Irish clans are traditionalkinship groups sharing a common surname and heritage and existing in a lineage-based society, originating prior to the 17th century.[1] A clan (orfine in Irish, pluralfinte) included the chief and hispatrilineal relatives;[2] however, Irish clans also included unrelated clients of the chief.[3] These unrelated clients and their agnatic descendants were ineligible to be elected chief, but nonetheless assumed the name of the leading lineage as a show of allegiance.[4]
Beginning in the 8th century, various genealogical collections were compiled purporting to trace the ancestry of these clans. Among them are genealogies inRawlinson B 502, theBook of Ballymote, theBook of Lecan, theLeabhar Mór na nGenealach compiled by Dubhaltach MacFhirbisigh, and theÓ Cléirigh Book of Genealogies. In all of these cases, the genealogies listed state the agnatic descent of the chiefs and chieftains, and not necessarily every member of the clan. At least one genetic study has concluded that while these genealogies appear fairly accurate back to the Middle Ages, they are unreliable before the 7th century.[5][6]
The Irish wordclann is a borrowing from the Latinplanta, meaning 'a plant, an offshoot, offspring, a single child or children, by extension race or descendants'.[7] For instance, theO'Daly family were poetically known asClann Dalaigh, from a remote ancestor called Dalach.[7]
Clann was used in the later Middle Ages to provide a plural for surnames beginning withMac meaning 'son of'.[7] For example, "Clann Cárthaigh" meant the men of the MacCarthy family and "Clann Suibhne" meant the men of the MacSweeny family.[7]Clann was also used to denote a subgroup within a wider surname, the descendants of a recent common ancestor, such as theClann Aodha Buidhe or theO'Neills of Clandeboy, whose ancestor was Aodh Buidhe who died in 1298.[7] Such a "clan", if sufficiently closely related, could have common interests in landownership, but any political power wielded by their chief was territorially based.[7]
From ancient times, Irish society was organised around traditional kinship groups or clans. These clans traced their origins to larger pre-surname population groupings or clans such asUí Briúin inConnacht,Eóganachta andDál gCais inMunster,Uí Néill inUlster, andFir Domnann inLeinster.[8] Within these larger groupings there tended to be onesept (division) who through war and politics became more powerful than others for a period of time and the leaders of some were accorded the status ofroyalty in Gaelic Ireland. Some of the more important septs to achieve this power wereO'Connor in Connacht,MacCarthy of Desmond andO'Brien of Thomond in Munster, Ó Neill of Clandeboy in Ulster, andMacMorrough Kavanagh in Leinster.
The largely symbolic role ofHigh king of Ireland tended to rotate among the leaders of these royal clans.[9] The larger or more important clans were led by ataoiseach or chief who had the status of royalty and the smaller and more dependent clans were led by chieftains. UnderBrehon law, the leaders of Irish clans were appointed by their kinsmen as custodians of the clan and were responsible for maintaining and protecting their clan and its property. The clan system formed the basis of society up to the 17th century.[10]
According toT. F. O'Rahilly, in his worksGoides and Their Predecessors and laterEarly Irish History, there was a total of four waves of Celtic invasions of the British Isles and that the first three of these were pre-Gaelic.[11][12] According to O'Rahilly, these were people who had largely remained unconquered by theRomans whose territory was mostly restricted to the broad plains ofEngland. A larger part of England remained out of the control of the West Germanic people who invaded after the imperial collapse ofRoman Britain and who founded the English nation.[13]
O'Rahilly's version of the origins of the Irish, as supported by C. Thomas Cairney and John Grenham is as follows: The first of the Celtic invaders of Ireland were known as theCruthin who arrived between 800 and 500BC.[13]
The second wave of Celts to come to Ireland were known as theErainn and this is supposedly where the Gaelic name for Ireland,Erin, originated. These people arrived between 500 and 100 BC. They came from the area which is today known asBelgium and had superior iron weaponry, and thus eventually reduced the Irish Cruthin to tributary status. The third wave of Celtic settlement in Ireland came fromContinental Europe during the first century BC and this was probably because of pressure from the Romans on the south ofGaul. These people were known as theDumnonii and gave their name toDevon in England. Their most powerful branch in Ireland was theLaigin who gave their name toLeinster. A branch of the Irish group of the Dumnonii settled just to the south ofDumbarton inScotland and were the ancestors of theStrathclyde-Britons.[14]
The fourth and last major Celtic settlements in Ireland took place around 50 BC. This was directly because of Roman attempts to dominate theGauls of Continental Europe. This included, among others, a group known as theFeni who came to Ireland directly from the Continent and according to tradition landed in southKerry and theBoyne estuary. The earlier inhabitants of the country fiercely resisted the newcomers who were referred to as theGaeil because they spoke theGaelic language. The power and influence of theGaeils gradually spread over the next three centuries, northwards, from Kerry intoTipperary andLimerick, as well as to the west intoGalway andRoscommon.[clarification needed] By the 5th century they were dominant in most of Ireland and had established dynasties and tribal groups. These groups determined the Irish politics and culture until theNorman invasion of Ireland which took place during the late 12th century.[15]
O'Rahilly's version of history has been questioned by archaeologists and historians who have played down the role of the Cruthin as invaders, including byIan Adamson.[16] O'Rahilly's history has been entirely unaccepted by some historians includingFrancis John Byrne.[17] According toMyles Dillon andNora K. Chadwick, while O'Rahilly's version of history has been accepted by some scholars and dismissed by others, it is an entirely traditional history that he had sourced fromLebor Gabála Érenn which was a historic manuscript written in the 11th century, also known as theBook of the Invasions of Ireland, and not historic facts based on contemporary evidence.[18]J. P. Mallory stated that O'Rahilly has argued that this manuscript showed that themedieval people of Ireland had seen a series of invasions from whom various dynasties and families might have traced their origins to.[19]
According to Mallory, Ireland may have been inhabited byPaleolithic (Old Stone Age) hunters, but that the evidence for this is only a few pieces offlint.[20] The first actual evidence of human residence in Ireland dates to around 8000 BC.[21] Evidence of the firstNeolithic farmers in Ireland dates to around 4000 BC.[22] There is little evidence of a warrior elite in Ireland before 1500 BC and evidence for this appears during theBronze Age where everyone of a wealthy class had weaponry.[23] The Irish language first appeared from between 700/600 BC and 400AD during theIron Age.[24] During this time, the Irish people came into contact with Roman traders.[25]
According to the writers ofUlster: An Illustrated History, there is evidence for theUlaid who are referred to as theErainn by some genealogists which is also the name given onPtolemy's map of Ireland which dates from the second century AD for theIverni who lived inCounty Cork, as well as being the origin of the name for Ireland. The centre of the Ulaid's land was in theDiocese of Down. The main population group of the Ulaid was the Cruthin whose territory was in theDiocese of Connor and Dromore. There is also evidence for theLoígis in Leinster and theCíarraige inMunster who also belong to this group and it is possible that their ancestors in Ireland were pre-Celtic.[26] It is also possible to identify from Ptolemy's map theDál Riata ofCounty Antrim who later founded a powerful kingdom inArgyll, Scotland.[27] The 11th centuryLebor Gabála Érenn orBook of the Invasions of Ireland, describes a series of failed invasions of Ireland before settlement in the 8th century.[28] However, by the 8th century battles in Ireland were not between the natives and invaders but between tribes and dynasties for control of different parts of the island.[26]Donnchadh Ó Corráin put the evidence for the Irish naitional identity back to the 7th century emphasising the impact thatChristianity had on the people there.[29]
In 1002, theUí Néill lost the high kingship of Ireland to the leader of theDal gCais orDalcassians, Brian Boru. It was during the century of declining Uí Néill dominance that surnames first started being used in Ireland. This meant that Ireland was one of the first countries in Europe to start using surnames. Descendants ofNiall of the Nine Hostages, who was the ancestor of the Uí Néill dynasty, include people with the surnamesO'Boyle,O'Connor andO'Donnell. From the Dal gCais or Dalcassians came the surnamesO'Brien andKennedy.[30]
Within theGaeil there was distinction between the tribes of the south from those of the north, and also from those of the west. The tribes in the south called themselves theEoghanacht and in about the year 400 AD they established atCashel a dynasty which held power throughout most of southern Ireland from the 5th to 12th centuries. The Munster families ofO'Sullivan,MacCarthy andO'Connell claim descent from the Eoghanacht.[15]
In the midlands of Ireland, theGaeil tribes were known asConnachta and their name continues in the modern province ofConnacht. The most important of the Connacta tribes was the Uí Néill who claimed descent from Niall of the Nine Hostages. Niall's brothers includedAilill,Brion andFiachra who were founders of the important Connachta tribes of Ui Ailella,Uí Briúin andUí Fiachrach.[15]
Although the Eoghanacht and Uí Néill were the most powerful tribal groups in Ireland, there were others who were locally powerful including theAirgíalla in the north-east where they controlled what is now the counties ofTyrone,Armagh,Fermanagh andMonaghan. There was also theUlaidh who inhabited what is now the counties ofDown andAntrim.[15]
Within these large areas there were up to 150 small divisions known astúatha and the names of many of these are reflected today in the names of theIrish baronies that make up the modern counties. Each túath had a ruler orpetty king who owed allegiance to a more powerful king who was over-king of three or more túatha. This over-king would in turn be subordinate to the king of a province, usually either the Eoghanacht or Uí Néill.[15]
The succession of kings or chiefs was governed by a system known asTanistry whereby after a chief had died, the new chief would be elected from all agnatic cousins descended from a patrilineal grandfather or great-grandfather.[31][32] However, according toEoin MacNeill, the system known as tanistry which also took place before the position of king or chief had become vacant is not found in records until the time offeudalism in Ireland which was not until the time of the Normans, and it was preceded by the similar system known asRigdomna but which took place only after the position of king or chief had become vacant.[32] This theory however, was disputed byGearóid Mac Niocaill who stated that there is no good evidence to support that the usage of the termRigdomna in early medieval Ireland was any different to that oftanaise (Tanistry) in late medieval Ireland and that the two terms were synonymous with each other. Although Mac Niocaill did state that MacNeill was correct in identifying a number of cases whereRigdomna was limited to a four generation group in early medieval Ireland but in late medieval Ireland it was almost always the son, brother or nephew of the king.[33]
As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, theCruthin were the first Celts to settle in Ireland between about 800 and 500 BC.[34] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Cruthin were the first of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, the existence of all three of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity.[35]
As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, theErainn were the second wave of Celts to settle in Ireland between about 500 and 100 BC.[38] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Erainn were the second of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, with the exception of the Clann Choinleagain, the existence of all of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity.[35]
As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, theDumnonii orLaigin were the third wave of Celts to settle in Ireland during the first century BC.[49] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Dumnonii or Laigin were the third of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, with the exception of theCiarraighe Loch na nAirne and the Feara Cualann, the existence of all of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity.[35]
As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, theGaels orGaeils were the fourth and final wave of Celtic settlement in Ireland which took place during the first century BC.[63] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes. Although it is not possible to prove O'Rahilly's history of the four Celtic invasions of Ireland or that the Gaels or Gaeils were the fourth of these invasions, or that the following Irish tribes descended from them, according to historian Sean Duffy, with the exception of theClann Cholmáin, Cineal Laoghaire and the Muintear Tadhagain, the existence of all of the following Irish tribes in around the 7th century is supported by the literature of the time that came to Ireland with Christianity.[35]
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Vikings andNormans are ethnically populations, linked in ancestry. From the 9th to 11th centuries, the Vikings raided and settled in Britain and Ireland. In Ireland the Vikings became completely Gaelicized and established the first towns. The Normans invaded and conquered England in 1066 and later had similar success invading Ireland in the late 12th century. The Normans were the first people to introduce the mountedknight. In Ireland, these "Old English" families were influenced just as much as they themselves influenced and have been described as having become "more Irish than the Irish themselves".[74]
At least the following three Irish families are believed to be of Viking descent: theClan Fearghaill whose chiefs were theO'Hallorans, theMacCotters, and theO'Doyles.[74][F]
The following surnames found in Ireland are believed to be of Norman origin and to have arrived following the Norman invasion of Ireland:Barry, Branne,Burke,Butler,Condon,Cusak,Dalton,Darcy, de Covcy,Dillon, Fagun,Fitzgerald, MacGibbon,French,Hackett,Jordan,Keating,Lacy,Lynch,MacCostello, Martin, Nugent, Power,Purcell, Rothes,Sarsfield, Wall.[75]
The following surnames are believed to have come to Ireland with the Norman invasion but are believed to have been ofFlemish origin:Tobin,Flemming,Prendergast.[75]
The following surnames are believed to have come to Ireland with the Norman invasion but are believed to have been ofWelsh origin:Roche,Blake,Joyce,MacQuillan,Rice, Taffe,Walsh, Savage.[75]
In the 16th century,English common law was introduced throughout Ireland, along with a centralised royal administration in which the county and the sheriff replaced the "country" and the clan chief.[76]
When theKingdom of Ireland was created in 1541, the Dublin administration wanted to involve the Gaelic chiefs into the new entity, creating new titles for them such as theBaron Upper Ossory,Earl of Tyrone, andBaron Inchiquin. In the process, they were granted new coats of arms from 1552. The associated policy ofsurrender and regrant involved a change to succession to a title by the European system ofprimogeniture, and not by the Irishtanistry, where a group of male cousins of a chief were eligible to succeed by election.
The early 17th century was a watershed in Ireland. It marked the destruction of Ireland's ancient Gaelic aristocracy following the Tudor re-conquest and cleared the way for thePlantation of Ulster.[9] In 1607 the senior Gaelic chiefs of Ulster left Ireland to recruit support in Spain but failed, and instead eventually arrived in Rome where they remained for the rest of their lives(seeFlight of the Earls). After this point, the English authorities in Dublin established real control over all of Ireland for the first time, bringing a centralised government to the entire island, and successfully disarmed the native clans and their lordships.[77]
Clans of Ireland, a limited company and independent charity, was established in 1989 to provide modern Irish clan organisations with "guidance in establishing and maintaining a successful Clan society".[78][79]
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