Islam arrived inKerala, theMalayalam-speaking region in the south-western tip of India, through Middle Eastern merchants.[8][9] The Indian coast has an ancient relation with West Asia and the Middle East, even during the pre-Islamic period.
Kerala Muslims or Malayali Muslims from north Kerala are generally referred to asMappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.[10] According to historianM. G. S. Narayanan and other scholars, the early members of Muslim Mappila community originated from the descendants of children born to non muslim Arab traders and native women along the Malabar coast, before Islam.[11] These early individuals were referred to as ma-ppila, as they did not belong to any existing caste group. Arab traders often stayed on the Malabar coast for extended periods, sometimes up to three months, while waiting for the reverse monsoon winds, during which some formed temporary relationships with local women, often in exchange for money.[12] The offspring of such unions were not accepted into any Hindu caste and came to be known as ma-ppila.
After the rise of Islam in Arabia, many among these mappilas embraced the new faith. However, the majority of present-day Mappilas estimated to constitute around 90 percent are considered descendants of lower-caste Hindus, mainly Dalits, who converted to Islam at a later stage to escape caste based oppression.[13] Conversion to non-Hindu religions offered them social freedom, as the Brahmanical order did not define how such converts should be treated. Scholars note that these conversions were motivated primarily by the desire for social emancipation rather than by theological comparison between the Bhagavad Gita and the Qur’an.[14]
Even after India’s independence, the practice known asArabikalyanam (“Arab marriage”) remained prevalent in the districts of Kasaragod, Kannur, Kozhikode, and Malappuram, where visiting Arabs offered money or wealth in exchange for temporary marriages with Mappila women.[15][16] Several Mappila families in Kozhikode and Malappuram accumulated considerable wealth through these arrangements.[12].[8][9] As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from Kerala (formerMalabar District) of different origins.[17][10] Some were called 'Moors' in Kasargod district.[18] Unlike the common misconception, thecaste system does exist among the Muslims of Kerala.[19] Muslims in Malabar are also known asJonakar (similar to Tamil name – சோனகர்,Cōṉakar – forSri Lankan Moors),Koya, andKaka (meaning “crow,” referring to its characteristics).[20] During the colonial period, an unusual practice called Hal-ilakkam (running amok) was reportedly common among the Mappilas ofMalappuram, in which a priest would select a mentally disturbed or emotionally vulnerable person, such as someone whose wife had been abducted, to incite him into attacking non-Muslims as a means of regaining his lost honour. This practice is described in detail by Lance Corporal Vincent J. Ryder of theCheshire Regiment, in his 1907 book 'Two Years in Malabar'.[21][22][23] The Muslims of Southern and Central Kerala or the erstwhile Kingdom of Travancore are known asMethanmar andRowthers.
Muslims in Kerala share a common language (Malayalam) with the rest of the non-Muslim population and have a culture commonly regarded as the Malayali culture.[24][25][1][8] Most of the Muslims in Kerala followSunni Islam ofShāfiʿī School of thought. Kerala's Muslim community has a higherTotal Fertility Rate (TFR) compared to other religious groups in the state, with a TFR of 2.25, nearly double that of other religious groups in Kerala. If a typicalHindu family has 2 children, a typical Muslim family in Kerala, based on the TFR ratio, would have around 3 children.[26][27][28][10]
History
Mappilas of Malabar 1914Silk Road trade routes. The spice trade was mainly by water (blue).Names, routes and locations of thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE)
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according toSumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".[29][30]: 79 Kerala's spices attracted ancientArabs,Babylonians,Assyrians andEgyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE.Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period.[31]Arabs andPhoenicians were the first to enterMalabar Coast to tradeSpices.[31] The Arabs on the coasts ofYemen,Oman, and thePersian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and othereastern countries.[31] They must have brought theCinnamon of Kerala to theMiddle East.[31] The Greek historianHerodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.[31]
The known earliest mention aboutMuslims of Kerala is in theQuilon Syrian copper plates of 9th century CE, granted by the ruler ofKollam.[49] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerableMuslim population in theMalabar Coast. Arab writers such asAl-Masudi ofBaghdad (896–956 AD),Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 AD),Abulfeda (1273–1331 AD), andAl-Dimashqi (1256–1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.[50] Some historians assume that theMappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community inSouth Asia.[43][51]Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) appears to be the first writer to callMalabar Coast asMalabar.[52] Authors such asIbn Khordadbeh andAl-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.[53] The Arab writers had called this placeMalibar,Manibar,Mulibar, andMunibar.Malabar is reminiscent of the wordMalanad which meansthe land of hills.[3] According toWilliam Logan, the wordMalabar comes from a combination of theDravidian wordMala (hill) and thePersian/Arabic wordBarr (country/continent).[3] TheKodungallur Mosque, has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style.[53] TheArabic inscription on a copper slab within theMadayi Mosque inKannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.[54][48][53]
The monopoly of overseas spice trade fromMalabar Coast was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports.[55] The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in theHindu royal courts.[56][55] Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.[8] Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.[9][17] The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains anOld Malayalam inscription written in a mixture ofVatteluttu andGrantha scripts which dates back to 10th century CE.[57] It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by aHindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to theMuslims of Kerala.[57] A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam andArabic, atMuchundi Mosque inKozhikode mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.[58]
TheMoroccan travellerIbn Battutah (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.[2] By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak ofCalicut (Kozhikode) as the major port city in Kerala.[17] Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom ofZamorin of Calicut, such as that of the port commissioner, were held byMuslims.[59] The port commissioner, theShah Bandar, represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Battutah mentions Shah Bandars inCalicut as well asQuilon (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar).[2][59] TheAli Rajas ofArakkal kingdom, based atKannur, ruled theLakshadweep Islands.[52]Arabs had the monopoly of trade inMalabar Coast andIndian Ocean until thePortugueseAge of Discovery.[52] The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean.[17][9]
The arrival of thePortuguese explorers in the late 15th century checked the then well-established and wealthy Muslim community's progress.[60] Following the discovery of sea route fromEurope toKozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas betweenOrmus and theMalabar Coast and south toCeylon.[61][62] TheTuhfat Ul Mujahideen written byZainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) ofPonnani during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written inArabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy ofKunjali Marakkar alongside theZamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonizeMalabar coast.[63] It was first printed and published inLisbon. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library ofAl-Azhar University,Cairo.[64][65][66]Tuhfatul Mujahideen also describes the history ofMappilaMuslim community of Kerala as well as the general condition ofMalabar Coast in the 16th century CE.[64] With the end ofPortuguese era,Arabs lost their monopoly of trade inMalabar Coast.[52] As the Portuguese tried to establish monopoly in spice trade, bitter naval battles with the zamorin ruler of Calicut became a common sight.[67][68] The Portuguese naval forces attacked and looted the Muslim dominated port towns in the Kerala.[69][70] Ships containing trading goods were drowned, often along with the crew. This activities, in the long run, resulted in the Muslims losing control of the spice trade they had dominated for more than five hundred years. Historians note that in the post-Portuguese period, once-rich Muslim traders turned inland (southern interior Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce.[60]
By the mid-18th century the majority of the Muslims of Kerala were landless labourers, poor fishermen and petty traders, and the community was in "a psychological retreat".[60] The community tried to reverse the trend during theMysore invasion of Malabar District (late 18th century).[71] The victory of theEnglish East India Company and princely Hindu confederacy in 1792 over the Kingdom of Mysore placed the Muslims once again in economical and cultural subjection.[60][72] The subsequent partisan rule of British authorities throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries brought the landless Muslim peasants of Malabar District into a condition of destitution, and this led to a series of uprisings (against the Hindu landlords and British administration). The series of violence eventually exploded as theMappila Uprising (1921–22).[60][73][24][74] The Muslim material strength - along with modern education, theological reform, and active participation in democratic process - recovered slowly after the 1921-22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in state and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Muslim literacy rate was only 5% in 1931.[9]
A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in thePersian Gulf countries in the following years (c. 1970s). This widespread participation in the "Gulf Rush" produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. A great influx of funds from the earnings of the employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment, and educational backwardness began to change.[8] The Muslims in Kerala are now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change, and positive involvement in the modern world. Malayali Muslim women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles.[9]University of Calicut, with the former Malabar District being its major catchment area, was established in 1968.[75]Calicut International Airport, currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988.[76][77] AnIndian Institute of Management (IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996.[78]
Demography
The last Indian Census was conducted in 2011. According to the2011 Census of India, the district-wise distribution of the Muslim population is as shown below:[79]
Most of the Muslims of Kerala followSunni Islam ofShāfiʿī school of religious law (known in Kerala as the traditionalist 'Sunnis') while a large minority follow modern movements that developed withinSunni Islam.[8][9] The latter section consists of majoritySalafists (the Mujahids) and the minorityIslamists. Both the traditional Sunnis and Mujahids again have been divided to sub-identities.[80][8][9]
Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama'at – Head Quarters ofAhmadiyya Muslim Community in Kerala is located at Baitul Quddoos,[82] G.H Road Kozhikode (Calicut).Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.
Communities
Mappilas: The largest community among the Muslims of Kerala.[10] As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from north Kerala (former Malabar District) of different ethnic origins. In south Kerala Malayali Muslims are not called Mappilas.[10]
A Mappila is either,
A descendant of any native convert[83]) to Islam[10][84] (or)
A descendant of a marriage alliance between aMiddle Eastern individual and a native low caste woman[10][85]
The term Mappila is still in use in Malayalam to mean "bridegroom" or "son-in-law".[10]
Pusalans: Mostly converts from theMukkuvan caste. Formerly a low status group among the Muslims of Kerala.[86] The other Mappilas used call them "Kadappurattukar", while themselves were known as "Angadikkar". The Kadappurattukar were divided into two endogamous groups on the basis of their occupation, "Valakkar" and "Bepukar". The Bepukar were considered superior to Valakkar.[10]
In addition to the two endogamous groups there were other service castes like "Kabaru Kilakkunnavar", "Alakkukar", and "Ossans" in Pusalan settlements. Ossan occupied the lowest position in the old hierarchy.[10]
Ossans: the Ossans were the traditional barbers among the Muslims of Kerala. Formed the lowest rank in the old hierarchy, and were an indispensable part of the village community of Muslims of Kerala.[10]
Thangals (theSayyids): Claiming descent from the family ofMuhammed. People who had migrated from Middle East. Elders of a number of widely respectedThangal families often served as the focal point of the Muslim community in old Malabar District.[10]
Vattakkolis (the Bhatkalis) orNavayats: ancient community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, originally settled at Bhatkal, Uttara Kannada. Speaks Navayati language. Once distributed in the towns of northern Kerala as a mercantile community. They are mainly distributed in the Northern parts of Malabar borderingKarnataka.[10]
Nahas: The origin of the name Naha is supposed to be a transformation of "nakhuda" which means captain of ship. Community concentrated mainly inParappanangadi, south of Kozhikode who trace their origins toPersian ship owners.[10][88]
Marakkars: once multilingual maritime trading community settled in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, the Palk Strait and Sri Lanka. The most famous of the Marakkar were "Kunjali Marakkars", or the naval captains of theZamorin of Calicut. The Muslims of pure Middle Eastern descent held themselves superior to Marakkars.[10]
Koyas: Muslim community, in the city of Kozhikode forming a significant majority in Kozhikode and its adjoining areas. May be ofOmani origin. It is said that the name is a corruption of “Khawaja”. Held administrative positions in the Kozhikode court of the zamorins.[10][90]
Kurikkals: a community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, settled aroundManjeri in Malappuram District.The family was first settled in Mavvancheri in North Malabar and moved to Manjeri in the beginning of the 16th century. Many of the members of the family served as instructor in the use of fire-arms in the employ of various chiefs of Malabar.[10]
Nainars: a community of Tamil origin. Settled only inCochin,Mattanchery,Fort Kochi andKodungallur. It is believed that the Nainars first settled in Kerala in the 15th century, entering into contract for certain works with the chiefs of Cochin.[10]
Dakhnis or Pathans: "Dakhni" speaking community. Migrated as cavalry men under various chiefs, especially in South Travancore. Some of them came South India along with the invasion of the Coromandel by theKhaljis. Many of the Dakhnis had also come as traders and businessmen.[10]
Kutchi Memons: They are aKutchi speaking Gujarati ethnic group from theKutch region. They are descended from theLohana community among Gujarati Hindus.They were mainly traders who had migrated to Central Kerala with the other Gujarati traders.[91][92]
Beary/Byary: Muslims: community Stretching along the Tulunadu region. In Kerala they inhabits the coastal area of Kasargod district.They speak their own tongue which is calledBeary language. They are originally mercantile community, hece the name 'beary', from the Sanskrit word 'Vyapari'(merchant).
Mappila Songs (or Mappila Poems) is a famousfolklore tradition emerged inc. 16th century. The ballads are compiled in complex blend of Dravidian (Malayalam/Tamil) and Arabic, Persian/Urdu in a modified Arabic script.[94] Mappila songs have a distinct cultural identity, as they sound a mix of the ethos and culture of Dravidian South India as well as West Asia. They deal with themes such as religion, satire, romance, heroism, and politics. Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1875–91) is generally considered as the poet laureate of Mappila Songs.[9]
As the modern Malayali Muslim literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field.[9]
Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Kerala Muslim authors of the modern age.[9] Muslim periodical literature and newspaper dailies – all in Malayalam – are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "Chandrika", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Muslim community.[9]
Kerala Muslim folk arts
Oppana was a popular form of social entertainment. It was generally performed by a group of women, as a part of wedding ceremonies a day before the wedding day. The bride, dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments, is the chief "spectator"; she sits on a pitham, around which the singing and dancing take place. While the women sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride in steps.
Kolkkali was a dance form popular among the Muslims. It was performed by a group of dozen young men with two sticks, similar to theDandiya dance of Gujarat in Western India.
Duff Muttu[95] (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims, using the traditional duff, ordaf, also called tappitta. Performers dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff.
Arabana muttu was an art form named after thearavana, a hand-held, one-sided flat tambourine or drumlike musical instrument. It is made of wood and animal skin, similar to the duff but a little thinner and bigger.
Muttum Viliyum was a traditional orchestral musical performance. It is basically the confluence of three musical instruments—kuzhal, chenda and cheriya chenda. Muttum Viliyum is also known by the name "Cheenimuttu".
Vattappattu was an art form once performed in the Malabar region on the eve of the wedding. It was traditionally performed by a group of men from the groom’s side with the putiyappila (the groom) sitting in the middle.
TheMappila cuisine is a blend of traditionalKerala,Persian,Yemenese andArab food culture.[96] This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes.[96]Kallummakkaya (mussels)curry,irachi puttu (irachi meaning meat),parottas (soft flatbread),[96]Pathiri (a type of rice pancake)[96] andghee rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—black pepper,cardamom andclove are used profusely.
TheMalabar version ofbiryani, popularly known askuzhi mandi inMalayalam is another popular item, which has an influence fromYemen. Various varieties ofbiriyanis likeThalasserybiriyani, Kannurbiriyani,[97] Kozhikodebiriyani[98] and Ponnanibiriyani[99] are prepared by the Mappila community.[96]
According to K. Mohammed Basheer, Kerala has one of the oldestmadrasa (Malayalam:othupalli / Palli Dar) education systems in India which has been reformed in modern times to include non-religious and religious subjects.[102] Muslim communities, specificallyMappilas, form literate communities amongst Muslims in India. Historically, madrasas used to impart primary education about the mosque and theimams in it. Madrasas were non-residential, whilst residential facilities supported by mosques and the Muslim village community were calledPalli Dar.[102] During theBritish colonisation of India, madrasas were upgraded to centres of primary education. Post-independence, madrasas hold religious education classes before or after regular schools.[102] The All Kerala Islamic Education Board were the first organization to conduct centralized examinations; subsequently, different schools of Islamic beliefs came forward to form their own Islamic education boards to train teachers and conduct centralized examinations: the Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidyabhyasa Board (SKIMVB), the Dakshiana Kerala Islam Matha Vidyabhyasa Board (DKIMVB), the Samastha Kerala Sunni Vidyabhyasa Board (SKSVB) and the Samastha Kerala Islamic Education Board (SKIEB). They are all grounded inAhl as-Sunnah, whereas the Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen Vidyabhyasa Board (KNM) and The Council for Islamic Education and Research (CIER) are rooted inAhl-i Hadith. The Majlis alTa'alim al Islami Kerala (Majlis) representJamaat-e-Islami.[102]
Although the Kerala government does not have its own centralizing Madrasa board, Kerala madrasas affiliate themselves to various madrasa boards backed by various religious institutions, based on different ideologies. Among them, the Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidyabhyasa Board (SKIMVB) is the largest, with 80 percent of madrasa stating they are connected to Kerala.[102]
Since the 20th century, Arabic language classes have been implemented in Kerala for advanced religious education.[102]
P. Shabna & K. Kalpana (2022) Re-making the self: Discourses of ideal Islamic womanhood in Kerala, Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 28:1, 24-43,doi:10.1080/12259276.2021.2010907
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^Gulf Dream: For Indians The Golden Beaches Still gleam,Malayala Manorama Yearbook 1990;
^Muhammed, Hedayuthabdulla (January 2009).kabir:The Apposaitle of Hindu Muslim Unity. Motilal Banarasidess. p. 47.ISBN9788120833739.
^Fuller, C. J. (March 1976). "Kerala Christians and the Caste System".Man. New Series.11 (1). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland:53–70.doi:10.2307/2800388.JSTOR2800388.
^P. P., Razak Abdul "Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of muslims of Malabar" Unpublished PhD thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicut[4]
^abcdefgBasheer, K. Mohammed (2016).Quality enhancement in Madrasa education : an exploratory study. Newcastle upon Tyne. p. 18.ISBN978-1-4438-5685-0.OCLC966288166.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Muhsin, S. M. . (2021).Three Fatwas on Marriage in South India (Tiga Fatwa Perkahwinan di India Selatan).Journal of Islam in Asia (E-ISSN 2289-8077),18(1), 251–282. https://doi.org/10.31436/jia.v18i1.1045
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