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Saddam Hussein (1937–2006) began an extensivebiological weapons (BW) program inIraq in the early 1980s, despite having signed (but not ratified until 1991) theBiological Weapons Convention (BWC) of 1972. Details of the BW program anda chemical weapons program surfaced after theGulf War (1990–91) during the disarmament of Iraq under theUnited Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM). By the end of the war, program scientists had investigated the BW potential of five bacterial strains, one fungal strain, five types of virus, and fourtoxins.[1] Of these, three—anthrax,botulinum andaflatoxin—had proceeded to weaponization for deployment.[2] Because of the UN disarmament program that followed the war, more is known today about the once-secret bioweapons program in Iraq than that of any other nation.
The program no longer existed when theGeorge W. Bush administration cited it as justification for its2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequentIraq War.
In the early 1980s, five German firms supplied equipment to manufacturebotulin toxin andmycotoxin to Iraq. Iraq'sState Establishment for Pesticide Production (SEPP) also ordered culture media and incubators from Germany'sWater Engineering Trading.[3] Strains of dual-use biological material from France also helped advance Iraq's biological warfare program.[4] From the United States, the non-profitAmerican Type Culture Collection and the U.S.Centers for Disease Control sold or sent biological samples to Iraq up until 1989, which Iraq claimed to need for medical research. These materials includedanthrax,West Nile virus andbotulism, as well asBrucella melitensis, andClostridium perfringens. Some of these materials were used for Iraq's biological weapons research program, while others were used for vaccine development.[5] In delivering these materials "The CDC was abiding by World Health Organization guidelines that encouraged the free exchange of biological samples among medical researchers..." according to Thomas Monath, CDC lab director. It was a request "which we were obligated to fulfill," as described in WHO and UN treaties.[6]
Iraq's BW facilities included its main biowarfare research center atSalman Pak (just south ofBaghdad), the main bioweapons production facility atAl Hakum (the "Single-Cell Protein Production Plant") and theviral biowarfare research site atAl Manal (the "Foot and Mouth Disease Center").[7]
The Al Hakum facility began mass production of weapons-gradeanthrax in 1989, eventually producing 8,000 liters or more (the 8,000 liter figure is based on declared amounts). Iraq officially acknowledged that it had worked with several species of bacterial pathogen, includingBacillus anthracis,Clostridium botulinum andClostridium perfringens (gas gangrene) and several viruses (includingenterovirus 17 [humanconjunctivitis],rotavirus andcamelpox). The program also purified biological toxins, such asbotulinum toxin,ricin andaflatoxin.[8] After 1995, it was learned that, in all, Iraq had produced 19,000 liters of concentrated botulinum toxin (nearly 10,000 liters filled into munitions), 8,500 liters of concentrated anthrax (6,500 liters filled into munitions) and 2,200 liters of aflatoxin (1,580 liters filled into munitions).[9] In total, the program grew a half million liters of biological agents.[10]
During UN inspections in 1998, it emerged that Hussein had prisoners tied to stakes and bombarded with anthrax and chemical weapons for experimental purposes. These experiments began in the 1980s during theIran–Iraq War after initial experiments on sheep and camels. Dozens of prisoners are believed to have died in agony during the program. According to an article in theLondon Sunday Times:
In one incident, Iranian prisoners of war are said to have been tied up and killed by bacteria from a shell detonated nearby. Others were exposed to an aerosol of anthrax sprayed into a chamber while doctors watched behind a glass screen. Two British-trained scientists have been identified as leading figures in the programme. … According to Israeli military intelligence sources, 10 Iranian prisoners of war were taken to a location near Iraq's border withSaudi Arabia. They were lashed to posts and left helpless as an anthrax bomb was exploded by remote control 15 yards away. All died painfully from internal haemorrhaging. In another experiment, 15Kurdish prisoners were tied up in a field while shells containingcamel pox, a mild virus, were dropped from a light aircraft. The results were slower but the test was judged a success; the prisoners fell ill within a week. Iraqi sources say some of the cruellest research has been conducted at an underground facility nearSalman Pak, southwest ofBaghdad. Here, the sources say, experiments with biological and chemical agents were carried out first on dogs and cats, then on Iranian prisoners. The prisoners were secured to a bed in a purpose-built chamber, into which lethal agents, including anthrax, were sprayed from a high-velocity device mounted in the ceiling. Medical researchers viewed the results through fortified glass. Details of the experiments were known only to Saddam and an inner circle of senior government officials and Iraqi scientists educated in the West. … The facility, which is understood to have been built by German engineers in the 1980s, has been at the centre of Iraq's experiments on "human guinea pigs" for more than 10 years, according to Israeli military sources.[11]
Iraqi scientistNassir al-Hindawi was described by United Nations inspectors as the "father of Iraq's biological weapons program". Two of the leading researchers in the program studied in Britain.Rihab al-Taha ("Dr. Germ"), educated at theUniversity of East Anglia, was head of Iraq's military research and development institute. Another scientist received a doctorate inmolecular biology from theUniversity of Edinburgh.[12] U.S. officials alleged that a third scientist —Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash ("Mrs. Anthrax", "Chemical Sally"), who was trained at theUniversity of Missouri — helped to rebuild Iraq's BW program in the mid-1990s after the Gulf War. Both al-Taha and Ammash were captured by U.S. forces after the 2003 invasion of Iraq, but both were released in 2005 after they were among those an American-Iraqi board found to be no longer security threats. They had no charges filed against them.[13]
During the Gulf War, US and other intelligence reports had suggested that Iraq was operating a BW program. Coalition troops trained with protective gear and stockpiled theantibioticciprofloxacin for use aspost-exposure prophylaxis againstanthrax. Approximately 150,000 US troops received theU.S. Food and Drug Administration–licensedanthrax vaccine (BioThrax), and 8,000 received a botulinum toxoid vaccine also approved by the FDA as aninvestigational new drug. Although Iraq had loaded anthrax, botulinum, and aflatoxin bio-agent intomissiles and artillery shells in preparing for the war, and although these munitions were deployed to four locations in Iraq,[14] they were never used.
In August 1991, the UN carried out its first inspection of Iraq's BW capabilities in the aftermath of the Gulf War. On 2 August 1991, representatives of the Iraqi government announced to leaders of UNSCOM's "Team 7" that they had conducted research into the offensive use ofB. anthracis, botulinum toxins, andClostridium perfringens toxins.[15] Post-war inspections by UNSCOM, however, were confounded by misinformation and obfuscation. After Iraqi GeneralHussein Kamel al-Majid defected toJordan in August 1995, the Iraqi government further disclosed that it had operated a robust BW program at six major sites since the 1980s. It was revealed that the Iraqi program conducted basic research onB. anthracis,rotavirus,camelpox virus,aflatoxin,botulinum toxins,mycotoxins, and ananticrop agent (wheat cover smut). It tested several delivery systems includingaerial spray tanks anddrone aircraft. The Iraqi government had weaponized 6,000 liters ofB. anthracis spores and 12,000 liters of botulinum toxin in aerial bombs, rockets, and missile warheads before the outbreak of war in 1991.[16] These bio-weapons were deployed but never used.[17][18]
After Kamel's defection, it became known that in December 1990 the Iraqis had filled 100 R-400 bombs with botulinum toxin, 50 with anthrax, and 16 with aflatoxin. In addition, 13Al Hussein (SCUD) warheads were filled with botulinum toxin, 10 with anthrax, and 2 with aflatoxin. These weapons were deployed in January 1991 to four locations for use against Coalition forces.[19]
Why Saddam Hussein did not use these biological weapons in 1991 is unclear, but the presumption has been that he was concerned about provoking massive retaliation. Other plausible factors include the perceived ineffectiveness of the untested delivery and dispersal systems, the probable ineffectiveness of liquid slurries resulting from poor aerosolization, and the potential hazards to the Iraqi troops themselves, as they lacked the protective equipment and training available to Coalition forces.[20][21]
Several defectors (seeKhidir Hamza) have claimed that these weapons were intended only as "weapons of last resort" in case the Coalition stormed the gates ofBaghdad. Since this never happened, Saddam found their use unnecessary.
The Iraqis claimed to have destroyed their biological arsenal immediately after the 1991 war, but they did not provide confirmatory evidence. A covert military research and development program continued for another four years, with the intent of resuming agent production and weapons manufacture after the end of UN sanctions.[22] Basic infrastructure was preserved, and research on producing dried agent was conducted under the guise ofbiopesticide production at Al Hakum until its destruction by UNSCOM inspectors in 1996.[23] The same year, operational portions of the facilities at Salman Pak and Al Manal were also supposedly destroyed, either by the Iraqis themselves or under direct UNSCOM supervision. But UNSCOM inspectors never received full cooperation from the Hussein regime and they were finally expelled from Iraq in 1998. International concerns led to renewed inspections in 2002 underUN Security Council Resolution 1441 and these facilities were again targets for the U.S. military during the2003 invasion of Iraq as potentially still being operational. PresidentBush cited the non-cooperation with inspectors as a majorjustification for military action.
The extent of Iraq's BW program between 1998 when UNSCOM left Iraq and the U.S. Coalition invasion in March 2003 remains unknown. Current information indicates the discovery of a clandestine network of biological laboratories operated by theIraqi Intelligence Service (Mukhabarat), a prison laboratory complex possibly used for human experimentation, an Iraqi scientist's private culture collection with a strain of possible BW interest, and new research activities involvingBrucella andCrimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus.[24] Despite diligent investigations since 2003, evidence for the existence of additional BW stockpiles in Iraq has not been documented.[citation needed]
In 2005, theIraq Survey Group — an international group composed of civilian and military experts — concluded that the Iraqi military BW program had been abandoned during 1995 and 1996 because of fear that discovery of continued activity would result in severe political repercussions including the extension of UN sanctions. However, they concluded, Hussein had perpetuated ambiguity regarding a possible program as a strategic deterrent againstIran.[25] Other conclusions were that theMukhabarat continued to investigate toxins as tools of assassination, concealed its program from UNSCOM inspectors after the 1991 war, and reportedly conducted lethal human experimentation until 1994. Small-scale covert laboratories were maintained until 2003.[26]
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