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TheIranian opposition consists of various groups that oppose theIslamic Republic government and the currenttheocraticShia Muslimclerical leadership inIran. These groups are ideologically diverse, includingrepublicans,monarchists, secular nationalists,socialists,communists,ethnic separatists (e.g.Kurdish nationalists), supporters ofWestern liberal democracy, andIslamists (includingShia Muslims dissidents and particularly fromSunni Salafis[1][2] andKurdish Islamists).[3][4][5][6] The opposition movement is currently fragmented and riddled with internal divisions over the future of a post-Islamic Republic Iran.[7][8][9]
In the period surrounding the1953 Iranian coup d'état, many Shia clerics began to oppose Iran's secular government. For example,Ayatollah Abol-Qasem Kashani and his followers organised a series of protests against Mohammad Mosaddegh's liberal reforms. By July 1953 when Mosaddegh asked for a critical extension of his emergency powers, "... Clerical members of the Majles who supported Kashani left the National Front Coalition and set up their own Islamic Faction...".[10] (Muslim Warriors). This faction then boycotted the 1953 referendum concerning the dissolution of parliament.[11]
In 1963, Iran launched theWhite Revolution, a far-reaching series of reforms to aggressively modernise the country. This aroused the antagonism of theUlama led byRuhollah Khomeini, the future leader of the1979 Islamic Revolution, who opposed the erosion of their traditional bases of power, and met with difficulties from a high failure rate for new farms and an exodus of agricultural workers to an alienating, atomised life in Iran's major cities.[12] Eventually, theShahexiled Khomeini in 1964, but he laterreturned toTehran from exile in 1979 after the Shah fled Iran during theIslamic Revolution.[13]
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Following theIranian Revolution and the end ofPahlavi Iran in 1979, opposition to the new regime soon emerged. DuringInternational Women's Day in 1979, massiveanti-hijab protests broke out inTehran over the regime's intention to introducemandatory hijab veiling for women in public.[14]
On 14 June 1980,Ruhollah Khomeini issued an order aimed to "purify" higher education by removing Western, liberal, and leftist elements, leading to the closure of universities, the banning of student unions, and violent occupations of campuses. Following the 1979 revolution, theMEK began to gain popularity among university students. During theCultural Revolution in Iran, clerics imposed policies to islamise Iranian society, including the expulsion of critical academics, the suppression of secular political groups, and the persecution of intellectuals and artists. These measures sparked large-scale protests across the country.[15][16][17]
On the final day of the elections,Massoud Rajavi met with PresidentAbolhassan Banisadr, complaining that theIRP and itsHezbollah supporters were systematically intimidating voters, disrupting rallies, assaulting campaign workers, and setting ballot boxes on fire. The MEK then arrived at two key conclusions: first, that they had enough popular backing to serve as an opposition to the IRP; and second, that the IRP would not allow them to operate as an opposition.[18] The group began clashing with the rulingIslamic Republican Party while avoiding direct and open criticism of Khomeini.[19] The MEK was in turn suppressed by Khomeini's revolutionary organisations.[20]
In response to the widely disputed impeachment of President Banisadr, the MEK organised a large-scale protest against Khomeini on 20 June 1981, intending to topple the regime.[21] Big crowds gathered in various cities, with the Tehran protest alone attracting up to 500,000 people. Leading clerics proclaimed that demonstrators would be considered "enemies of God" and face immediate execution regardless of age. This marked the beginning of the1981–1982 Iran massacres led by the Islamic government.[15][22]
In the years after, the Iranian opposition continued to resist the government through various protests, including the1992 Mashhad protests [fa] and1999 Iranian student protests.[23]
In 2004, a number of Iranian activists led byHassan Shariatmadari formed theUnited Republicans of Iran (URI) in exile.[24][25]
Widespread protests emerged after theIranian presidential election in 2009 when protestors criticised the government forelectoral fraud.[26] The protests became part of theIranian Green Movement, a growing opposition to the Iranian government. This was described at the time as the "biggest unrest since the1979 revolution".[27]
Due to anger over the policy ofmandatory hijabs for women, Iranian women gained an increasingly prominent role in the Iranian opposition during this period.[28][29] In 2017, a video of a girl waving her hijab around on the streets of Tehran went viral online, prompting similaranti-hijab protests in the following months.[30]
In November 2018, ten Iranian opposition groups signed a joint memorandum of understanding to show unity amidst internal divisions and reconfirm their support for the "overthrow of theIslamic regime". The parties agree in their desire to create aparliamentary democracy along with the principle ofseparation of church and state. The signatories included: the Democratic Alliance, the Democratic and Secular Republican Movement of Iran, the Ahvaz Democratic Solidarity Party, theDemocratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan, theKurdistan Democratic Party, theKomalah, theBalochistan People's Party [fa], theUnion of People's Fedaian of Iran, the Provisional Council of Left Socialists of Iran, and theKomala of the Toilers of Kurdistan.[31]
On 12 June 2019, the 10-year anniversary of the2009 Iranian presidential election, 14 opposition activists in and outside Iran signed theStatement of 14 Political Activists. The open letter proposed a series of political and civil demands, including improvements towomen's rights in Iran, greaterindependence between the branches of government, amendments to theConstitution of Iran, and forSupreme LeaderAli Khamenei to step down.[32][33] Other activists also signed letters with similar content in August, resulting in several arrests.[34][35][36][37]
In October 2020,Reza Pahlavi issued a message titled "New Pact", emphasising the rejection of the monopoly of power.[38] He called for stronger connections between acts ofcivil disobedience throughout the country, including protests andstrikes. He also called on all pro-democracy political forces to set aside their differences and unite for the transition from the Islamic Republic.[39]Abdulla Mohtadi, Secretary General of theKomala Party of Iranian Kurdistan and a member of theIran Transition Council [fa], considered this message a positive first step, but did not consider it sufficient for unity among the opposition.[40]Mojtaba Vahedi viewed Pahlavi's message positively, and commended his opposition toindividual rule. However, Vahedi criticised Pahlavi's claim about his lack of desire for political power, asserting that political power is needed to implement political activity. He further called on Pahlavi to deal with those who create discord among the Iranian opposition to avoid prolonging theIslamic Republic.[41] Ammar Maleki, a professor of political science in the Netherlands, assessed this move as positive and promising, but believed that more practical action is required.[38]
In September 2022,widespread protests erupted across Iran following the death ofMahsa Amini, who was killed after her arrest for wearing the hijab "improperly".[42]
On 3 February 2023, formerPrime Minister andreformist leader of theGreen RevolutionMir-Hossein Mousavi called for a referendum on an end toclerical rule,[43] stating that "he no longer supports the currentIslamic Republic constitution".[44] In a statement signed by over 400 political activists and journalists, Mousavi called for the creation of aconstituent assembly and a new constitution, believing that "with the current social awakening, and the society's disillusionment with reforms within the current political structure, there is no other way than allowing the people to decide their own destiny."[45] This shift brings Mousavi in line with other opposition voices in its call for transition away from the Islamic Republic,[46] and has been embraced by Pahlavi, who reiterated the need for a big tent and unity among opponents of the government[47] Iran's topSunni clericAbdolhamid Ismaeelzahi also supported the initiative, saying, "Mousavi showed that he understood the realities of society. It's time for other politicians andulema to think about saving the country and see the facts."[48]
On 10 February 2023, theGeorgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security (GIWPS) hosted a conference called theFuture of Iran's Democracy Movement [fa], gathering major Iranian opposition groups to discuss a transition path for the creation of a secular and democratic Iran.[49][50] Attendees of the summit included actressesNazanin Boniadi andGolshifteh Farahani, Nobel Peace Prize LaureateShirin Ebadi, activistsMasih Alinejad and Dr.Hamed Esmaeilion; former soccer captain Ali Karimi, formerCrown PrinceReza Pahlavi, and Kurdish leaderAbdullah Mohtadi. The creation of the groupRevolutionary Council of Dadkhahan [fa] was announced shortly afterwards, with a stated goal of supporting justice and anindependent judiciary, along with the overthrow of theIslamic Republic of Iran to realise democracy and human rights in Iran.[51][52][53]
In early March 2023, opposition groups published the "Charter of Solidarity and Alliance for Freedom [fa]", nicknamed theMahsa Charter afterMahsa Amini.[54][55] This effort received some attention from the press,[56][48][57] and is seeking support from the international community.[58] Due to his position as heir to theHouse of Pahlavi, Pahlavi emphasises his role "in this process of transition is to be of help to maintain a smooth process — to maximise the participation of democratic forces in this process", and that whoever the Iranians then elect in a free and open referendum is up to them.
On 9 March 2023, five opposition groups announced the creation ofSolidarity for a Secular Democratic Republic in Iran [fa], a political coalition to advance the goal of establishing a "secular democratic republic in Iran". The coalition was created fromUnited Republicans of Iran, National Front of Iran—Europe,Left Party of Iran [fa],Iran National Front – Organisations Abroad [fa], and theUnion for Secular Republic and Human Rights in Iran [fa].[59]
In December 2025, economic hardship caused byhyperinflation of theIranian rial led to widespread discontent and resulted in the2025–2026 Iranian protests. By 8 January 2026, the uprising had spread to all 31 provinces, with theInstitute for the Study of War recording over 340 distinct protests in a single week. A nationwide general strike paralyzed major commercial centers, including theGrand Bazaar of Tehran,Tabriz, andIsfahan.[60] In response to the unrest, the Iranian government implemented a total internet blackout and deployed ground forces from theIslamic Revolutionary Guard Corps to suppress demonstrators, particularly inKurdistan andKermanshah. Reports indicated that protesters had taken control of municipal buildings in several western cities.[61]
In response to the unrest,Maryam Rajavi stated that Iran has entered an irreversible crisis, with the government weakened by decades of repression and corruption, and facing growing public discontent. She said protests that began in late 2025 spread nationwide due to inflation, currency collapse, resource shortages, and poverty. According to Rajavi, regional setbacks, low electoral participation, and widespread dissatisfaction have eroded the regime's social base, while an organised resistance and younger protesters are increasingly challenging both religious and monarchical rule.[62]
Also in response,Reza Pahlavi called for strikes and urged members of the armed forces to defect. In a statement on 9 January 2026, he said that the Islamic Republic was "crumbling" and that the opposition had established secure communication channels with over 50,000 defectors within the regime's bureaucracy and military.[63]
In concurrence with the61st Munich Security Conference in February 2025, several Iranian opposition groups met inMunich in what was called the "Munich Convergence Summit". At the summit, a coalition of liberal and nationalist political parties selectedReza Pahlavi to lead a transitional government until the realisation of democratic elections and the formation of a new government in Iran. Pahlavi is the son ofMohammad Reza Pahlavi, thelast Shah ofPahlavi Iran prior to theIslamic Revolution. He has stated that he personally prefers the establishment of a republic but that it is up to the Iranian people to decide.[64][65]
On 17 June 2025, Reza Pahlavi declared the Iranian regime "in the process of collapsing" asSupreme LeaderAli Khamenei went into hiding amidst theIran-Israel War.[66] He then called on the Iranian people to "rise" and "reclaim" Iran,[67] and presented a 100-day transition blueprint in the case of regime collapse.[68][69] Two days later, Pahlavi confirmed tobipartisan members of theU.S. House of Representatives that he "does not seek power", but rather "to fulfil a duty to help lead this transition".[70] The following day, Pahlavi confirmed through social media that discussions had started regarding a post-regime transition.[71][72][73]
On 22 June, followingAmerican airstrikes onIranian nuclear facilities, Pahlavi urged Supreme Leader Khamenei to step down.[74] In a press conference the next day, Pahlavi again offered to lead Iran's democratic transition, and outlined the three main principles guiding transition plans, namely: 1) Iran'sterritorial integrity; 2) individual liberties and equality; and 3) theseparation of religion and state.[75][76] He again reiterated that he does not seek power, but only to "help our great nation navigate through this critical hour towards stability, freedom and justice".[76]
On 24 June 2025, the president-elect of theNational Council of Resistance of Iran,Maryam Rajavi, said that an alternative government cannot be "imposed from above, as was done a century ago when Britain installed a monarchy by appointment". She added that "the solution for Iran lies neither in appeasement nor in war, but in a third option: regime change by the people of Iran and the organised resistance", stressing that the NCRI would be the best current option for change in Iran. She advocates for "a democratic, non-nuclear republic, with the separation of religion and state, gender equality and also autonomy for Iran's nationalities." Though, support for the NCRI remains unclear, and Reza Pahlavi stands out against all leaders.[77][78][79]
On 26 July 2025,Reza Pahlavi hosted a conference of opposition activists in Munich. He claimed that at least 50,000 officials from inside Iran's government and military registered through a secure channel to coordinate the ousting of theIranian government.[80][81]
According to an analysis fromRobert Kaplan of theCenter for a New American Security, Iran is distinguished from manyArab states by its natural borders, untouched byEuropean border drawing,[82] and is a civilisational cultural sphere similar toChina andGreece.[83] Kaplan believes this factor would allow Iran to "avoid the chaos that accompanied the yearnings for democracy in such an artificially drawn state asIraq".[84] He also believes that Iran is the "Middle East's geopolitical pivot point", and with a large and educated population, the country under a "more liberal regime" will have major influence onMesopotamia to the west andCentral Asia to the east.[82] It is likely that an Iran under a liberal government would become an ally of theUnited States andEurope.[84][85]
On 31 July 2025, Maryam Rajavi proposed the overthrow of the Islamic Republic and the establishment of a democratic, non-nuclear state during a rally in Rome organised by theNational Council of Resistance of Iran. The event drew support from notable Western political figures.[86]
During the2025–2026 uprising, which followed theIran–Israel war and escalating domestic unrest, large-scale demonstrations were reported inside Iran and across the diaspora. Millions of protestors[87] in multiple cities[88][89][90] were documented chanting slogans in support ofReza Pahlavi,[91][92] while monarchist groups and segments of republican opposition activists publicly aligned around a transitional framework centered on his proposed role as a unifying figure rather than a predeterminedhead of state.[93][94][95][96][97][98] Hundreds of thousands of members of theIranian diaspora participated in rallies in European and North American cities expressing support for regime change and a democratic transition.[99][100][101][102] During this period, Pahlavi increased his diplomatic and media engagement, holding meetings with international journalists, policymakers, and political figures, and promoting a transitional roadmap emphasizing territorial integrity, secular governance, and the organization of free elections.[103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110] Several observers noted that Pahlavi emerged as one of the most visible opposition figures during the uprising.[111][112]
Following the2017–2018 Iranian protests, a survey from the Iranian government found that a majority of respondents expressed dissatisfaction with the current situation, and that more than 31% of respondents have lost faith in government reform entirely. Among those dissatisfied, 41% reported willingness to participate in protests if they occurred.[113] In July 2018, following the same protests, a report titledIranian Public Opinion after the Protests was released by theUniversity of Maryland School of Public Policy. The survey found that a large majority of respondents rejected the view that Iran’s political system requires fundamental change: 77 percent disagreed with the statement, including 54 percent who disagreed strongly, while only 5 percent expressed strong agreement. The report also indicated that 67 percent of respondents disagreed with the assertion that the government interferes excessively in people’s personal lives, with 30 percent disagreeing strongly. In addition, 59 percent rejected the claim that the government should not be strict in enforcing Islamic laws, including 33 percent who strongly disagreed. By contrast, 22 percent strongly agreed and 15 percent somewhat agreed that the government should not be strict in enforcingIslamic laws.[114]
Other surveys conducted outside of state-affiliated channels have produced markedly different results. The Netherlands-based Group for Analyzing and Measuring Attitudes in Iran (GAMAAN),[115] which conducts anonymous large-scale online surveys usingVPN distribution and statistical weighting, reported substantially higher levels of opposition to theIslamic Republic in subsequent years. In a December 2022 survey conducted during the nationwide protests, 81% of respondents inside Iran stated that they would vote “No” in a hypothetical free referendum on the Islamic Republic, compared to 15% who would vote “Yes”.[116][117][118][119][120] In a June 2024 survey, approximately 68% said they would vote “No,” while about 19–20% supported retaining the system.[121][122] The 2024 survey further reported that around 70% opposed the continuation of the Islamic Republic and that 89% supported democracy as a form of governance.[121] During the2022 protests, 60% of respondents identified as proponents of regime change as a precondition for meaningful change.[116] In addition, in a June 2024 pre-election survey, 65% stated they would not participate in thepresidential election, with 68% of non-voters citing opposition to the overall system as their main reason for abstention.[123][124][125][126] A September 2025 survey conducted after the “12-Day War” reported a further increase in support for overthrowing the Islamic Republic compared to the previous year.[127]
Since 2017, Iran has experienced repeated nationwide protest waves, including the2017–2018 economic protests, theNovember 2019 demonstrations following fuel price increases, the2022–2023 “Woman, Life, Freedom” uprising, and renewed protests in2025–2026, which has been the largest uprising since the1979 Islamic Revolution.[128][129][130][131][132] GAMAAN’s 2022 survey found that 80% of respondents inside Iran supported the nationwide protests,[116] and its 2025 survey reported that 31% viewed civil protests as the most effective method for bringing about political change, compared to 14% who favored participation in elections.[127]
In 2019, theU.S. House of Representatives introduced H.R. 374 in support of the Iranian people's desire for a democratic, secular, and non-nuclear Iran while "condemning Iranianstate-sponsored terrorism". It offers support for a 10-point plan proposed by leader ofNational Council of Resistance of IranMaryam Rajavi, which includesuniversal suffrage,market economy and anon-nuclear Iran. The resolution also called for the prevention of "malign activities of the Iranian regime's diplomatic missions" and that the U.S. "stands with the people of Iran who are continuing to hold legitimate and peaceful protests" against the Iranian government. The bill was introduced by Rep.Tom McClintock and received bipartisan support from 221 House members.[133][134] According to McClintock, "There is a reason why a strong bipartisan majority in the United States House of Representatives has come together to co-sponsor this resolution condemning Iran's terrorist acts, it's because the world is watching the struggle for freedom in Iran, and it is cheering for your cause". He also mentioned that Iranian citizens have "taken to the streets and the airwaves" to protest against Ayatollah Ali Khamenei's regime, which he said has "lost any claim to legitimacy."[135]
In 2023, McClintock introduced H.R. 100 to expressed continued support for the democracy movement in Iran since theMahsa Amini protests. The bill received support from 222 House members, including 147 Republicans and 75 Democrats.[136] The resolution "stands with the people of Iran who are legitimately defending their rights for freedom against repression, and condemns the brutal killing of Iranian protesters by the Iranian regime" and "recognises the rights of the Iranian people and their struggle to establish a democratic, secular, and non-nuclear Republic of Iran".[137][138]
An article fromBloomberg in January 2020 revealed that then-Secretary of StateMike Pompeo ordered American diplomats to limit contact with several Iranian opposition groups to not jeopardiserelations with the Iranian government. These groups includedIran Transition Council [fa],Arab Struggle Movement for the Liberation of Ahwaz,South Azerbaijan National Liberation Movement [fa],Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan,Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan, and thePeople's Mojahedin Organisation of Iran.[139]
ActivistMasih Alinejad has criticised theGerman government for actively silencing exiled Iranian dissidents, mentioning the pastMykonos restaurant assassinations.[140] In 2023, theEuropean Parliament awarded theSakharov Prize to theWoman, Life, Freedom movement,[141] and imprisoned anti-regime journalistNarges Mohammadi was awarded theNobel Peace Prize.[142] TheMinistry of Foreign Affairs of Iran condemned the decision.[143]
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