[1]
The traditional biography of the Islamic prophetMuhammad, who plays a central role in Islamic teachings, is generally recognized as being largely historical in nature, and Islam depends less on mythology thanJudaism andChristianity.[1] However, the canonical narrative includes two key supernatural events: the divine revelation of theQuran and theIsra and Mi'raj — the night journey to Jerusalem followed by the ascension to theSeventh Heaven.[1] In addition, Islamic scriptures contain a number of legendary narratives about biblical characters, which diverge from Jewish and Christian traditions in some details.[1]
The two types of myth and legends that make up Islamic mythology are cosmogony and eschatology.Cosmogony is a part of cosmogonic and cosmological myths, which are myths that deal in matters of the creation and origins of the universe, and more specially, the world.[3] A cosmology is a culture's specificstory of creation, and how in that culture the universe is structured (the placement of the Earth, the stars, and theafterlife). These stores of creation explain in that specific culture the origin of people, the first "home", and the early place of people in the world.
Eschatology is a type of mythology that deals with theday of judgement, the end of the world,heaven, andhell.[4] Translated Eschatology means the "discourse about the last things". Eschatology deals with the question and ultimate quest for what is the "ultimate purpose" of humans in this life.[4]
The discussion of religion in terms of mythology is a controversial topic.[5] The word "myth" is commonly used with connotations of falsehood,[6] reflecting a legacy of the derogatory early Christian usage of the Greek wordmythos in the sense of "fable, fiction, lie" to refer to classical mythology.[7] However, the word is also used with other meanings in academic discourse. It may refer to "a story that serves to define the fundamental worldview of a culture"[6] or to stories which a given culture regards as true (as opposed to fables, which it recognizes as fictitious).[8]
Creation myths are based on the Quran, the central scripture of Islam, and expanded upon in hadiths, Arabic and Persian writings,histories (Qiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ), Muslim poetry, philosophical essays, and mystical writings.[9] While through syncretism, Islamic creation myths assimilated to African and Asian beliefs, Islam reshaped the indigenous cultural accounts on the origin of the world to fit the central Quranic teaching that, ultimately, everything in existence was created by a monotheistic God (Allah).[9] As consequence, all beings, especially humans, were expected to serve God alone.[9]
The Quran is heavily based by Middle Eastern descriptions of the origin of the world (cosmogony) and creation of mankind (anthropogony).[9] However, the Quran never portrays any of these in a continuous story, but rather alludes to them in order to illustrate a message. It is only in the 7th century, Muslims began to reconsile Quranic passages with Biblical material. Since the Quran refers to Biblical accounts only partly, Biblical stories were either unknown at the times of the revelation of the Quran or did not matter to the early Muslim community to convey the Quranic message.[9]
While in Islam there is no single story of creation, it is made clear that God is the one who created the world.[10] Four different verses in the Quran mentions that the heavens and earth (As-Samāwāt Wa Al-Ard) were created by God in six days,[11] with three verse mentioning creation and numbers of days—how many days it took to create only the earth (two days);[12] provide mountains, nutrients, etc. (four days);[13] God's giving of orders to heaven and earth;[14] and creating the seven heavens (two days).[15] The arithmetic of adding the numbers of days can be confusing, as critics (Ali Dashti) point out that two plus four plus two "increases creation from six to eight days",[16] but Quranic translatorAbdullah Yusuf Ali argues that commentators understand the four days in verseQ.41:9 to include the two days in verseQ.41:10.[17]
InSūrah al-Anbiyāʼ, verse21:30, the heavens and the earth were joined ("of one piece") as one "unit of creation", after which they were "cloven asunder".God then created the landscape of the earth, placed the sky above it as a roof, and created the day and night cycles by appointing anorbit for both the sun and moon.[18][19] The Quran states that the process of creation tooksitta ayam (ستة أيام) or six periods.[20][19] Critics note that modern cosmology does not fit well with creation of the universe in six (or eight) days and that it would be difficult to determine days before the sun and earth had been created,[16][21] but many preachers argue the wordyoum (pluralayam) can be translated as "era" or "period", and sometimes is in translations of the Quran.[22]
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The creation of mankind is discussed along with the creation of angels and jinn. When God created the angels as inhabitants of the heavens and jinn and humans as inhabitants of the earth.[23] The first who lived on earth were the jinn. However, they fought each other until God sent an army of angels headed byIblis, against them.[23] Adam, representative for mankind as a whole, was created as their successor.[23][24][25]
In the Bible, God announces to create mankind in the plural: "let us make man" (Hebrew: "na’aseh adam"), but it is not clear to whom the speech is addressed. WhileJewishmidrashim conjectured this might be the angels, the Quran is explicit about it: "When your Lord said to the angels:
"‘Lo, I am going to place a vice-regent in the earth.‘ They said: ‘Wilt Thou place in it one who will work corruption and shed blood? We sing hymns in Thy praise and ascribe holiness to Thee.‘ He replied: ‘I know what ye know not.‘ "[23]
Various theologicans and story writers, includingMuqatil ibn Sulayman,Al-Tabari, andIbn Kathir, narrate the creation account of mankind in the context of these verses.[23] Muqatil ibn Sulayman explains, in his exegesis of the Quran, that after the angels defeated the jinn, they settled on earth. It is these angels whom God addressed when he announces to create Adam (mankind) as a deputy of the earth.[23] Tabari also relates a tradition according to which only the angels who were sent to earth are addressed.[23] Maqdisi andAl-Kisa'i, on the other hand, considers all angels to be addressed.[23] The command to bow before Adam is seen as a test by God for the angels.[23]
The angels, either only from the angels of the earth or from all angels, oppose the creation of Adam for a variety of reasons.[23] One major reason is due to the sins Adam's successor will commit, which is explicitly mentioned in the Quran.[23] Another reason is, according toHasan al-Basri andAbu Qatada al-Ansari, that angels consider themselves superior to Adam in terms of knowledge.[23] Overall, the angelic opposition derives from a faulty analogy between Adam and the jinn.[23] The angels do not know that from among mankind, there will be saints and prophets, despite the sinners among them.[23] Eventually, the angels bow down, but Iblis. Angels who remained in opposition become devils.[26]
The reluctance of bowing down before Adam is also occasionally linked toHarut and Marut.[23] Others assert that they fell much later and independent of Iblis. This pair of angels is said to have made critical remarks about mankind and their sinful behavior, while claiming moral superiority.[23] Whereupon God challenged them to descend to earth and avoid committing three major sins. However, secuded by a woman, they succumb to all these sins and are not allowed to ascend back to heaven.[23] Like devils, they tempt people into sin by teaching forbidden magic.[26]While the angels have no sex-characteristics at all, devils procreate bisexually.[27][better source needed]
Adam is according to Islam, both the first human and the first prophet.[28] The Quran says that he and his wife dwelled inGarden of Eden. Adam and his wife both eat from the forbiddenTree of Eternity. According to the Quran, as punishment God declares the earth as a dwelling place for humans. Only due to free will, humans are able to producegood. Thus, although Adam's disobedience created evil, only this made it possible to create good.[29] The disobediences of Adam and his wife were already forgiven by God during their life.[30][31]
Islamic traditions are more extensive, adding further details into the Quranic creation narrative. According to a common narrative, God ordered theArchangels to collect a handful of soil from earth. But every time an archangel approached earth, the earth sought refuge in God, that it might not be distorted. All the archangels returned empty-handed, exceptAzrael, who succeeded because he sought refuge in God before, for that he will not return unsuccessful.[32] Another common traditions, portrayed the body of Adam lying on the ground for forty years, whereupon Iblis became curious of the new creation. After investigating the lifeless body, he promised that, if he will gain authority over it, he will destroy it.[33] In another tradition, it is not Azrael, but Iblis, included among the archangels, who succeeded in collecting soil from the earth, thus he later declined to prostrate himself before whose formation he just assisted.[34]
There is an extensive debate among the exegetes (muffasirun) on the creation of Eve as outlined in the foundational sources - Qur'an and Hadith. Surah an-Nisa verse one says "O people! Be mindful of your Lord who created you from a single soul (nafsin wahida) and created from it, its mate (zawjaha)..." Most Muslim exegetes have interpreted this verse as suggesting that Eve (zawjaha) is the secondary creation brought forth from Adam (nafsin wahida).Karen Bauer argues that since the nature and manner of Eve's creation in the Qur'an remains obscure, exegetes had no option but to read into the text of the Qur'an using Biblical, para-Biblical accounts and older myths.[35] The first spouse, according to the Qur'anic narrative, was created from (min) and for man (lahu) (Q. 7:189), but the meaning of from (min) is not clear. The exegetes have understood this in two key ways: first, from the "crooked rib" and second, "of the same type (substance)" It is worth mentioning that the Bible presents both accounts - of the same type (Genesis 1:26-7) and from the rib (Genesis 2:20-4) (109). The creation of man in the Quran differed from the Bible in that man was not made like the image of God but in the best of creation and not from Earth's dust but specifically from a dried pottery-like dark red clay, and that humans were made from a mixed fluid droplet that was recreated into a clinging thing, and that God made from water every living thing and that Eve was made from the person of Adam not his rib.[36][37]
Muqatil b. Sulayman (d. 150/767), one of the earliest interpreters of the Qur'an says Eve was created from Adam's rib and this is reflected in her name - Eve (Hawwa), from the word living being (hayy).[38]
Another early exegete,Hud b. Muhakkam al-Hawwari (d. 3rd/9th century) presents the same reading by referring it toal-Hasan al-Basri who reported from Muhammad that "indeed, woman was created from a rib, and if you wish to straighten her you break her."[38] Many traditionalist exegetes like al-Tabari, Ibn Abi Hatim al-Razi, Maybudi, etc. have quoted these opinions. But others like Abu Ja'far Muhammad al-Baqir and Ibn Bahr argue that Eve was created "of the same type."[39] In the modern period, the creation of Eve continues to be intensely debated. Pakistani scholar of the Qur'an,Israr Ahmed (d. 2010) was of the opinion that with the advances in our knowledge due to modern science, the notion of Eve's creation from Adam's rib is against human observation and reason. He believes the "crooked rib" hadith is using a metaphor to make a point regarding the psychological nature of women. Israr, in the evolution of the animal kingdom from a unicellular being like an amoeba, sees a clear indication that the creation was brought forth from the first unicellular being in which the characteristic of biological sex did not exist.[40]
Islamic traditions often use figures similar to the Biblical narrative. Adam's wife is commonly namedHawa, and the serpent reappears together with a peacock as two animals, which supported Iblis to slip into Adam's abode.[41] Many denied, that the Garden in which Adam dwelled with his wife, was identical with theParadise inafterlife. They rather lived in paradisical conditions before their fall, while after their fall, they need to work to survive. UnlikeChristian mythology, in Islamic thought, they did not simply walk out of paradise, but fell out of it. Hawa was punished with childbirth and menstruation, while Adam became bald[42] and the serpent lost its legs.
Regarding the creation of Muhammad, Islam developed the belief in the pre-existence of Muhammad.[a] This posits that God created the spiritual nature of Muhammad before God created the universe or Adam.[44] Following this belief, Muhammad was the first prophet created, but the last one sent to mankind.[43] When Adam walked in heaven, he once read theShahada inscripted in the Throne of God, a belief attested byAl-Bayhaqi, who attributes it toUmar.[45] In aShia version, the inscription also mentionsAli.[46]
The traditionalist account on the structure of the world is deeply embedded in the larger context ofMiddle Eastern mythological cosmology.[48] In contrast to the philosophical and some views deriving fromspeculative theology (Kalām), which agrees withHellenistic cosmology on the distinction between a lower material world and an unchanging celestial world, the traditionalists describe both the earthly world and the heavens as composed of material nature.[48]
Accordingly, the heavens span in a dome-like structure over the earths, arranged in horizontal layers one upon another.[48] At top stands theThrone of God (Al-ʽArsh) separated from the seven heavens below. The lowest heaven is often associated with a firmly-enclosed water of a celestial ocean.[48] Below the heavens follow the seven earths.[48] The earths are likewise also part of the supernatural cosmos and serve as gradual stages of hell.[48] The surface is inhabited by humans, the lower stages are the abode of destructive winds anddjinn, followed by brimstones of hell, scorpions and vipers, and eventually thedevils at the bottom.[48]
According to Islamic mythology, God instructedAdam to construct a building (called theKaaba) to be the earthly counterpart of the House of Heaven and thatIbrahim(Abraham) andIsmail(Ishmael) later rebuilt it on its original foundations after was destroyed in the flood ofNuh(Noah).[49][50] According to other opinions, Ibrahim and Ismail were the first to build it.[50] As Ismail was searching for a stone to mark a corner with, he met with the angelJibrail(Gabriel). Jibrail gave him theBlack Stone. According to thehadith,[51] the Black Stone is reported to have been milky white after being descended from Heaven but was rendered black due to the sins of the people, who had touched it.[52][53] Muslims do not worship the Black Stone.[54]
TheKaaba was originally intended as a symbolic house for the one monotheistic God. However, according to Islamic mythology, after Ibrahim's death, people started to fill theKaaba with "pagan idols". WhenMuhammad conquered Mecca after his exile, he removed the idols from theKaaba.[55][56] The inside of theKaaba is now empty.[57] It now stands as an important pilgrimage site, which allMuslims are supposed to visit at least once if they are able (Hajj).[58][57] Muslims are supposed to pray five times a day while facing in theKaaba's direction (qibla).[57][59]
Beginning as a reaction to theAge of Enlightenment in Europe and the threat ofWestern colonialism,Salafi reformism sought out a more practical model to "restore theummah", downplaying mystical, cosmic, and mythological aspects attributed to Muhammad, while simultaneously emphasizing the social and political role of thesunnah.[60]
Many adherents of theMuslim Brotherhood reject most traditional Islamic mythological narratives.Sayyid Qutb attempted to break the connection betweenKhidr and the Quran, eliminating his identification with God's servant mentioned inSurah 18. Accordingly, adherents of Qutbist thought began to no longer perceive Khidr (and his corresponding mythology) as related to Islam.[61] The teachings ofSulaiman Ashqar disapprove of many records about the traditional material regarding angels, including the Classical scholars who used them, which has led to a marginalization of Islamic thought of angels, including names and stories regarding their origin.[62]
The word 'myth' is popularly understood to mean idle fancy, fiction, or falsehood; but there is another meaning of the word in academic discourse. A myth, in this latter sense of the word, is a story that serves to define the fundamental worldview of a culture
Cube-shaped "House of God" located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Focal point of the hajj pilgrimage and a world spiritual center that all Muslims face during prayer. Muslims believe that it was built by Abraham (Ibrahim) and Ishmael (Ismail); some believe Adam built it and Abraham and Ishmael only rebuilt it. Often called the earthly counterpart to God's throne in heaven. Circumambulated seven times during the hajj ritual in imitation of angels circumambulating God's throne. Contains the Black Stone, which pilgrims often try to touch or kiss during circumambulations, believing that it physically absorbs sin; all pilgrims salute the stone as a gesture of their renewed covenant with God. Covered with a cloth called kiswah, which is embroidered with verses from the Quran.
Media related toIslamic mythology at Wikimedia Commons
