In Arabic,Islam (Arabic:إسلام,lit. 'submission [to God]')[21][22][23] is the verbal noun ofForm IV originating from the verbسلم (salama), from thetriliteral rootس-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.[24] In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will ofGod.[25] AMuslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam,[26] is theactive participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". However,Quranic studies scholarMohsen Goudarzi has argued that in the Quran the worddīn means "worship", theislām means "monotheism" and themuslim means "monotheist".[27] In theHadith of Gabriel,Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includesimān (faith), andihsān (excellence).[28][29]
Islam itself was historically calledMohammedanism in theEnglish-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to beoffensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.[30]
The central concept of Islam istawḥīd (Arabic:توحيد), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as aprecisemonotheism, but is alsopanentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings.[32][33] God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in theChristian Trinity, and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen asidolatory, calledshirk. Thus, Muslims are noticonodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by severalnames or attributes, the most common beingAr-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", andAr-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.[34][35]
Islam teaches that the creation of everything in theuniverse was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is,"[i][21] and that thepurpose of existence is to worship God.[36] He is viewed as a personal god[21] and there are no intermediaries, such asclergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to asTaqwa.Allāh is a term with noplural orgender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereasʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.[37]
Angels (singular: Arabic:ملك,malak) are beings described in the Quran[38] and hadith.[39] They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicatingrevelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person'ssoul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (nūr)[40][41][42] or 'fire' (nār).[43][44][45][46] Islamic angels are often represented inanthropomorphic forms combined withsupernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.[47][48][49][50] Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking.[51] Some of them, such asGabriel (Jibrīl) andMichael (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about theMi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.[39] Further angels have often been featured inIslamic eschatology,theology andphilosophy.[52]
The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is theQuran. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through thearchangel Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE[53][54] and 632, the year Muhammad died.[55] While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down byhis companions, although the primary method of transmission was orally throughmemorization.[56] The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (sūrah) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed atMecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the laterMedinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.[21][57] Muslim jurists consult thehadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known astafsir.[58][59] In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work inArabic literature,[60][61] and has influenced art and the Arabic language.[62]
Prophets (Arabic:أنبياء,anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول,rasūl).[70] Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures consideredprophets in Islam, includingAdam,Noah,Abraham,Moses,David in Islam andJesus, among others.[21][71] The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in theQisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets).
Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the completed message of Islam.[72][73] In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called thesunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.[74][75][76][77] This example is preserved in traditions known ashadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics.Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, calledsanad, and the actual wording, calledmatn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح,ṣaḥīḥ); "good" (حسن,ḥasan); or "weak" (ضعيف,ḍaʻīf), among others. TheKutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports inSunni Islam. Among them isSahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the mostauthentic sources after the Quran.[78] Another well-known source of hadiths is known asThe Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[79][80]
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" orYawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic:يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time ofQiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries ofscholars, describe the trials andtribulations preceding and during theQiyāmah. The Quran emphasizesbodily resurrection, a break from thepre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[81][82][83]
On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned toJannah (paradise) orJahannam (hell).[84] The Quran inSurat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quranlists several sins that can condemn a person tohell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals[85] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[86][87][88]Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran asYawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion");[ii]as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour");[iii] andal-Qāriʿah (القارعة "The Clatterer").[iv]
The concept of divine predestination in Islam (Arabic:القضاء والقدر,al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God.Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".[89][90][91][92] Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase"In-sha-Allah" (Arabic:إن شاء الله) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.[93]
There are five acts of worship that are consideredduties–theShahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers,Zakat (almsgiving),fasting during Ramadan, and theHajj pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām).[94] In addition, Muslims also perform other optionalsupererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.[95]
Declaration of faith
Silver coin of theMughal EmperorAkbar, c. 16th century, inscribed with theShahadah
Theshahadah[96] is anoath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is nodeity exceptGod and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."[97] Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing toconvert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.[98][99]
Prayer in Islam, calledas-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic:الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units calledrakat that includebowing andprostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed inthe direction of theKaaba. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routinewudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, aghusl full body ritual wash.[100][101][102][103]
Amosque is aplace of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic namemasjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social centre for theMuslim community. For example, theMasjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina,Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.[104]Minarets are towers used to call theadhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.[105][106]
Zakat (Arabic:زكاة,zakāh), also spelledZakāt orZakah, is a type ofalmsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)[107] ofaccumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those indebt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form ofwelfare in Muslim societies.[108] It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,[109] and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.[110] The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.[111]Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.[112][113] Awaqf is a perpetualcharitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.[114]
Fasting
A fast-breaking feast, known asIftar, is served traditionally withdates.
In Islam, fasting (Arabic:صوم,ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such assmoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month ofRamadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.[115] The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as theDay of Arafah, when fasting is optional.[116]
The Islamicpilgrimage, called theḥajj (Arabic:حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during theIslamic month ofDhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family ofAbraham. InMecca, pilgrims walk seven times around theKaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between MountSafa and Marwa, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife,Hagar, who was looking for water for her babyIshmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[117][118][119] The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain ofMount Arafat as well as symbolicallystoning the Devil.[120] All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth calledihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.[121][122] Another form of pilgrimage,Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage areMedina, where Muhammad died, as well asJerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site ofAl-Aqsa, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.[123][124]
Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue.Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the properelocution of the Quran.[125] Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.[126] One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.[127]
Supplication to God, called in Arabicduʿāʾ (Arabic:دعاءIPA:[dʊˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such asraising hands as if begging.[128]
Remembrance of God (ذكر,Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaringpraise be due to God (الحمد لله,al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful,Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (بسملة,basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.[129]
A 2004 panoramic view ofAl-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) inMedina,Hejaz region, present-daySaudi Arabia. It is considered the second most sacred mosque in Islam
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born inMecca in570CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "trusted one" (Arabic:الامين) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswomanKhadija.[130] In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to theCave of Hira in the mountainJabal al-Nour, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to havereceived the first revelation of theQuran from the angelGabriel.[53] The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last orseal of the prophets sent to mankind.[63][64][131]
After 12 years of thepersecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and hiscompanions performed theHijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). He established thefirst Islamic state there with the Medinan converts (theAnsar) and the Meccan migrants (theMuhajirun). TheConstitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.[136] Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at theBattle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in theBattle of Uhud[137] before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in theBattle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, theTreaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.[138][139] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodlessconquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united thetribes of Arabia into a single religiouspolity.[53]
Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, calledCaliphs –Abu Bakr,Umar,Uthman ibn al-Affan,Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimesHasan ibn Ali[140] – are known in Sunni Islam asal-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs").[141] Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in theRidda wars.[142][143][144][145][146] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their[ambiguous] lands,[147] resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into thePersian andByzantine empires.[148][149][150][151] Uthmanwas elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In theFirst Civil War, Muhammad's widow,Aisha, raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at theBattle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria,Mu'awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in theBattle of Siffin. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered theKharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in theBattle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed apeace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.[152] Mu'awiya began theUmayyad dynasty with the appointment of his sonYazid I as successor, sparking theSecond Civil War. During theBattle of Karbala,Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has beenannually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led byIbn al-Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in thesiege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to theSunni-Shia schism,[153] with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called theahl al-bayt.[154]Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The CaliphUmar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee,The Seven Fuqaha of Medina,[155][156] andMalik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, theMuwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[157][158][159] TheKharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such asISIS.[160] TheMurji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.[161] This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.[162]
The Umayyad dynasty conquered theMaghreb, theIberian Peninsula,Narbonnese Gaul andSindh.[163] The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.[164] Since thejizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.[162] While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,[165] Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.[162] The Kharijites led theBerber Revolt, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In theAbbasid Revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.[166][167]
Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[168] During the early Abbasid era, scholars such asMuhammad al-Bukhari andMuslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the majorSunni hadith collections while scholars likeAl-Kulayni andIbn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four SunniMadh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings ofAbū Ḥanīfa,Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas andal-Shafi'i. In contrast, the teachings ofJa'far al-Sadiq formed theJa'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century,Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, theTafsir al-Tabari, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such asHasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve intotasawwuf orSufism.[169][170]
At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and thedevil.[171][b] Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known asMuʿtazila, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated byWasil ibn Ata.[173] CaliphMamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.[174] CaliphAl-Mu'tasim carried outinquisitions, with the traditionalistAhmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran wascreated rather than being eternal, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.[175] However, otherschools ofspeculative theology –Māturīdism founded byAbu Mansur al-Maturidi andAsh'ari founded byAl-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such asAl-Farabi,Avicenna andAverroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to laterscholasticism withinChristianity in Europe andMaimonides' work within Judaism, while others likeAl-Ghazali argued against suchsyncretism and ultimately prevailed.[176][177]
The eye, according toHunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated c. 1200
Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as theTulunids in 868 in Egypt[202] and theGhaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia.[203] In this fragmentation came theShi'a Century, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of themillennialistIsma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, theFatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century[204] and another Isma'ili group, theQarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole theBlack Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.[205] Yet another Isma'ili group, theBuyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned toreassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known asNezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali andSaadi Shirazi.[206]
The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. Asymbiosis betweenOttoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. TheMevlevi Order and theBektashis had a close relation to the sultans,[228] as Sufi-mystical as well asheterodox andsyncretic approaches to Islam flourished.[229] The often forcefulSafavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of theTwelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.[230]Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifthmadhhab, called Ja'farism,[231] which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[232]
Earlier in the 14th century,Ibn Taymiyya promoted apuritanical form of Islam,[233] rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology,[233] and called to open the gates ofitjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars.[234] He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,[235] but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.[236] During the 18th century in Arabia,Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya andIbn al-Qayyim, founded a movement calledWahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.[237][238] He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as laterinnovations and sinful[238][239] and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, thetombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.[239][240][241] He formed an alliance with theSaud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would becomeSaudi Arabia.[239][242]Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such asSailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.[243] Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with theSenusiyya andMuhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.[244][page needed] In India,Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced theDeobandi movement.[245] In response to the Deobandi movement, theBarelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popularSufism and reforming its practices.[246][247]
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[261] Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to theMuslim population in Latin America.[262] The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,[263] likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[264]
Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as theMuslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world,[265][266] which performed well in elections following theArab Spring,[267]Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and theAK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. InIran,revolution replaced asecular monarchy with anIslamic state. Others such asSayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists[268] and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.[269] The groupIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away werequietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.[270]
In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried outcoups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.[271][272] In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship[273] and, in Egypt, the state nationalizedAl-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power.[274] Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.[275] Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.[276]
Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.[277] This has been undertaken by communist forces like theKhmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,[278] theChinese Communist Party inXinjiang[279] and by nationalist forces such as during theBosnian genocide.[280] Myanmar military'sTatmadaw targeting ofRohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,[281][282] while theOHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identifiedgenocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.[283]
The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of thehijab has grown more common[284] and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.[285] Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such asAmr Khaled, who compete with the traditionalulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.[286][287] More "individualized" interpretations of Islam[288] notably involveLiberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,[289][290] an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.[291][292] Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonialruling elites,[293] and is frequently understood to be equivalent toanti-religion.[294]
World percentage of Muslims by country (2010)[295]: 234–245
As of 2020, about 25.6% of the global population, or about 2 billion people, are Muslims.[13][296][297][298][299][300] In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,[301] in 1990 it was 19.9%[263] and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.[295]: 8 A Pew study from 2020 found that the global Muslim population was the fastest-growing religious group over the decade, mainly because Muslims tend to be younger on average and have higher birth rates—two key factors driving natural population growth.[302]: 9
Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people whobecome Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."[321] Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly fromSub Saharan Africa (2.9 million).[322][323] According to a 2020 Pew study, about 1% of adults raised Muslim leave the faith, while an equal proportion —about 1%— convert to Islam from other religions, resulting in low levels of religious switching both into and out of Islam.[324]Ex-Muslims are more likely to convert to another religion than to become Irreligious.[13]
According to a report byCNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".[325]In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.[326] According toThe Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them beingwomen andAfrican-Americans.[327][328]
By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that ofChristianity.[329][295]: 14 It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and highfertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."[295]: 70
Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.[330][331][332] The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of thesunna (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community".[333] Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",[334][335][336] though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive.[337] Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily referencesix major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence:Hanafi,Hanbali,Maliki orShafi'i.[338][339]
Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated byAhmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to atextualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, calledkalam, in religious and ethical matters.[340]Maturidism, founded byAbu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and thatgood andevil can be understood by reason alone,[341] but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension.Ash'arism, founded byAl-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.[342]
Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led aSalafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[343] A similar movement calledAhl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. TheNurcu Sunni movement was initiated bySaid Nursi (1877–1960);[344] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.[344][345]
Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.[346][347][303] Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad'ssuccessor as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as theAhl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to asImams, have additional spiritual authority.[348][349] Shias are guided by theJa'fari school of jurisprudence.[350]
According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place atGhadir Khumm during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat.[351] Muhammad appointed his cousinAli as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as hisWali (authority).[352][353] Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) andImam (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of theMuslims because of someother companions who selectedAbū Bakr ascaliph.[354] Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor beforehis death and consider Abū Bakr to be the firstrightful caliph after Muhammad.[355] Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination,[356] citingUmar's appointment by Abu Bakr,[357] other historical evidence,[358] and theQur'an's stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.[359]
Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali andHusayn.[360]Twelvers, the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe inTwelve Imams, the last of whom went intooccultation to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in theHadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.[361]Zaydism rejects infallibility of Imams and were sometimes regarded a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.[362][363] They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers".[364] TheIsma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being theNizaris.[365]
Ibadism is the third-largest branch of Islam whose roots go back to theKharijite secession from the fourth Caliph, Ali.[367] It is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them inOman.[368] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the Kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as theJami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.[369]
An overview of the major sects andmadhahib of Islam
Alevism is asyncretic andheterodox local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī) teachings of Ali andHaji Bektash Veli.[379] Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,[380] with possible syncretist origins inShamanism andAnimism, alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.[381]
Mu'tazilism was an early Islamic theological school known for their use ofrationalism, particularly towards the two primary sources of Islam, theQur'an and thehadith.[387][388] The school was founded on five main principles: the monotheism (tawhid),divine justice, the certainty of divine promises and threats, an intermediate position regarding the status of great sinners, and the obligation to enjoin good and forbid evil.[388] Unlike the Sunnis, Mu'tazilite rejected the traditional view that the Qur'an was the uncreated word of God, and instead held that theQur'an was a created revelation, to affirm the absolute oneness of God.[389] Emphasizing the use of reason, they argued that humanfree will allowed individuals to choose between good and evil, making them responsible for their actions.[390] Although the Mu'tazila's influence waned due to social and political pressure from orthodox Sunnis, their rationalist legacy remains important inIslamic intellectualism.[391][392]
Non-denominational Muslims is anumbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specificIslamic denomination.[393][394] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[395][396][397] Pew Research reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion inKazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.[398]
Sufism (Arabic:تصوف,tasawwuf), is amystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a directpersonal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars definedtasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[399][400][401][402]Ahmad ibn Ajiba defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action [upon that knowledge], and its end is a gift [from Allah]."[403] It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations.Isma'ilism, whose teachings are rooted inGnosticism andNeoplatonism[404] as well as by theIlluminationist andIsfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.[405]Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,[406] emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such asMansur Al-Hallaj andJalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.[407][408]
Sufis seetasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam.[409] Traditional Sufis, such asBayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi,Haji Bektash Veli,Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.[410][409] HistorianNile Green argued that Islam in the medieval period was more or less Sufism.[411] Followers of the Sunnirevivalist movement known asSalafism have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration inSufi–Salafi relations.[412]
Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centred around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.[413] Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.[169] The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement orBarelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.[414][415][416] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[417][418] as well as in African countries likeTunisia,Algeria,Morocco,Senegal,Chad andNiger.[398][419]
Shariah is the body of Islamicreligious law.[338][420] The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of thetheory of law, calledfiqh.[421][422] Conversely,bid'ah is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion.[423] Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh orUsul al-fiqh, have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as amadhhab (Arabic:مذهب). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is calledtaqlid. The termghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[424] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is calledijtihad.[425][426] Those who interpret shariah are known asmuftis and their legal opinions are calledfatwas.[426][422]
The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah.[427] A common third source isqiyas (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find theillah, or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling.[428] For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks.[429][430] TheZahiri school adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion isijma, whileikhtilaf refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories calledahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).[426][422]
In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.[422] TheOttoman Empire's 19th centuryTanzimat reforms led to theMecelle civil code and represented the first attempt tocodify sharia.[253] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only inpersonal status (family) laws.[422] Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[422][431] TheIslamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls byIslamist movements for complete implementation of sharia.[422][431] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights,freedom of thought, andwomen's rights due to concerns inluding oncensorship andviolence.[432][433]
Islam has no clergy in thesacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people.Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.[434] Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training inIslamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called amuhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called afaqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions orfatwas is called amufti, and aqadi is an Islamic judge.Honorific titles given to scholars includesheikh,mullah andmawlawi. Some Muslims also veneratesaints associated withmiracles (كرامات,karāmāt).[435]
InIslamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thusmonopolistic behavior is frowned upon.[436] Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development ofIslamic banking. Islam prohibitsriba, usually translated asusury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to meaninterest.[437] Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling[438] and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.[439] The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known asBayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The firstCaliph,Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of aguaranteed minimum income, with each citizen getting 10 to 20dirhams annually.[440] During the reign of the second Caliph Umar,child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,[441][442] while the Umayyad CaliphUmar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.[443]
Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object ofdisapprobation".[444] Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritualself-perfection[445][446][447] while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.[448][449] When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.[444][445] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels,apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[448][449] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[450] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of ageneral mobilization.[449] For mostTwelver Shias,offensive jihad can only be declared by adivinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended sinceMuhammad al-Mahdi'soccultation in 868 CE.[451][452]
Many daily practices fall in the category ofadab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood andcarrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God andintoxicants, such asalcoholic drinks, are prohibited.[453] All meat must come from aherbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.[454][455][456] Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural[457] and body modifications, such aspermanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.[d][459] Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.[460]Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam[461] and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example,clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included thehijab for women. Similarly,personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.[462]
A Muslim couple
InIslamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr).[463][464][465] Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[466][467] Muslim men are allowed to practicepolygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in themarriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.[468][469] There are also cultural variations in weddings.[470]Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[471]
After the birth of a child, theadhan is pronounced in the right ear.[472] On the seventh day, theaqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[473] The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.[473] Malecircumcision, calledkhitan,[474] is often practised in the Muslim world.[475][476] Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.[477]
Adying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce theShahada as their last words.[478] Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. InIslamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate calledkafan.[479] A "funeral prayer" calledSalat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.[480]
The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such asfestivals anddress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[481] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[482] sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".[483]
TheIslamic calendar is alunar calendar that begins with theHijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.[490] Islamicholy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur indifferent seasons in different years in theGregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals areEid al-Fitr (Arabic:عيد الفطر) on the 1st ofShawwal, marking the end of the fasting monthRamadan, andEid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th ofDhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of theHajj (pilgrimage).[491][94]
Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.[492][493]
Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such asIbn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as aChristian heresy or a form ofidolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.[505]
Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise.Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in heaven in theGospel of Matthew. Catholic theologianAugustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.[506]
Defamatory images ofMuhammad, derived from early 7th-century depictions of theByzantine Church,[508] appear in the 14th-century epic poemDivine Comedy byDante Alighieri.[509] Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad ofschism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.[509]
^"Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.[172]
^"In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.[216]
^Some Muslims in dynastic era China resistedfootbinding of girls for the same reason.[458]
^Welch, Alford T.; Moussalli, Ahmad S.; Newby, Gordon D. (2009)."Muḥammad". In Esposito, John L. (ed.).The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017.
^abZ. Mir-Hosseini, "Inner Truth and Outer History: The Two Worlds of the Ahl-e Haqq of Kurdistan",International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.26, 1994, p.267–268
^Introvigne, Massimo; Kotkowska, Karolina Maria (10 May 2024). "The Ahmadi Religion of Peace and Light: An Introduction".The Journal of CESNUR.8 (3):33–51.doi:10.26338/tjoc.2024.8.3.2.ISSN2532-2990.
^*Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures. Marshall Cavendish Reference. 2010. p. 130.ISBN978-0-7614-7926-0. Retrieved30 November 2019.Within the Muslim community, the percentage of Sunnis is generally thought to be between 85 percent, with the Shia accounting for 15.5 percent and with the wahabis controlling 5 percent, although some sources estimate their numbers at 20 percent. A common compromise figure ranks Sunnis at 90 percent and Shias at 10 percent.
"Quick guide: Sunnis and Shias".BBC News. 6 December 2011. Retrieved30 November 2019.The great majority of the world's more than 1.5 billion Muslims are Sunnis – estimates suggest the figure is somewhere between 85% and 90%.
Riaz Hassan (2008).Inside Muslim Minds. Melbourne University Press. p. 20.ISBN9780522854817.Approximately 20 per cent of the world's Muslims belong to the Shi'ah sect; around 80 per cent are Sunni Muslims.
David Robertson (2002).A Dictionary of Modern Politics (Third ed.). Europa Publications. p. 252.ISBN1-85743-093-X.It is notable that while a large majority, probably 80%, of the world's Muslims are Sunni...
"Shiʿi".Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 October 2019. Retrieved30 September 2019.In the early 21st century some 10–13 percent of the world's 1.6 billion Muslims were Shiʿi.
"Shia". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived fromthe original on 15 December 2012. Retrieved5 December 2011.Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide...
Jalil Roshandel (2011).Iran, Israel and the United States. Praeger Security International. p. 15.ISBN9780313386985.The majority of the world's Islamic population, which is Sunni, accounts for over 75 percent of the Islamic population; the other 10 to 20 percent is Shia.
^Gibb, Sir Hamilton (1969).Mohammedanism: an historical survey. Oxford University Press. p. 1.ISBN9780195002454.Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ.
^abRinggren, Helmer."Qurʾān".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved17 September 2021. "The wordQuran was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There aretwo different theories about this term and its formation."
^Jones, Alan (1994).The Koran. London:Charles E. Tuttle Company. p. 1.ISBN1842126091.Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence.
^Arberry, Arthur (1956).The Koran Interpreted. London:Allen & Unwin. p. 191.ISBN0684825074.It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." InThe Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-530513-5. (See also:quick referenceArchived 26 September 2020 at theWayback Machine.) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'"
^Awliya'i, Mustafa. "The Four BooksArchived 12 September 2017 at theWayback Machine." InOutlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – viaAl-Islam.org. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^Cohen-Mor (2001), p. 4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."
^Karamustafa, Ahmet T. "Fate". InMcAuliffe (n.d.).: The verbqadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
^Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, US: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44–66.https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003Archived 28 December 2023 at theWayback Machine
^Mattson, Ingrid (2006)."Women, Islam, and Mosques". In R. S. Keller and R. R. Ruether (eds.).Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America. Volume 2, Part VII. Islam. Bloomington and Indianapolis:Indiana University Press. pp. 615–629.ISBN978-0-253-34687-2.Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved2 October 2021.
^Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand,J. Burton-Page, et al. 2010. "Masd̲j̲id."Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden:Brill. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^Esposito (2010), p. 109–110: This is not regarded as charity because it is not really voluntary but instead is owed, by those who have received their wealth as a trust from God's bounty, to the poor.
^Ridgeon, Lloyd (2003).Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present. United Kingdom: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 258.ISBN9780415297967.Aside from its function of purifying believers' wealth, the payment of zakat may have contributed in no small way to the economic welfare of the Muslim community in Mecca.
^Omar HamdanStudien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006ISBN978-3447053495 pp. 291–292 (German)
^Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.
^David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
^Toomer, G. J. (December 1964). "Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963)Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik".Isis.55 (4): 464.JSTOR228328.Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.
^Koetsier, Teun (May 2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators".Mechanism and Machine Theory.36 (5):589–603.doi:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2.
^Katz, Victor J.; Barton, Bill (18 September 2007). "Stages in the History of Algebra with Implications for Teaching".Educational Studies in Mathematics.66 (2):185–201.doi:10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7.S2CID120363574.
^abBrague, Rémi (2009).The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. University of Chicago Press. p. 164.ISBN9780226070803.Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Almost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.
^Hill, Donald.Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press.ISBN0-7486-0455-3, p.4
^Lipman, Jonathan Newman (1997).Familiar Strangers, a history of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. p. 33.ISBN978-0-295-97644-0.
^Nicolas LaosThe Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and PoliticsWipf and Stock Publishers 2015ISBN978-1-4982-0102-5 p. 177
^Lauziere, Henri (2016).The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. New York, Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. pp. 231–232.ISBN978-0-231-17550-0.Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals.
^Doran, Michael (1999).Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian power politics and the Palestine question. Studies in Middle Eastern history. New York Oxford: Oxford university press.ISBN978-0-19-512361-6.
^Landau, Yaʿaqov M. (1994).The politics of Pan-Islam: ideology and organization ([Rev. and updated] paperback (with additions and corr.) ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.ISBN978-0-19-827709-5.
^Lauziere, Henri (2016).The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. New York, Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. p. 237.ISBN978-0-231-17550-0.Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations.
^G. Rabil, Robert (2014).Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism. Washington DC, US: Georgetown University Press. pp. 32–33.ISBN978-1-62616-116-0.Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,..
^Bowering, Gerhard; Mirza, Mahan; Crone, Patricia (2013).The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 59.ISBN9780691134840.
^Adams, Charles J. (1983). "Maududi and the Islamic State". In Esposito, John L. (ed.).Voices of Resurgent Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–4.[Maududi believed that] when religion is relegated to the personal realm, men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another. In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism.
^Meisami, Sayeh (2013)."'Abdolkarim Soroush".Oxford Bibliographies.Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved12 October 2021.
^Nader Hashemi (2009)."Secularism". In John L. Esposito (ed.).The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-530513-5.Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved7 August 2023.(subscription required)
^David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world, Vol. 1: The world by countries: religionists, churches, ministries 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 4.
^Conrad Hackett; Marcin Stonawski; Yunping Tong; Stephanie Kramer; Anne Shi; Dalia Fahmy (9 June 2025)."How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020"(PDF).Pew Research Center. p. 9. Retrieved10 June 2025.Increases in the global Muslim population are largely due to Muslims having a relatively young age structure and high fertility rate, two characteristics that result in natural population growth.
^Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013).Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana,Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 1.ISBN978-93-83064-41-0..
^"Conversion".The Future of the Global Muslim Population (Report). Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011.Archived from the original on 24 December 2018. Retrieved12 May 2020.there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith
^Conrad Hackett; Marcin Stonawski; Yunping Tong; Stephanie Kramer; Anne Shi; Dalia Fahmy (9 June 2025)."How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020"(PDF).Pew Research Center. p. 39. Retrieved10 June 2025.Muslims and Hindus have been the least likely to gain or lose adherents from religious switching. About one in every 100 adults raised Muslim (or Hindu) has left their childhood religion, and a similar number from a different religious category have switched into Islam (or Hinduism).
^Esposito, John L., ed. (2014)."Sunni Islam".The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived fromthe original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved10 January 2010.
^Yavuz, Yusuf Şevki (1994)."Ahl as-Sunnah".Islam Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Vol. 10. Istanbul: Turkish Diyanet Foundation. pp. 525–530.Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved28 December 2021.
^John Richard Thackrah (2013).Dictionary of Terrorism (2, revised ed.). Routledge. p. 252.ISBN978-1135165956.
^Nasir, Jamal J., ed. (2009).The Status of Women Under Islamic Law and Modern Islamic Legislation (revised ed.). Brill. p. 11.ISBN978-9004172739.
^George W. Braswell (2000).What You Need to Know about Islam & Muslims (illustrated ed.). B&H Publishing Group. p. 62.ISBN978-0805418293.
^An Introduction to the Hadith. John Burton. Published by Edinburgh University Press. 1996. p. 201. Cite: "Sunni: Of or pertainingsunna, especially theSunna of the Prophet. Used in conscious opposition to Shi'a, Shi'í. There being no ecclesia or centralized magisterium, the translation 'orthodox' is inappropriate. To the Muslim 'unorthodox' implies heretical,mubtadi, frombid'a, the contrary ofsunna and so 'innovation'."
^Newman, Andrew J.Shiʿi. Encyclopedia Britannica.Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved28 December 2021.
^Tayeb El-Hibri; Maysam J. al Faruqi (2004). "Sunni Islam". In Philip Mattar (ed.).The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (2nd ed.).MacMillan Reference.
^John Corrigan; Frederick Denny; Martin S Jaffee; Carlos Eire (2011).Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions. Cambridge University Press. 978-0205026340.
^Foody, Kathleen (September 2015). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.)."Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran".Journal of the American Academy of Religion.83 (3). Oxford:Oxford University Press on behalf of theAmerican Academy of Religion:599–623.doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfv029.eISSN1477-4585.ISSN0002-7189.JSTOR24488178.LCCNsc76000837.OCLC1479270.For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.
^Foody, Kathleen (September 2015). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.)."Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran".Journal of the American Academy of Religion.83 (3). Oxford:Oxford University Press on behalf of theAmerican Academy of Religion:599–623.doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfv029.eISSN1477-4585.ISSN0002-7189.JSTOR24488178.LCCNsc76000837.OCLC1479270.For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.
^Escobar, Pepe (24 May 2002)."Knocking on heaven's door". Central Asia/Russia.Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 3 June 2002. Retrieved12 November 2006.our sixth imam, Imam Sadeg, says that we have five definitive holy places... first is Mecca... second is Medina... third belongs to our first imam of Shia, Ali, which is in Najaf. The fourth belongs to our third imam, Hussein, in Kerbala. The last one belongs to the daughter of our seventh imam and sister of our eighth imam, who is called Fatemah, and will be buried in Qom.
^John L. Esposito, ed. (2014)."Ibadis".The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived fromthe original on 20 August 2017.Ibadis [:] subsect of Khariji Islam founded in the eighth century. Has its strongest presence inOman, but is also found in North Africa and various communities on theSwahili Coast.
^Fakhry, Majid.A history of Islamic philosophy. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 47.ISBN978-0-231-13220-6.
^Martin, Richard C.; Woodward, Mark R.; Atmaja, Dwi S. (1997).Defenders of reason in Islam: Muʻtazilism from medieval school to modern symbol. Oxford, England ; Rockport, MA, USA: Oneworld Publications.ISBN978-1-85168-147-1.
^Benakis, Theodoros (13 January 2014)."Islamophoobia in Europe!".New Europe. Brussels. Archived fromthe original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved20 October 2015.Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.
^Pollack, Kenneth (2014).Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy. Simon and Schuster. p. 29.ISBN978-1-4767-3393-7.Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims
^Lopez, Ralph (2008).Truth in the Age of Bushism. Lulu.com. p. 65.ISBN978-1-4348-9615-5.Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."
^Ibn-ʿAǧība, Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad; Aresmouk, Mohamed Fouad; Fitzgerald, Michael Abdurrahman; Ibn-ʿAǧība, Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad (2011).The Book of ascension to the essential truths of Sufism: a lexicon of Sufic terminology = Miʿrāj al-tashawwuf ilā ḥaqāʾiq al-taṣawwuf. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae.ISBN978-1891785849.
^Andani, Khalil. "A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1: Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism." Religion Compass 10.8 (2016): 191–206.
^Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari.The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment. p. 75.
^Glassé, Cyril (2001).The New Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. p. 158.
^Zine, Jasmin; Babana-Hampton, Safoi; Mazid, Nergis; Bullock, Katherine; Chishti, Maliha.American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 19:4. International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). p. 59. Retrieved4 June 2020.
^Suarez, Michael F. (2010). "38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World".The Oxford companion to the book. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 331ff.ISBN9780198606536.OCLC50238944.
^Salim Ayduz; Ibrahim Kalin; Caner Dagli (2014).The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam.Oxford University Press. p. 263.ISBN978-0-19-981257-8.Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.
^T. W. Arnold (June 1919). "An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions".The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs.34 (195). The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.:249–252.JSTOR860736.
^Rassool, G. Hussein (2015).Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice. Routledge. p. 10.ISBN9781317441250.The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices.
^De McLaurin, Ronald (1979).The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East. Michigan University Press. p. 114.ISBN978-0-03-052596-4.Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...
^R. Williams, Victoria (2020).Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes].ABC-CLIO. p. 318.ISBN978-1-4408-6118-5.As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.
^D. Grafton, David (2009).Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East.Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 14.ISBN978-1-63087-718-7.In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.
^Foltz, Richard (7 November 2013). "Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan".Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present. Oneworld Publications. p. 219.ISBN978-1-78074-307-3.
^House of Justice, Universal."One Common Faith".reference.bahai.org. Retrieved1 April 2017.
^"St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam".Writings by St John of Damascus. The Fathers of the Church. Vol. 37. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. 1958. pp. 153–160. Retrieved8 July 2019.
Blankinship, K. (2008). "The early creed". In T. Winter (ed.).The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–54.doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003.ISBN978-0-521-78058-2.
Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr (2012).The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah. Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad. Riyadh: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam.ISBN978-603-500-080-2.
Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980).Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis:Bethany House Publishers.N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach.ISBN0-87123-553-6
Khanbaghi, A, (2006).The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran.I. B. Tauris.
Khavari, Farid A. (1990).Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts.ISBN0-915677-55-5.
Tausch, Arno (2009).What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.).Nova Science Publishers, New York.ISBN978-1-60692-731-1.
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