 | |
.jpg) TheBradford Grand Mosque is the largestmosque by capacity in theUnited Kingdom, and the largest inYorkshire and the Humber. | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
 United Kingdom: 3,998,875 – 6.0% (2021) England: 3,801,186 – 6.7% (2021)[1] Scotland: 119,872 – 2.2% (2022)[2] Wales: 66,947 – 2.2% (2021)[1]Northern Ireland: 10,870 – 0.6% (2021)[3] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Greater London | 1,318,754 – 15.0%[4] |
| West Midlands | 569,963 – 9.6% |
| North West England | 563,105 – 7.6% |
| Yorkshire and the Humber | 442,533 – 8.1% |
| Religions | |
| MajoritySunni Islam with sizeableShia minorities | |
| Languages | |
| English,Urdu,Arabic,Pahari-Pothwari,Punjabi,Sindhi,Bengali,Gujarati,Turkish,Somali,Persian[5] | |
95–100% | |
90–95% | |
50–70% | |
30–35% | |
10–20% | |
5–10% | |
4–5% | |
2–4% | |
1–2% | |
< 1% |
Islam is the second-largestreligion in theUnited Kingdom, with results from the2021 Census recording just under four million Muslims, or 6.0% of the total population in the United Kingdom.[7][8]London has the largest population and greatest proportion (15%) of Muslims in the country.[9][10][11] The vast majority ofBritish Muslims in the United Kingdom adhere toSunni Islam,[12] while smaller numbers are associated withShia Islam.
During theMiddle Ages, there was limited cultural exchange betweenChristendom and theIslamic world.[13] There was no established Muslim presence in the British Isles, though a small number of Crusaders are recorded as having converted in the East, includingRobert of St Albans. During theElizabethan era, contacts became more explicit as the Tudors pursued diplomatic and commercial relations with Muslim powers, including theOttoman Empire, in part to counterCatholic Habsburg Spain.
As theBritish Empire expanded, especially in India - Britain came to rule territories with large Muslim populations; some Muslim seamen (lascars) are known to have settled in Britain from the mid-18th century onwards. In the 19th century, Victorian Orientalism contributed to growing interest in Islam and a number of Britons, including members of the aristocracy, converted.Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and convert to Islam, produced the first complete English-language translation of the Qur'an by a British Muslim in 1930. Under theBritish Indian Army, large numbers of Muslims fought for the United Kingdom during the First and Second World Wars, with some receiving the Victoria Cross. In the decades after the Second World War—particularly following the partition of India in 1947 - many Muslims from what is now India, Pakistan and Bangladesh settled permanently in Britain.
Today, British Muslims are ethnically diverse. South Asians form the largest share of Muslims in Britain,[14][15] alongside significant Turkish, Arab and Somali communities, as well as an estimated 100,000 British converts from a range of backgrounds.[16] Muslims have the youngest average age profile among the major religious groups in the United Kingdom.[17] Between 2001 and 2009, the Muslim population was reported to be increasing around ten times faster than the non-Muslim population.[18] Reports have suggested that approximately 6,000 people a year in Britain convert to Islam, with women forming a notable proportion.[19][16]
The earliest evidence of Islamic influence in England dates to the 8th century, whenOffa, theAnglo-Saxon king ofMercia, minted a coin with an Arabic inscription, largely a copy of coins issued by a contemporary Abbasid ruler,CaliphAl-Mansur.[20] In the 16th century, Muslims from North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia were present in London, working in a range of roles, from diplomats and translators to merchants and musicians.[21]
In 1627, theSalé Rovers, from theRepublic of Salé (in modern-dayMorocco) occupied the English island ofLundy for five years. TheseBarbary pirates, under the command of the Dutch MuslimJan Janszoon, flew anOttoman flag over the island. Slaving raids were made embarking from Lundy by the Barbary pirates, and captured Europeans were held on Lundy before being sent toAlgiers to be sold as slaves.[22][23][24][25][26]
_(PMs)_1910.jpg)
Bengal wasannexed by theEast India Company from the quasi-independentNawabs of Bengal following theBattle of Plassey in 1757. The manufactured goods produced in Bengal directly contributed to theIndustrial Revolution in Britain,[27][28][29][30] with the textiles produced in Bengal being used to support British industries such astextile manufacturing, aided by the invention of devices such as thespinning jenny.[27][28][29] With the establishment ofCrown control in India after1857, theBritish Empire came to rule over a large Muslim population.[31][32][33] The first educated South Asian to travel to Europe and live in Britain wasI'tisam-ud-Din, aBengali Muslim cleric,munshi and diplomat to theMughal Empire who arrived in 1765 with his servant Muhammad Muqim during the reign of KingGeorge III.[34] He wrote of his experiences and travels in hisPersian book,Shigurf-nama-i-Wilayat (or 'Wonder Book of Europe').[35]
In South Asia, specifically, the British ruled over one of the largest Muslim populations in the world.[citation needed] Upon coming into contact with such a population, the British authorities forged a uniquely Muslim identity for the local believers. This was, in part, due to the way British historians periodised South Asian history into an "ancient" Hindu one and a "medieval" Muslim one. Under the system, thecolonial period was classified as "modern".[36] Debate rages on concerning the utility and legitimacy of these labels themselves. Problems with these labels range from the connotations coupled with the word 'medieval' to the implications related to labelling the colonial era as "modern". The termmedieval itself is quite controversial. Historians writing in journals relating to the time period have asked whether the term is a "tyrannous construct" or an "alien conceptual hegemony".[36] This is because the label was originally developed during the study of European history to mark the period in between the fall of the Roman Empire and the fall ofConstantinople.[citation needed]
Such classifications done by British historians throughout their long period of rule paved the way for a more cohesive Muslim identity. In the eighteenth century, this seemed unlikely. Muslims who hailed from Afghan, Turk, Persian, or Arab roots did not find their Muslim identities especially salient. Mughal courts divided not into Hindu or Muslim factions but Persian and Turkish ones. Converts to the religion outside of courtly life, the majority of the Muslim population in the Subcontinent, too were more focused on their regional and lingual cultural identities-whether that be Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, or Gujarati.[37]
The first group of Muslims to come to Great Britain in significant numbers, in the 18th century, werelascars (sailors) recruited from theIndian subcontinent, largely from the Bengal region, to work for the East India Company on British ships, some of whom settled down and took local wives.[38] Due to the majority being lascars, the earliest Muslim communities were found in port towns. Naval cooks also came, many of them from theSylhet district ofBritish Bengal (now in Bangladesh). One of the most famous early Asian immigrants to England was theBengali Muslim entrepreneurSake Dean Mahomet, a captain of the East India Company who in 1810 founded London's firstIndian restaurant, theHindoostanee Coffee House.[39]
Between 1803 and 1813, there were more than 10,000 lascars from the Indian subcontinent visiting British port cities and towns.[40] By 1842, 3,000 lascars visited the UK annually, and by 1855, 12,000 lascars were arriving annually in British ports. In 1873, 3,271 lascars arrived in Britain.[41] Throughout the early 19th century lascars visited Britain at a rate of 1,000 every year,[40] which increased to a rate of 10,000 to 12,000 every year throughout the late 19th century.[42][43] A prominent English convert of the 19th century wasHenry Stanley, 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley, who became a Muslim in 1862. Although not a convert himself, the Victorian Age adventurer, SirRichard Francis Burton visited Mecca in disguise, documented inThe Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night. At the beginning ofWorld War I, there were 51,616 South Asian lascars working on British ships, the majority of whom were ofBengali descent.[44] In 1932, theIndian National Congress survey of 'all Indians outside India' (which included modern Pakistani and Bangladeshi territories) estimated that there were 7,128 Indians living in the United Kingdom.
By 1911, the British Empire had a Muslim population of 94 million, larger than the empire's 58 million Christian population.[33] By the 1920s, the British Empire included roughly half of the world's Muslim population.[32] More than 400,000 Muslim soldiers of theBritish Indian Army fought for Britain duringWorld War I, where 62,060 were killed in action.[45] Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army later fought for Britain against theNazis inWorld War II,[46] where Muslim soldiers accounted for up to 40%[47] of the 2.5 million troops serving the British Indian Army.[48]David Lloyd George,British Prime Minister from 1916 to 1922, stated: "we are the greatestMahomedan power in the world and one-fourth of the population of the British Empire is Mahomedan. There have been no more loyal adherents to the throne and no more effective and loyal supporters of the Empire in its hour of trial." This statement was later reiterated byGandhi in 1920.[31]Winston Churchill also stated in 1942: "We must not on any account break with the Moslems, who represent a hundred million people, and the main army elements on which we must rely for the immediate fighting."[47]
TheShah Jahan Mosque inWoking was the first purpose-built mosque in Britain, and was built in 1889. In the same year,Abdullah Quilliam installed a mosque in a terrace inLiverpool, which became theLiverpool Muslim Institute.[49][50] The first mosque in London was theFazl Mosque, established in 1924, commonly called the London mosque.
Quran translatorsYusuf Ali andMarmaduke Pickthall, who authoredThe Meaning of the Glorious Koran: An Explanatory Translation in 1930, were both trustees of the Shah Jahan Mosque in Woking and theEast London Mosque.[51][52]
Other aristocratic British converts includedSir Archibald Hamilton, 5th Baronet,Rowland Allanson-Winn, 5th Baron Headley,St John Philby andZainab Cobbold (the first Muslim woman born in Britain to perform the pilgrimage toMecca).
Large-scale immigration of Muslims to Britain began afterWorld War II, as a result of the destruction and labour shortages caused by the war.[53][54] Muslim migrants from former British colonies, predominantly India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh,[53] were recruited in large numbers by government and businesses to rebuild the country.[55] Large numbers of doctors recruited from India and Pakistan also played a role in the establishment of theNational Health Service (NHS).[56]
British Asians (both Muslim and non-Muslim) faced increased discrimination following Powell's"Rivers of Blood" speech and the establishment of theNational Front (NF) in the late 1960s. This included overt racism in the form of "Paki bashing", predominantly fromwhite power skinheads, the National Front, and theBritish National Party (BNP), throughout the 1970s and 1980s.[57] Drawing inspiration from thecivil rights movement, theblack power movement, and theanti-apartheid movement, youngBritish Pakistani andBritish Bangladeshi activists began a number ofanti-racist Asian youth movements in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Bradford Youth Movement in 1977, the Bangladeshi Youth Movement following the murder ofAltab Ali in 1978, and theNewham Youth Movement following the murder of Akhtar Ali Baig in 1980.[58]
The majority of mosques founded after World War II in Britain are reflective of the major strands of Sunni Islam predominating in the Indian subcontinent; namelyDeobandi andBarelvi (the latter of which is moreSufi-orientated). There are also a smaller number ofSalafi-oriented mosques, inspired byAbul A'la Maududi andJamaat-e-Islami, are representative of the Arab mainstream or are associated with the UK Turkish Islamic Trust. In addition to this there areTwelver Shīʿa Mosques. TheMurabitun World Movement founded byAbdalqadir as-Sufi (born Ian Dallas) in 1968 is a branch of the SufiDarqawi-Shadhili-Qadiritariqa which was run out ofAchnagairn in theScottish Highlands.
Martin Lings, an English Muslim scholar, published a biography of Muhammad in 1983 entitledMuhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. The publication ofSalman Rushdie's novelThe Satanic Verses in 1988 causedmajor controversy. A number of Muslims in Britain condemned the book forblasphemy. On 2 December 1988, the book waspublicly burned at a demonstration inBolton attended by 7,000 Muslims, followed by a similar demonstration and book-burning inBradford on 14 January 1989.[59]
Recently, several wars in theBalkans, Middle East and North Africa have led to many Muslims migrating to the United Kingdom. In 1992, with the outbreak of theBosnian War, a large number of Bosniaks who fled the ethnic cleansing and genocide ended up settling in Britain. Their numbers currently exist at between 10,000 and 15,000 including their descendants.[60] Just over three years later, aninsurgency in Kosovo beginning in 1995, eventually evolving into theKosovo War in 1998, would see 29,000Kosovo Albanians flee their homes and settle in Britain. It is commonly believed that many Albanians from Albania moved to the United Kingdom at this time, posing as refugees from Kosovo, in search of a better life in the UK.[61]
A mere decade later, theArab Spring (and laterArab Winter) brought a wave of Muslim refugees fleeingcivil war in Syria,war in Iraq,two wars in Libya,war in Yemen and countless other insurgencies by political groups and other terrorist organisations which exerted control over vast swathes of territory in the Middle East.[62] Britain took on 20,000 refugees from Syria[63] and 11,647 from Iraq.[64]
The growing number of Muslims resulted in the establishment of more than 1,500 mosques by 2007.[65]
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 2001 | 1,591,126 | — |
| 2011 | 2,786,635 | +75.1% |
| 2021 | 3,998,875 | +43.5% |
| Religious Affiliation was not recorded in the census prior to 2001. | ||
| Region /Country | 2021[69] | 2011[74] | 2001[79] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
| England | 3,801,186 | 6.7% | 2,660,116 | 5.0% | 1,524,887 | 3.1% |
| —Greater London | 1,318,754 | 15.0% | 1,012,823 | 12.4% | 607,083 | 8.5% |
| —West Midlands | 569,963 | 9.6% | 376,152 | 6.7% | 216,184 | 4.1% |
| —North West | 563,105 | 7.6% | 356,458 | 5.1% | 204,261 | 3.0% |
| —Yorkshire and the Humber | 442,533 | 8.1% | 326,050 | 6.2% | 189,089 | 3.8% |
| —South East | 309,067 | 3.3% | 201,651 | 2.3% | 108,725 | 1.4% |
| —East | 234,744 | 3.3% | 148,341 | 2.5% | 78,931 | 1.5% |
| —East Midlands | 210,766 | 4.3% | 140,649 | 3.1% | 70,224 | 1.7% |
| —South West | 80,152 | 1.4% | 51,228 | 1.0% | 23,465 | 0.5% |
| —North East | 72,102 | 2.7% | 46,764 | 1.8% | 26,925 | 1.1% |
| Scotland | 119,872[b] | 2.2% | 76,737 | 1.4% | 42,557 | 0.8% |
| Wales | 66,947 | 2.2% | 45,950 | 1.5% | 21,739 | 0.7% |
| Northern Ireland | 10,870 | 0.6% | 3,832 | 0.2% | 1,943 | 0.1% |
| United Kingdom | 3,998,875 | 6.0% | 2,786,635 | 4.4% | 1,591,126 | 2.7% |
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1961 | 50,000[80] | — |
| 1971 | 226,000[80] | +352.0% |
| 1981 | 553,000[80] | +144.7% |
| 1991 | 950,000[80] | +71.8% |
| 2001 | 1,600,000[80] | +68.4% |
| 2011 | 2,706,066[81] | +69.1% |
| 2021 | 3,868,133[82] | +42.9% |
According to the2021 United Kingdom census, Muslims in England and Wales numbered 3,868,133, or 6.5% of the population.[85] Northern Ireland recorded a population of 10,870, or 0.6% of the population, with the highest number of Muslims recorded inBelfast at 5,487, or 1.59% of the population.[86] The equivalent census was conducted a year later in Scotland and recorded a population of 119,872, or 2.2% of the population. In Scotland,Glasgow recorded the highest number of Muslims at 48,766, or 7.86% of the population.[87] The top 25 local authorities in the United Kingdom with the highest percentage of Muslims based on the 2021 census were:[88]
| Local authority | Population | Per cent |
|---|---|---|
| London Borough of Tower Hamlets | 123,912 | 39.93% |
| Blackburn with Darwen | 54,146 | 34.99% |
| London Borough of Newham | 122,146 | 34.80% |
| Luton | 74,191 | 32.94% |
| London Borough of Redbridge | 97,068 | 31.29% |
| City of Bradford | 166,846 | 30.53% |
| Birmingham | 341,811 | 29.85% |
| Slough | 46,661 | 29.44% |
| Pendle | 24,900 | 26.00% |
| Metropolitan Borough of Oldham | 59,031 | 24.38% |
| Leicester | 86,443 | 23.45% |
| Manchester | 122,962 | 22.28% |
| London Borough of Waltham Forest | 60,157 | 21.61% |
| London Borough of Brent | 72,574 | 21.36% |
| City of Westminster | 40,873 | 20.01% |
| Bolton | 58,997 | 19.93% |
| Rochdale | 42,121 | 18.82% |
| London Borough of Ealing | 68,907 | 18.77% |
| London Borough of Enfield | 61,477 | 18.63% |
| Kirklees | 80,046 | 18.48% |
| London Borough of Hounslow | 48,028 | 16.67% |
| Preston | 23,825 | 16.12% |
| London Borough of Camden | 33,830 | 16.10% |
| London Borough of Harrow | 41,503 | 15.89% |
| Hyndburn | 12,049 | 14.65% |
In the 2021 census for England and Wales, the main places of birth were the United Kingdom at 1,974,479 people (51.0% of the total Muslim population),South Asia at 993,415 (25.7%), Africa at 366,133 (9.5%), other parts of Europe at 262,685 (6.8%) and the Middle East at 231,261 (6.0%). Among individual countries outside of the UK, the countries of Pakistan; Bangladesh; Somalia; India; Iraq; Turkey; Afghanistan; Iran; Syria; and Italy made up the top ten most common countries of birth for Muslims residing in England and Wales.[89] 59.7% of Muslims identified as eitherPakistani/Bangladeshi/Indian, 6.2% were ofother Asian heritage, 10.8% identified asBlack, 7.2% identified asArab, 5.9% wereWhite, 3.7% were ofMixed heritage, and the remaining 6.6% identified with other ethnic groups.[83]
The Muslim population of England and Wales has grown consistently since World War II.Sophie Gilliat-Ray attributes the recent growth to "recent immigration, the higher than average birth rate, some conversion to Islam".[90] In 2017,Pew Research Center projected the population of Muslims in the United Kingdom to grow to 6.56 million (12.7% of the population) by 2050 under a zero migration scenario, or to 13.48 million (17.2%) under a high migration scenario.[91]
Several large cities have one area that is a majority Muslim even if the rest of the city has a fairly small Muslim population. In addition, it is possible to find small areas that are almost entirely Muslim: for example,Savile Town inDewsbury.[92]
Initial limited mosque availability meant that prayers were conducted in small rooms ofcouncil flats until the 1980s when more and larger facilities became available. Some synagogues and community buildings were turned into mosques and existing mosques began to expand their buildings. This process has continued down to the present day with theEast London Mosque recently expanding into a large formercar park where the London Muslim Centre is now used for prayers, recreational facilities and housing.[93][94] Most people regard themselves as part of theummah, and their identity is based on their religion rather than theirethnic group.[95]
The 2001 census recorded that there were 179,733 Muslims who described themselves as 'white'.[citation needed] 65% of white Muslims described themselves as "other white", and would likely have originated from locations such asBosnia and Herzegovina,Kosovo,Adygea,Chechnya,Albania,Turkey,Bulgaria, the region ofEast Macedonia and Thrace inNorthern Greece, andNorth Macedonia.[original research?] The remainder of white Muslims are converts and mostly identified themselves as White British and White Irish.[citation needed]
Islam is the third-largest religious group of British Indian people, afterHinduism andSikhism.[96] 8% of UK Muslims are of Indian descent,[citation needed] principally those whose origins are inGujarat,West Bengal,Telangana andKerala. Gujarati Muslims from theSurat andBharuch districts started to arrive from the 1940s when India was underBritish colonial rule, settling in the towns ofDewsbury andBatley in Yorkshire and in parts of Lancashire.
| Census Year | Number of Muslims | Population of England and Wales | Muslim (% of population) | Registered mosques | Muslims per mosque |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1961 | 50,000 | 46,196,000 | 0.11[80] | 7 | 7,143 |
| 1971 | 226,000 | 49,152,000 | 0.46[80] | 30 | 7,533 |
| 1981 | 553,000 | 49,634,000 | 1.11[80] | 149 | 3,711 |
| 1991 | 950,000 | 51,099,000 | 1.86[80] | 443 | 2,144 |
| 2001 | 1,600,000 | 52,042,000 | 3.07[80] | 614 | 2,606 |
| 2011 | 2,706,000 | 56,076,000 | 4.83[81] | 1,500 | 1,912 |
| 2021 | 3,868,133 | 59,597,542 | 6.5[85] | – | – |
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The single largest group of Muslims in the United Kingdom are ofPakistani descent. Pakistanis were one of the firstSouth Asian Muslim communities to permanently settle in the United Kingdom, arriving inEngland first in the late 1940s. Immigration fromMirpur in Pakistan grew from the late 1950s, accompanied by immigration from other parts of Pakistan especially fromPunjab, particularly from the surrounding Punjab villages ofFaisalabad,Sahiwal,Sialkot,Jhelum,Gujar Khan andGujrat, in addition to from the north-west Punjab including thechhachhiPathans and Pashtuns fromAttock District, and some from villages ofGhazi,Nowshera andPeshawar. There is also a fairly large Punjabi community fromEast Africa found in London. People of Pakistani extraction are particularly notable inWest Midlands,West Yorkshire, London,Lancashire/Greater Manchester and several industrial towns such asLuton,Slough andHigh Wycombe in the Home Counties. There are smaller numbers ofSindhis inGreater London. Pakistanis were traditionally working class but are slowly progressing into a Metropolitan middle class.
Chain migration played a significant role, as many of the early migrants helped bring their family members to the UK. Today, the British Mirpuri diaspora is one of the largest Kashmiri communities outside of South Asia, with strong ties to cities like Bradford, Birmingham, and Manchester.[97]
People ofBangladeshi descent are the second largest Muslim community (after Pakistanis), 15% of Muslims in England and Wales are of Bangladeshi descent, one of the ethnic groups in the UK with the largest proportion of people following a single religion, being 92%Muslim.[99] The majority of these Muslims come from theSylhet Division of Bangladesh. Many mosques opened by the British Bangladeshi community are often named afterShah Jalal and other Sufi saints who took part in the Islamicconquest of Sylhet in 1303. British Bangladeshi Muslims are mainly concentrated in London (Tower Hamlets andNewham),Luton,Birmingham andOldham. The Bangladeshi Muslim community in London forms 24% of the Muslim population, larger than any other ethnic group.[100] Other smaller Bangladeshi Muslim communities are present inNewcastle upon Tyne,Bradford,Manchester,Sunderland,Portsmouth, andRochdale.
There are groups which are active throughout Bangladeshi communities such as The Young Muslim Organisation. It is connected to theIslamic Forum Europe, associated with theEast London Mosque and theLondon Muslim Centre – all of which have connections with the Bangladeshi political party, theJamaat-e-Islami.[citation needed] Other large groups include another Sunni movement, theFultoli (founded in Sylhet),[101] and theTablighi Jamaat – which is amissionary and revival movement,[102] and avoids political attention. TheHizb ut-Tahrir calls for theKhilafah (caliphate) and influences by publishing annual magazines, and lectures through mainly political concepts,[103] and the other which is a movement withinSunni Islam is theSalafi – who view the teachings of the first generations after Muhammed as the correct teachings,[104] and appeals to younger Muslims as a way to differentiate themselves towards their elders.[93][105] All these groups work to stimulate Islamic identity among local Bengalis or Muslims and particularly focus on the younger members of the communities.[94][106][107] The British Bangladeshi community has held a strong point in Islam, often opening large mosques such asEast London Mosque andBrick Lane Masjid, as well as opening madrassas and Islamic TV channels.
There are large numbers of Gujarati Muslims inDewsbury,Blackburn (includingDarwen),Bolton,Preston,Nottingham,Leicester,Nuneaton,Gloucester and London (Newham,Waltham Forest andHackney).[citation needed]
People of Arab origin in Britain are the descendants of Arab immigrants to Britain from a variety of Arab states or entities, includingYemen,Syria,Iraq,Lebanon,Jordan,Egypt and thePalestinian Authority. Most British Arabs are Sunni Muslim, although some – such as those of Iraqi and Lebanese origin – are Shi'ite. The main Arab Muslim communities in the UK live in the Greater London area, with smaller numbers living inManchester,Liverpool, andBirmingham. There are also sizable and very long-established communities of MuslimYemenis in the United Kingdom in among other placesCardiff and theSouth Shields area nearNewcastle.
The UK has a significant Iraqi Kurdish population. Iraqi Kurds are mostly Sunni Muslims.[108][109]
According to theDepartment for Communities and Local Government, the Iraqi Kurds make up the largest group of Kurds in the country, exceeding the numbers fromTurkey andIran.[110]
The2001 UK Census recorded 32,236 Iraqi-born residents,[111] and theOffice for National Statistics estimates that, as of 2009, this figure had risen to around 65,000.[112] According to estimates by the Iraqi embassy, the Iraqi population in the UK is around 350,000–450,000.[113]
Turks in the United Kingdom represent a unique community in the country because they have emigrated not only from theRepublic of Turkey but also from other formerOttoman regions; in fact, the majority of British Turks areTurkish Cypriots who migrated from the island ofCyprus from the British colonial period onwards. The second largest Turkish community descend from Turkey. There has also been ethnic Turkish migration waves from Arabic-speaking countries (such asIraq[114] andSyria) as well as theBalkans (includingBulgaria,[115]Greece,[116] andRomania).[115] A report published by theHome Affairs Committee in 2011 claimed that there was 500,000 British Turks,[115] made up of approximately 150,000 Turkish nationals, 300,000Turkish Cypriots, and the remainder from other countries.[117] As of 2013[update], there was a growing number of ethnic Turks from themodern diaspora in Western Europe; for example, Turks with German and Dutch citizenship (i.e.Turkish Germans andTurkish Dutch) had also immigrated to Britain in accordance with the freedom of movement under EU law.[118]
Turkish Cypriots first began to migrate to the United Kingdom in 1917.[119] At the time, theBritish Empire had already annexed Cyprus and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown. Migration continued through the 1920s;[120] during theSecond World War, the number of Turkish-run cafes increased from 20 in 1939 to 200 in 1945 – creating a demand for more Turkish Cypriot workers.[121] However, due to theCyprus conflict, many Turkish Cypriots began to leave the island for political reasons in the 1950s,[122] with the numbers increasing significantly after theintercommunal violence of late 1963. With the subsequent division of the island in 1974 (followed by the declaration of theTurkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983) an economicembargo against the Turkish Cypriots by the Greek Cypriot controlled Republic of Cyprus, caused a further 130,000 Turkish Cypriots to leave the Island for the United Kingdom.[123][124]
Migrant workers from theRepublic of Turkey began to arrive in large numbers in the 1970s, followed by their family members in the late 1970s and 1980s.[125] Many of these workers were recruited by Turkish Cypriots who had already established businesses such as restaurants.[126] These workers were required to renew their work permits every year until they became residents after living in the country for five years.[125] By the 1980s, intellectuals, including students, and highly educated professionals arrived in the country, most of which received support from the Turkish Cypriot community.[127] Mainland Turks settled in similar areas of London in which the Turkish Cypriots lived in; however, many have also moved to the outer districts, such asEssex.[125]
The Turkish community have established several mosques in the country. The first wasShacklewell Lane Mosque, established by the Turkish Cypriot community in 1977.[128] There are numerous other Turkish mosques in London, mainly in Hackney, including theAziziye Mosque[129] andSuleymaniye Mosque.[130] Notable Turkish mosques outside London include Selimiye Mosque inManchester, Hamidiye Mosque inLeicester, and Osmaniye Mosque inStoke-on-Trent.[131]
Turks from the same districts from their homeland tend to congregate in the same quarters in the UK.[132] The majority live in capital city of London, particularly inHackney,Haringey,Enfield,Lewisham,Lambeth,Southwark,Croydon,Islington,Kensington,Waltham Forest, andWood Green.[133][134] Outside London there are smaller Turkish communities inBirmingham,Hertfordshire,Luton,Manchester,Sheffield and theEast Midlands.
Although data is short, findings indicate Maghrebis make up a substantial community in Europe and the United Kingdom. Britain has long ties with Maghrebis, through contact with theMaghrebis. Nevertheless, Britain has a far lower count of Maghrebis in comparison to France, the Netherlands and Spain, where the majority of Muslims are Maghrebi.[135]
A 2009 government paper estimated the Nigerian Muslim community at 12,000 to 14,000 people.[136] The community is concentrated in London.
Nigerian Muslims in the UK are represented by several community organizations including theNigeria Muslim Forum.[137]
The United Kingdom, with 43,532Somalia-born residents in 2001,[138] and an estimated 101,000 in 2008,[139] is home to the largestSomali community inEurope. A 2009 estimate by Somali community organisations puts the Somali population figure at 90,000 residents.[140] The first Somali immigrants were seamen and traders who arrived in small numbers in port cities in the late 19th century, although most Somalis in the UK are recent arrivals. Further more Somali European such as from Holland or Denmark have been emigrating in recent years.[140] Established Somali communities are found inBristol,Cardiff,Liverpool and London, and newer ones have formed inLeicester,Manchester andSheffield.[141][142][143][144]
The history of native British Muslims has a long presence in the country. The earliest knownEnglishman to convert to Islam wasJohn Nelson of the 16th century.Thomas Keith was aScottish soldier who converted to Islam and became the governor ofMedina.[145] The pirateJack Ward, one of the inspirations forCaptain Jack Sparrow, converted to Islam in the early 1600s. Another famous convert was the Victorian explorerRichard Francis Burton who successfully completed aHajj toMecca in 1853, although later in life he declared himself an atheist.Abdullah Quilliam was a 19th-century Englishman who converted to Islam and built what is argued to be the first mosque in the country in Liverpool. He was known locally for his work advocating trade unionism and divorce law reform and persuaded more people in Liverpool to convert but they faced abuse from the wider society.[146]
| Ethnic group | 1987 estimates[147] | 2021 census[148] | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | % out of total Muslims | Number | % out of total Muslims | |
| Asian | 609,440 | 84.9% | 2,550,022 | 65.9% |
| Indian | 121,760 | 17% | 246,968 | 6.4% |
| Bangladeshi | 111,360 | 15.5% | 593,136 | 15.3% |
| Pakistani | 376,320 | 52.5% | 1,470,775 | 38% |
| Chinese | – | – | 1,890 | 0% |
| Other Asian | – | – | 237,253 | 6.1% |
| Other | 533,505 | 13.8% | ||
| Arab | 79,000 | 11% | 277,737 | 7.2% |
| Other | – | – | 255,768 | 6.6% |
| Black | 416,327 | 10.8% | ||
| African | 29,000 | 4% | 378,219 | 9.8% |
| Caribbean | – | – | 7,167 | 0.2% |
| Other | – | – | 30,941 | 0.8% |
| White | – | – | 226,233 | 5.8% |
| White British | – | – | 90,939 | 2.4% |
| White Other | – | – | 135,294 | 3.5% |
| Mixed | 142,045 | 3.7% | ||
| Total | 717,440 | 100% | 3,868,132 | 100% |
British Muslims follow a range of Islamic denominations and movements. A Techne UK survey commissioned by the Institute for the Impact of Faith in Life (IIFL) found that the majority identify with Sunni Islam. A large proportion within that grouping identify with non-denominational branches, and smaller proportions identifying with Deobandi, Barelvi and Salafi currents. This translates to 83.8% that identify with broader Sunni Islam.
The survey also recorded a minority identifying with Shi'a denominations and a small proportion identifying with other sects or preferring not to state a denomination.[149]
| Non-denominational Sunni | 48.1% | |||
| Other Sunni | 16.8% | |||
| Shia | 7.5% | |||
| Deobandi | 6.9% | |||
| Salafi | 6.6% | |||
| Barelvi | 5.4% | |||
| Other denomination/sect (non-Sunni, non-Shia) | 2.2% | |||
| Preferred not to say | 6.3% | |||
A directory-based statistical summary by MuslimsInBritain.org (UK Mosque Statistics / Masjid Statistics, as at 16 September 2017) analysed 1,934 active masjids and prayer rooms in the United Kingdom and categorised each site by its dominant “theme” or affiliation (noting that many congregations are doctrinally diverse and that classification can be approximate).[150]
In that summary, the largest shares of masjids/prayer facilities were associated withDeobandi networks (41.2%) andBarelvi networks (23.7%), followed bySalafi congregations (9.4%). Non-denominational prayer rooms and similar facilities accounted for 7.4%. Shi'a facilities comprised several categories - Twelver and other Shi'a (3.1%), Ismaili (2.3%) and Bohra (0.5%), totalling 5.9%, while smaller categories included “other Sufi” (4.1%), Arabic or African mainstream Sunni (3.1%) and Maudoodi-inspired “Islamic Movement” (2.6%).[150]
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam in the United Kingdom. According to the survey commissioned by the Institute for the Impact of Faith in Life (IIFL), around 83.8% identified withSunni Islam (including those who described themselves as non-denominational Sunni).[149]
Most UK mosques areSunni. A directory-based analysis by MuslimsInBritain.org categorised masjids and prayer rooms by their dominant “theme” or affiliation and reported that the largest shares were associated withDeobandi networks (41.2%),Barelvi networks (23.7%) andSalafi congregations (9.4%), alongside smaller Sunni categories.[150]
Shi'a Islam forms a minority of British Muslims. In 2015,The Economist described Britain as having “400,000-odd” Shi'a Muslims.[151] More recent survey evidence suggests a similar minority share, the IIFL survey found that 7.5% identified withShi'a Islam.[149] In the same survey, 2.4% identified asTwelver and 2.6% asIsmaili (shares of all British Muslim respondents).[149]
Shi'a communities and institutions are most visible in major urban areas, particularly London, alongside other large cities with established Muslim populations. Prominent Shi'a centres in London include the Husaini Islamic Centre (Hujjat) in Stanmore (Harrow),[152] theIslamic Centre of England in Maida Vale,[153] and the Imam Khoei Islamic Centre in Queens Park (Brent).[154] Other Shi'a mosques include Al Masjid ul Husseini in Northolt (Ealing).[155]
Public commemorations are held annually, most notably duringAshura andArba'een. In London, an Ashura Day procession has been policed in central areas, with the Metropolitan Police and BBC London News reporting rolling road closures for a procession from Marble Arch to Whitehall/Westminster (July 2024).[156][157] An annual Arba'een procession has also been organised in London, beginning at Marble Arch.[158] Ashura processions and related mourning rituals have also been documented in other cities, including Birmingham and Manchester.[159][160]
A directory-based statistical summary by MuslimsInBritain.org categorised masjids and reported that Shi'a facilities comprised 3.1% Twelver/other Shi'a, 2.3% Ismaili and 0.5%Bohra (5.9% in total).[150]
TheAhmadiyya Muslim Community (AMC) established itself in the UK in 1912 and is thus the longest-standing Muslim community in the UK. The UK and worldwide headquarters of the AMC are currently situated on the grounds of 'The Blessed Mosque'(Masjid Mubarak), inaugurated on 17 May 2019 byMirza Masroor Ahmad, the fifthcaliph of theAhmadiyya movement,[161] in Tilford, Surrey. The AMC also has the largest Muslim youth organisation, theAhmadiyya Muslim Youth Association (Majlis Khuddamul Ahmadiyya) in the UK (membership of 7,500) and the largest Muslim women's organisation, theAhmadiyya Muslim Women's Association (Lajna Ima'illah), in the UK (membership of 10,000).[162]
In 2014, on the 125th anniversary of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, the group published an advertisement inLuton on Sunday. After Dr. Fiaz Hussain, coordinator of the Preservation of Finality of Prophethood Forum (PFPF), lodged a written complaint stating the Ahmadiyya community should not be called "Muslim" due to its rejection of certain Islamic principles,[163] the paper received a delegation of "Community Leaders" and soon issued an apology, disassociating itself from the advertisement. Tell MAMA responded, labeling attempts to intimidate or discriminate against Ahmadiyya Muslims "as anti-Muslim in nature."[164]
British Muslims participate across the UK economy as employees, public-sector workers, professionals, entrepreneurs, consumers, donors and volunteers. Measuring “religion” in economic datasets is often difficult because many administrative and labour-market sources do not routinely record it; as a result, much of the most comparable evidence comes from Census outputs, regulators’ equality monitoring releases, and research studies.[165][166]
A 2013 report published by theMuslim Council of Britain highlighted the scale of British Muslims’ economic contribution to the United Kingdom. It reported that the UK was home to approximately 2.78 million Muslims, with an estimated £31 billion annual contribution to the national economy. In London, there were around 13,400 Muslim-owned businesses, accounting for just over 33.6% ofsmall and medium-sized enterprises in the capital and supporting more than 70,000 jobs. The study also estimated the presence of around 10,000 Muslim millionaires in the UK, with £3.6 billion in liquid assets among the richest individuals, and placed British Muslim consumer spending power at approximately £20.5 billion.[167][168]
A 2024 report by Equi estimated that British Muslims generate at least £70 billion per year for the UK economy, attributing this to workforce income (around £42 billion), Muslim-owned business output (around £24.7 billion), and charitable giving plus the estimated value of volunteer time (around £2.4 billion combined).[169]
ONS analysis of Census 2021 data for England and Wales reported lower employment and higher economic inactivity among people identifying as Muslim (ages 16–64) than the overall population. The same analysis linked these patterns to the group’s younger age structure, with higher shares in full-time education and higher reported inactivity because of looking after home or family, particularly among women.[165][166]
| Indicator | Muslim | Overall population |
|---|---|---|
| In employment | 51.4% | 70.9% |
| Economically inactive (total) | 41.9% | 24.7% |
| Unemployed | 6.7% | 4.4% |
| Economically inactive: looking after home or family | 16.1% | 5.8% |
| Economically inactive: student | 13.8% | 7.3% |
| Looking after home or family (female) | 27.3% | 7.8% |
Alongside these structural factors, parliamentary and academic research has described a “Muslim penalty” in employment outcomes in the UK, including evidence of discrimination affecting recruitment and progression and of occupational mismatch (including over-qualification) for some groups; constrained access to stable employment has also been discussed as one driver (among others) of higher self-employment in parts of the population.[170][171][172]
Among UK-born Muslims in England and Wales who were in employment at the time of Census 2021, younger cohorts were more likely than their White British counterparts to be working in the three highest occupational groups (managers, directors and senior officials; professional occupations; and associate professional and technical occupations). The combined share in these categories was 53.7% for UK-born Muslims aged 25–34, compared with 50.5% for UK-born White British of the same age band. This difference was most pronounced among women: 56.4% of UK-born Muslim women aged 25–34 in employment were in these higher-skilled occupations, compared with 52.4% of White British women, while the corresponding figures for men were 51.4% and 48.6% respectively.[173][174]
In the 35–49 age group, the combined share in these three occupational categories was similar between UK-born Muslims (about 52%) and White British (about 54%), with near parity among women and a modestly lower share among Muslim men than White British men.[174]
| Age group | Managers, directors and senior officials | Professional occupations | Associate professional and technical | Total (three groups) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 25–34 | 8.4% | 30.3% | 15.0% | 53.7% |
| 35–49 | 13.5% | 25.5% | 12.9% | 51.9% |
Where religion is recorded through equality monitoring, published data also show comparatively high Muslim representation in several regulated professions, particularly in parts of healthcare and pharmacy (coverage varies by regulator and declaration rates).[165]
| Occupation | % of total workforce |
|---|---|
| Optometrists | 21%[176] |
| Licensed Doctors | 18.8%[177][178] |
| Pharmacists | 18.6%[179] |
| Orthoptists | 15.0%[180] |
| Dentists | 13.4%[181] |
| Biomedical Scientists | 10.0%[182] |
| Radiographers | 9.0%[183] |
| NHS | 7.1%–10%[184] |
| Lawyers | 8%[185] |
| Neurosurgeon Consultant | 8.0%[186] |
| Prosthetists / Orthotists | 6.0%[187] |
| Civil Service | 5%[188] |
| Midwives | 2.9%[189] |
| Police Officers | 2.5%[190] |
| Nurses | 2.4%[189] |
| Armed Forces | 0.6%[191] |
Because religion is not consistently recorded outside the census and some EDI sources, some analysis uses ethnicity as a partial proxy in contexts where particular ethnic groups are predominantly Muslim. ONS multivariate tables for England and Wales (Census 2021) show that the Muslim population is ethnically diverse, with large shares recorded in Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Black African groups, alongside Arab, “White other” and other ethnic categories.[192] Research overviews of British Muslim communities also describe major populations with family origins in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Somalia, alongside Turkish-heritage communities and others.[193]
Around 32.3% of Muslims in the UK held degree-level qualifications, according to the 2021 UK Census. This is higher than White British (31%) and Christians (31.6%).[194][195] In contrast, a higher proportion of Muslims in the UK held no qualifications (25%), in comparison with White British (18.3%) and Christians (20.8%).[196][197]
Higher education administrative statistics show that the proportion of UK higher education students reporting a Muslim religious belief has increased in recent years (rising from around 10% in 2019/20 to around 14% by 2023/24).[198] Longitudinal cohort research in found that around 53% of British Muslim young people were in higher education by age 19, compared with 38% of White students, with a further small share having applied but not yet enrolled.[199] A separate analysis of the same cohort reported that about 51% of Muslim young people had applied to university by age 18 and roughly 42% were studying for a degree by age 20, with participation rates higher among Muslim women than Muslim men.[200]
Based on official England GCSE (KS4) statistics, we can construct a clear ethnicity-based proxy for a large share of Muslim pupils by combining results for Pakistani and Bangladeshi students, who together make up a substantial portion of the Muslim school-age population.[201] When their outcomes are averaged on a pupil-weighted basis, this proxy group outperforms White British pupils across the main attainment measures — including overall progress through secondary school, total GCSE points scored, and the likelihood of achieving strong passes in English and maths.[202][203][204] The same datasets also show a consistent gender pattern within these cohorts, where girls achieve higher results than boys, supporting the broader observation that Muslim female pupils tend to outperform Muslim males at GCSE level.[205]
Media reporting on England’s secondary school performance tables noted that four Islamic faith schools were ranked among the national top ten for Progress 8 scores, with Tauheedul Islam Girls’ High School ranked first nationally on that measure.[206]
There are about 184 Muslim faith schools in the UK in total, of which around 30 are state-funded and about 150 are independent (private) schools.[207] Separately, media reporting based on aSunday Times analysis has highlighted that some non-Muslim state schools—particularly Church of England and Roman Catholic schools in areas with large Muslim catchments—have intakes in which Muslim pupils outnumber Christian pupils, illustrating how local demographics can produce very high Muslim enrolment even where a school is not formally designated as Islamic.[208]
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Muslims are playing an increasingly prominent role in political life.[209] Nineteen Muslim MPs were elected in theDecember 2019 general election,[210] and there are nineteen Muslim peers in theHouse of Lords.[citation needed]
The majority of British Muslims vote for theLabour Party,[211] however there are some high-profile Conservative Muslims, including former Minister for Faith and Communities and formerCo-chairman and theConservative PartySayeeda Warsi,[212] described byThe Guardian as a 'rising star' in the Tory party.[213] Warsi, who was the first Muslim to serve in a British cabinet, was appointed byDavid Cameron in 2010 as a minister without portfolio. She was made a senior minister of state in 2012. In August 2014 she resigned over the government's approach to the2014 Israel-Gaza conflict.[214]
Muslim political parties in Britain have included thePeople's Justice Party (UK), a Pakistani and Kashmiri party that won city council seats in Manchester in the 2000s,[215] and the unsuccessfulIslamic Party of Britain, anIslamist party in Bradford in the 1990s.[216] In 2023, theElectoral Commission rejected an application to set up a new political party named 'Party of Islam'.[217]
In the 2017 general election, 15 Muslim MPs (12 Labour and 3 Conservative) were elected, up from 13 Muslim MPs in 2015 general election.[218] In the 2019 general election, a record number of 19 Muslim MPs were elected (15 Labour and 4 Conservative).[219][220]
Survey data analysed byUK in a Changing Europe showed that Labour (72 per cent) led Conservatives (11 per cent) by 61 points amongst Muslim voters in 2019. Further analysis showed that many minorities were "necessity liberals" who voted for Labour not because they were social liberals, but because Labour represented a broader political package and distrusted the Conservatives on identity matters.British Pakistani andBritish Bangladeshi voters in particular, by a margin of 20–30 points, believed thatLGBT rights had gone too far.[221]
At the 2024 general election, 24 Muslim MPs were elected including a record four independent pro-Palestinian MPs. All of the elected independent MPs were endorsed byThe Muslim Vote, a pressure group set up in December 2023 in response to theGaza war. Polling bySavanta found that 44 per cent of Muslim voters ranked the matter among their top five issues compared to 12 per cent of non-Muslims.[222]
| Muslim MPs by election 1997–2024 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Election | Labour | Conservative | Scottish National Party | Other | Total | % of Parliament |
| 1997[223] | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.15 |
| 2001[224] | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0.31 |
| 2005[225] | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0.62 |
| 2010[226] | 6 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 1.23 |
| 2015[227] | 9 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 13 | 2.00 |
| 2017[218] | 12 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 2.31 |
| 2019[228] | 14 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 19 | 2.92 |
| 2024[229] | 18 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 24 | 3.69 |
Thefirst sharia court, also known as sharia councils, began operating in the United Kingdom in 1982, and the number in operation has grown to 85 by 2024. AThe Times investigation has found that there are a growing number of Muslims from across Europe and North America seeking the services of British sharia courts, with the UK now dubbed as the 'western capital' for sharia courts.[230][231]
Although sharia is not part of theBritish legal system, several British establishment figures have supported its use in areas of dispute resolution in Islamic communities. For example, in February 2008Rowan Williams theArchbishop of Canterbury (the head of theChurch of England) lectured at theRoyal Courts of Justice on Islam and English law. In this lecture he spoke of the possibility of using sharia in some circumstances:
[...] it might be possible to think in terms of [...] a scheme in which individuals retain the liberty to choose the jurisdiction under which they will seek to resolve certain carefully specified matters, so that 'power-holders are forced to compete for the loyalty of their shared constituents'.
— Rowan Williams, 2008[232]
Several months later,Lord Phillips, thenLord Chief Justice of England and Wales supported the idea that sharia could be reasonably employed as a basis for "mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution", and explained that "It is not very radical to advocate embracing sharia law in the context of family disputes, for example, and our system already goes a long way towards accommodating the archbishop's suggestion."[233]
In March 2014,The Law Society issued guidance on how to draft sharia-compliant wills for the network of sharia courts which been established to deal with disputes between Muslim families.[234] The guidance was withdrawn later in 2014 following criticism by solicitors and byChris Grayling, theJustice Secretary.[235]
In its2017 manifesto,UKIP pledged to abolish the existence ofsharia courts in the UK.[236]
In 2016–2018 an independent panel commissioned by the UK government investigated the practices of sharia councils operating in England and Wales. The councils have no legal status and no legal jurisdiction in the UK. Estimates for their number range between 30 and 85. The investigation found that most people consulting the councils are women seeking anIslamic divorce. The review concluded that "there is unanimous agreement among the sharia councils themselves that discriminatory practices do occur in some instances within the councils in England and Wales" and made legislative and administrative recommendations to remedy the abuses. The panel was not aware of any sharia councils operating in Scotland.[237]
According to Kaveri Qureshi, while women educate themselves and follow Islamic norms and values referring to colonial eraIslamic advice literature about marriage not for continuation but to end their marriages and for justification of remarriages contrary to original intention of authors of the literature.[238]
There are several Islamic television channels operating in the UK, includingBritish Muslim TV,Muslim Television Ahmadiyya International (MTA International),[239][240]Ummah Channel,[241]Ahlebait TV, andFadak.
British Muslims are represented in various media positions across different organisations. Notable examples includeMehdi Hasan, the political editor of the UK version ofThe Huffington Post[242] and the presenter ofAl Jazeera English showsThe Café andHead to Head,[243]Mishal Husain, a Britishnews presenter for theBBC, currently appearing onBBC World News andBBC Weekend News,Rageh Omaar, special correspondent withITV and formerly Senior Foreign Correspondent with the BBC and a reporter/presenter forAl Jazeera English,[244] andFaisal Islam, economics editor and correspondent forChannel 4 News.[245]
In 2013, there were 40 Muslim players in theEnglish Premier League, up from one in 1992. Man of the Match awardees were awarded bottles of champagne, which is forbidden in Islam, and after Muslim playerYaya Toure refused the award, champagne was phased out for small trophies instead. Children playing football have been seen falling to their knees as if in prayer after scoring a goal, a common practice of Muslim footballers.[246]
An estimated 5,200 Britons convert to Islam each year, with around 100,000 converts reported by 2013. For men, prisons have been a notable setting for conversions. Approximately 18% of theBritish prison population, or over 14,000 prisoners, are Muslims, disproportionately higher than the general population.[249] The proportion of Muslims in the UK prison population rose from 8% in 2002 to 15% in 2016.[250] According to the UK prison officers' union in 2013, some Muslim prisoners in the UK had allegedlyforcibly converted fellow inmates to Islam in prisons.[251] There have been multiple cases of non-Muslim prisoners threatened with violence[252] with "convert or get hurt" being a commonly used phrase by Muslim gangs according to an independent report published by the government.[253] A 2010 report by theChief Inspector of Prisons stated that 30% of the Muslim prisoners interviewed had converted to Islam while in prison, some of whom were "convenience Muslims" who adopted the religion in order to get benefits available only to Muslims.[254] Other reasons why inmates may convert include wanting protection in wings where Muslim gangs are prevalent, the ability to go to chapel, and access to different foods. Around one in five Muslim prisoners in the UK are now white.[255]
Mosques in the country are sometimes seen as ethnic clubs which are not welcoming of new converts but there have also been recent convert-led mosques.[256] A study in 2023 found that amongst some schools, there were tensions between Hindu and Muslim pupils. Hindu students were labelled as "kaffirs" and threatened to either convert or face "hell for disbelievers".[257]
In June 2017,Jeremy Corbyn, leader of the Labour Party, said that difficult conversations are needed, starting with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states that have funded and fuelled extremist ideology, and has also urged an immediate halt to UK arms exports toSaudi Arabia.[258][259][260]Tom Brake,Liberal Democrat foreign affairs spokesman, has said that Saudi Arabia provides funding to hundreds of mosques in the UK, espousing a very hardline Wahhabist interpretation of Islam.[261] In July 2017, a report by theHenry Jackson Society, aneo-conservative[262][263] think tank, claimed that Middle Eastern nations are financially supporting mosques and educational institutions linked to spreading extremist material with "an illiberal, bigotedWahhabi ideology".[259][264] The report said that the number ofSalafi andWahhabi mosques in Britain had increased from 68 in 2007 to 110 in 2014.[265]
In 2017,Gilles de Kerchove reported that the UK had the highest number of Islamist radicals in the EU, with estimates ranging between 20,000 and 25,000. Of these, 3,000 were considered a direct threat by MI5, and 500 were under constant surveillance.[266] Among those identified by security services but not seen as an immediate threat were the perpetrators of three ISIS-linkedattacks in 2017, which resulted in 35 deaths.[266][267] Between 2011 and 2014, more British Muslims traveled to Syria to join ISIS and Al-Nusra Front than enlisted in theBritish Armed Forces,[268] with around 1,500 joining these groups compared to 220 who enlisted in the military.[269][267][266]
Political scientistsOlivier Roy andGilles Kepel offer differing perspectives on the roots of radical Islamist terrorism. Roy argues that many individuals are drawn to fundamentalist Islam only after becoming radicalized,[270] while Kepel suggests that certain ideologies, likeSalafism, may lead individuals to violence. Roy also noted that restrictive policies like France's burkini ban might provoke religious violence,[271] but Kepel countered that the UK has experienced jihadist attacks despite having no such policies.[271]
A 2020 report indicated that British Muslims share similar concerns with the general population regarding Muslim extremism, with 63% expressing some level of worry. British Muslims were also slightly more likely (66%) than others (63%) to report individuals to thePrevent programme if concerned about radicalization, and 80% supported Prevent once they understood its goals.[272][273] Additionally, as of 2023, Muslim extremism represents a significant portion of MI5's caseload and related arrests, with nine-tenths of the individuals on its watchlist linked to this type of extremism.[274][273][272]
In March 2024,Communities Secretary Michael Gove announced that five organisations would be assessed against the government's new definition of extremism. Three of these organisations, named asCage,Muslim Association of Britain, andMuslim Engagement and Development, were of concern due to their Islamist orientation and views.[275] The latter two groups threatened to sue after the announcement.[276]
According to British Muslim journalistMehdi Hasan, "anti-Semitism isn't just tolerated in some sections of the British Muslim community; it's routine and commonplace".[277] A 2016 survey of 5,446 adult Britons, part of a report titledAnti-Semitism in contemporary Great Britain conducted by the London-basedInstitute for Jewish Policy Research found that the prevalence ofantisemitic views among Muslims was two to four times higher than the rest of the population,[278] that 55% of British Muslims held at least one antisemitic view (compared to 30% of the general population), and that there was a correlation between Muslim religiosity and antisemitism.[279] A 2020 poll byHope not Hate found that 45% of British Muslims held a generally favourable view of British Jews, and 18% held a negative view.[280]
In March 2024, theDeputy Prime Minister, Oliver Dowden, suspended theCivil Service Muslim Network (CSMN) over alleged antisemitic remarks and activities. The network was criticized for hosting webinars that instructed civil servants on lobbying to change government policy on Israel, promoting 'resistance' to government stances, and advising members on avoiding disciplinary action.[281]
Recent survey research indicates that many British Muslims place strong emphasis on religious identity while also expressing a sense of belonging and civic optimism about life in the UK. A 2025 study by the Institute for the Impact of Faith in Life (IIFL), based on a national survey of British Muslims, found that a majority of respondents prioritised a Muslim identity over a British identity when asked which described them “first and foremost”, with notable variation by age group; the report linked identity patterns partly to experiences of prejudice and exclusion.[282] A separate 2024 IIFL survey reported that large majorities of British Muslim respondents viewed Britain as a country offering good opportunities to progress in life and supported greater efforts to improve interfaith relations, alongside high reported levels of charitable giving and community participation.[283]
Polling during the Israel–Hamas war period indicated that the conflict became a highly salient political issue for many British Muslims. A Savanta poll of British Muslim voters reported that the Gaza conflict ranked among the most important election issues for a large share of respondents, and that many said they would consider supporting independent candidates based on positions related to the conflict.[284][285] A 2024 poll of UK Muslims published by the Henry Jackson Society, based on fieldwork by J.L. Partners, also reported strong pro-Palestinian sympathies among respondents when asked to choose between parties to the conflict, with results varying significantly by age and education level.[286]
Reviews of British survey data have found that only a small minority of Muslims express sympathy for terrorism, and that large majorities report concern about extremism. An Ipsos MORI review of multiple UK surveys reported that across studies only a “tiny percentage” of Muslim respondents showed support or sympathy for terrorist violence; it cited a 2016 study in which 90% of Muslim respondents condemned threatening or committing terrorist actions and 2% expressed sympathy, compared with 84% condemnation and 4% sympathy in a general-population comparison sample.[287][288] Research for the Commission for Countering Extremism by Crest Advisory (2020) found that most British Muslim respondents said they were worried about Islamist extremism and that majorities expressed conditional or full support for the Prevent programme after a neutral description, with most also saying they would report concerns about radicalisation.[289]
On social and family issues, survey reviews indicate that British Muslims are, on average, more likely than the general population to express socially conservative views on some questions, though attitudes vary by age and gender. The Ipsos MORI review reported that close to half of Muslim men and around one third of Muslim women agreed with the statement that “wives should always obey their husbands”, and noted generational differences with younger Muslims tending to hold more liberal views on several topics than older cohorts.[290] Some more recent polls have also reported sizeable minorities supporting religion-accommodating public policy measures, though results differ depending on methodology and question wording.[291]
Research on domestic violence and abuse in UK Muslim communities has largely been based on qualitative and service-provider studies rather than single-question attitude polling. This literature highlights barriers to reporting and help-seeking, including stigma, family pressure, and the ways religious language may be used both to justify abuse and to support survivors.[292]
Large UK longitudinal datasets have also been used to analyse outcomes and experiences among Muslims over time. Studies using the UK Household Longitudinal Study (Understanding Society) have reported evidence of a persistent “Muslim penalty” in unemployment and economic inactivity compared with otherwise similar non-Muslims, even after adjusting for demographic and educational factors.[293] Other analyses using the same dataset have found lower average mental wellbeing among some Muslim-origin groups compared with the non-religious, alongside evidence that more frequent religious attendance is associated with higher wellbeing across groups.[294]
TheBritish media has been criticised for propagating negativestereotypes of Muslims and fuelingIslamophobic prejudice.[295] In 2006, severalBritish cabinet ministers were criticised for helping to "unleash a public anti-Muslim backlash" by blaming the Muslim community over issues of integration despite a study commissioned by theHome Office on white and Asian-Muslim youths demonstrating otherwise: that Asian-Muslim youths "are in fact the most tolerant of all" and that white youths "have far more intolerant attitudes," concluding that the attitudes held by members of the white community was a greater "barrier to integration."[296][297]
In January 2010, theBritish Social Attitudes Survey found that the general public "is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group," with "just one in four" feeling "positively about Islam," and a "majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church."[298] The "scapegoating" of British Muslims by the media and politicians in the 21st century has been compared in the media to the rise ofantisemitism in the early 20th century.[299]
A 2013 survey byYouGov indicated that immigrants from Muslim countries were perceived as integrating less well into British society than immigrants from other countries, with 71% of respondents believing migrants from Muslim countries were not integrating well.[300] Another YouGov poll conducted in 2015 found that 55% of the British public believed there was a fundamental clash between Islam and the values of British society. Only 22% believed British values and Islam were generally compatible.[301]
In 2015, in light of a growing number of radicalisedBritish Muslims joining ISIS to fight in Syria, aSurvation poll forSky News found that 70% of non-Muslims in the UK believed that British Muslims were not doing enough to integrate into British society, 44% became more suspicious of Muslims and only 30% believed that the values of British society were compatible with Islam. When British Muslims were asked the same questions, over four in five believed that Islamic values were compatible with British society and 71% believed that British Muslims were doing enough to integrate into British society.[302]
In polling conducted byComRes in 2016, only 28% of those surveyed believed that Islam was compatible with British values. 72% agreed with the statement that "most people in the UK have a negative view of Islam" and 43% believed that Islam was a negative force in the UK. Younger people were more likely to say they have a better understanding of Islam and hold less negative views.[303][304]
A survey conducted in 2017 byChatham House revealed widespread opposition to Muslim immigration across the UK. 47% were opposed to further Muslim immigration meanwhile 23% disagreed with stopping further migration from mainly Muslim countries. This opposition figure was lower than in other European countries, Austria: 65%; Belgium: 64%; France: 61%; Germany: 53%; Italy: 51%, and lower than the European average of 55%.[305]
In 2019, a survey conducted by thePew Research Center found that 78% of Britons had a favourable view of Muslims, while 18% had an unfavourable view of Muslims. This was the most favourable inEurope.[306]
A 2021 study published by theUniversity of Birmingham found that Muslims are the British public's second ‘least liked’ group, after Gypsy andIrish Travellers with 25.9% of the British public holding negative views towards Muslims and 23.5% holding a positive view.[307] People from middle and upper-class backgrounds were more likely to hold prejudiced views about Islam compared to those from working-class backgrounds. 71% of respondents named Islam as having a more negative impact on society compared to other religions with 18.1% of those surveyed supported banning all Muslim migration to the UK.[308]
In 2025, a study by theCommission for Countering Extremism with polling conducted byIpsos found that 38 per cent of Britons felt they had to hold back on expressing their views about Islamic topics. This was the highest figure across all religions, and about twice as high as the comparative figure for Christianity. In the study, Muslims surveyed were more likely than the overall population to think that people should be careful not to offend when talking about Islamic topics (71 per cent compared to 31 per cent overall).[309] Islam was also the only religion asked about where more people thought that the religion was protected too much, with 39 per cent believing it was protected "too much" and 18 per cent believing it was protected "too little".[310]
A survey conducted in 2024 byOpinium forHope not Hate found that 30 per cent of the British public believed that Islam was a threat to the British way of life and the existence of'no-go' zones for non-Muslims in European cities. Members of theConservative party were more likely to hold these views, with 58% believing Islam was a threat and 52% believing in the existence of 'no-go' zones.[311]
There have been cases of threats,[312] one fatal attack,[313] and non-fatal attacks on Muslims and on Muslim targets, including attacks on Muslim graves[314] and mosques.[315] In January 2010, a report from theUniversity of Exeter's European Muslim Research Centre noted that the number of anti-Muslimhate crimes has increased, ranging from "death threats and murder to persistent low-level assaults, such as spitting and name-calling," for which the media and politicians have been blamed with fuelling anti-Muslim hatred.[316][317][318] However,Met Police figures showed an 8.5 per cent fall in anti-Muslim crimes between 2009 and 2012, with a spike in 2013 due to themurder of Lee Rigby.[319] In the four months following the2023 Israel-Gaza conflict,Tell MAMA reported a more than three-fold increase in Islamophobic incidents to 2,010, with Muslim women targeted in two-thirds of incidents.[320]
The emergence of theEnglish Defence League resulted in demonstrations in English cities with large Muslim populations.[321][322][323][324][325] The EDL was a right wing, anti Islam[322][323][321][326][327]street protest movement which opposed what it considers to be a spread ofIslamism,Sharia law andIslamic extremism in the United Kingdom.[328][329][330][331] The EDL has been described by The Jewish Chronicle asIslamophobic.[332] The group has facedconfrontations with various groups, including supporters ofUnite Against Fascism (UAF) andAnonymous.[333][full citation needed][334][335]
Most British Muslims, particularly those of South Asian descent, share cultural traditions, histories, and ethnic ties with the British Sikh community, as well as with British Hindus.[336] The majority of Sikhs oppose strongly anti-Muslim groups like theBNP andEDL, and the anti-Muslim campaigns of the BNP have been condemned by all leading Sikh organizations.[337][338] However, it has been reported that some extremists from the Sikh community have aligned themselves with the BNP.[338] It has also been noted that some Sikhs adopted prevalent racial prejudices in the West, leading to a variant of Islamophobia within the Sikh community that mirrors broaderIslamophobic discourse.[339][337]
In 2018, Sikh Youth UK's report claimed similarities between the exploitation of young Sikh women and the Rotherham scandal.[340] However, a 2019 critique from two Sikh academics and a UK government report found the allegations to be false and misleading, lacking solid data and promoting historical tensions "designed to whip up fear and hate".[341][342] Research by Katy Sian of the University of York further debunked these claims, attributing them to extremist Sikh groups.[343][344]
During the2024 United Kingdom riots, the Sikh community, along with theHindu andJewish communities, released statements condemning the Islamophobic rioting.[345][346]
As one of the few mosques in Britain permitted to broadcast calls to prayer (azan), the mosque soon found itself at the center of a public debate about "noise pollution" when local non-Muslim residents began to protest.
ONS_ReligionOccupationXLSX was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).The right-wing campaign group, which claims to be taking a stand against what it sees as the rise of radical Islam in England, had planned to march through the streets of Bradford on 28 August.
A little-known nationalist group calling itself the English Defence League met in the town centre to protest against what they see as Islamic militancy in Britain
