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Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice ofpenmanship andcalligraphy, in the languages which use theArabic alphabet or thealphabets derived from it. It is a highly stylized and structured form ofhandwriting that follows artistic conventions and is often used forIslamic religious texts,architecture, anddecoration.[2] It includesArabic,Persian,Ottoman, andUrdu calligraphy.[3][4] It is known inArabic askhatt Arabi (خط عربي), literally meaning "line", "design", or "construction".[5]
The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to theQur'an, as chapters and verses from the Qur'an are a common and almost universal text upon which Islamic calligraphy is based. Although artistic depictions of people and animals are not explicitly forbidden in the Qur'an, Islamic traditions have often limited figural representation in Islamic religious texts in order to avoididolatry. Some scholars argue thatKufic script was developed by the late 7th century inKufa, Iraq, from which it takes its name. This early style later evolved into several forms, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and square Kufic. In theancient world, though, artists sometimes circumventedaniconic prohibitions by creating intricate calligraphic compositions that formed shapes and figures using tiny script. Calligraphy was a valued art form, and was regarded as both an aesthetic and moral pursuit. An ancient Arabic proverb illustrates this point by emphatically stating that "purity of writing is purity of the soul."[6]
Beyond religious contexts, Islamic calligraphy is widely used in secular art, architecture, and decoration.[7] Its prominence inIslamic art is not solely due to religious constraints on figurative imagery, but rather reflects the central role of writing and the written word inIslamic culture.[8] Islamic calligraphy evolved primarily from two major styles:Kufic andNaskh, with numerous regional and stylistic variations. In themodern era, Arabic and Persian calligraphy have influencedmodern art, particularly in the post-colonial Middle East, and have also inspired the fusion style known ascalligraffiti.[9]
The traditional instrument of the Islamic calligrapher is theqalam, a pen normally made of driedreed or bamboo. The ink is often in colour and chosen so that its intensity can vary greatly, creating dynamism and movement in the letter forms. Some styles are often written using a metallic-tip pen.
Islamic calligraphy can be applied to a wide range of decorative mediums other than paper, such as tiles, vessels, carpets, and stone.[4] Before the advent of paper, papyrus and parchment were used for writing. During the 9th century, an influx of paper from China revolutionized calligraphy. Libraries in theMuslim world regularly contained hundreds and even thousands of books.[3]: 218
For centuries, the art of writing has fulfilled a central iconographic function in Islamic art.[10] Although the academic tradition of Islamic calligraphy began in Baghdad, the centre of the Islamic empire during much of its early history, it eventually spread as far as India and Spain.
Coins were another support for calligraphy. Beginning in 692, the Islamic caliphate reformed the coinage of the Near East by replacing Byzantine Christian imagery with Islamic phrases inscribed in Arabic. This was especially true fordinars, or gold coins of high value. Generally, the coins were inscribed with quotes from the Qur'an.
By the tenth century, the Persians, who had converted to Islam, began weaving inscriptions onto elaborately patterned silks. So precious were textiles featuring Arabic text that Crusaders brought them to Europe as prized possessions. A notable example is theSuaire de Saint-Josse, used to wrap the bones of St. Josse in the Abbey of St. Josse-sur-Mer, near Caen in north-western France.[3]: 223–225
As Islamic calligraphy is highly venerated, most works follow examples set by well-established calligraphers, with the exception of secular or contemporary works. In the Islamic tradition, calligraphers underwent extensive training in three stages, including the study of their teacher's models, in order to be granted certification.[11]
TheKufic style emphasizes rigid and angular strokes, it developed alongside theNaskh script in the 7th century.[12][13] Although some scholars dispute this, Kufic script was supposedly developed around the end of the 7th century in Kufa, Iraq, from which it takes its name.[14][15] The style later developed into several varieties, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and square kufic. Due to its straight and orderly style of lettering, Kufic was frequently used in ornamental stone carving as well as on coins.[16] It was the main script used to copy the Qur'an from the 8th to 10th century and went out of general use in the 12th century when the flowing naskh style became more practical. However, it continued to be used as a decorative element to contrast superseding styles.[17]
There was no set rules of using the Kufic script; the only common feature is the angular, linear shapes of the characters. Due to the lack of standardization of early Kufic, the script differs widely between regions, ranging from very square and rigid forms to flowery and decorative ones.[14]
Common varieties include[14] square Kufic, a technique known asbanna'i.[18] Contemporary calligraphy using this style is also popular in modern decorations.
Decorative Kufic inscriptions are often imitated intopseudo-Kufics inmedieval andRenaissance Europe. Pseudo-Kufics is especially common inRenaissance depictions of people from theHoly Land. The exact reason for the incorporation of pseudo-Kufic is unclear. It seems that Westerners mistakenly associated 13th–14th century Middle Eastern scripts with systems of writing used during the time ofJesus, and thus found it natural to representearly Christians in association with them.[19]
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The use of cursive scripts coexisted with Kufic, and historically cursive was commonly used for informal purposes.[20]Naskh first appeared within the first century of the Islamic calendar.[21] Naskh translates to "copying", as it became the standard for transcribing books and manuscripts.[22] The script is the most ubiquitous among other styles, used in the Qur'an, official decrees, and private correspondence.[23] It became the basis of modern Arabic print.
Kufic is commonly believed to predate naskh, but historians have traced the two scripts as coexisting long before their codification by ibn Muqla, as the two served different purposes.[24] Kufi was used primarily in decoration, while Naskh served for everyday scribal use.[25]
Thuluth was developed during the 15th century and slowly refined byOttoman calligraphers includingMustafa Râkim,Shaykh Hamdallah, and others, till it became what it is today. Letters in this script have long vertical lines with broad spacing. The name, meaning "one third", may possibly be a reference to the x-height, which is one-third of the 'alif, or to the fact that the pen used to write the vowels and ornaments is one third the width of that used in writing the letters.[26]
Reqāʿ is a handwriting style similar to thuluth. It first appeared in the 10th century. The shape is simple with short strokes and small flourishes.Yaqut al-Musta'simi was one of the calligraphers who employed this style.[27][28] The Arab,Ibn al-Bawwab is actually believed to have created this script.
Muhaqqaq is a majestic style used by accomplished calligraphers, and is a variation of thuluth. Along with thuluth, it was considered one of the most beautiful scripts, as well as one of the most difficult to execute. Muhaqqaq was commonly used during theMamluk era, but its use became largely restricted to short phrases, such as thebasmallah, from the 18th century onward.[29]
With thespread of Islam, theArabic script was established in a vast geographic area with many regions developing their own unique style. From the 14th century onward, other cursive styles began to develop in Turkey, Persia, and China.[23]
In the post-colonial era, artists working in North Africa and the Middle East transformed Arabic calligraphy into a modern art movement, known as theHurufiyya movement.[35] Artists working in this style use calligraphy as a graphic element within contemporary artwork.[36][37]
The term,hurufiyya is derived from the Arabic term,harf for letter. Traditionally, the term was charged with Sufi intellectual and esoteric meaning.[35] It is an explicit reference to a medieval system of teaching involvingpolitical theology and lettrism. In this theology, letters were seen as primordial signifiers and manipulators of the cosmos.[38]
Hurufiyya artists blended Western art concepts with an artistic identity and sensibility drawn from their own culture and heritage. These artists integrated Islamic visual traditions, especially calligraphy, and elements of modern art into syncretic contemporary compositions.[39] Although hurufiyyah artists struggled to find their own individual dialogue within the context of nationalism, they also worked towards an aesthetic that transcended national boundaries and represented a broader affiliation with an Islamic identity.[35]
The hurufiyya artistic style as a movement most likely began in North Africac. 1955 with the work ofIbrahim el-Salahi.[35] However, the use of calligraphy in modern artworks appears to have emerged independently in various Islamic states. Artists working in this were often unaware of other hurufiyya artists's works, allowing for different manifestations of the style to emerge in different regions.[40] In Sudan, for instance, artworks include both Islamic calligraphy and West African motifs.[41]
The hurufiyya art movement was not confined to painters and included artists working in a variety of media.[42] One example is the Jordanian ceramicist,Mahmoud Taha who combined the traditional aesthetics of calligraphy with skilled craftsmanship. Although not affiliated with the hurufiyya movement, the contemporary artistShirin Neshat integrates Arabic text into her black-and-white photography, creating contrast and duality. In Iraq, the movement was known asAl Bu'd al Wahad (or theOne Dimension Group)",[43] and in Iran, it was known as theSaqqa-Khaneh movement.[35]
Western art has influenced Arabic calligraphy in other ways, with forms such ascalligraffiti, which is the use of calligraphy in public art to make politico-social messages or to ornament public buildings and spaces.[44] Notable Islamic calligraffiti artists include:Yazan Halwani active in Lebanon[45],el Seed working in France and Tunisia, and CaiandA1one in Tehran.[46]
In 2017 the Sultanate of Oman unveiled theMushaf Muscat, aninteractive calligraphic Quran following supervision and support from theOmani Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs, a voting member of theUnicode Consortium.[47]
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Some classical calligraphers
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