 | |
 Iran |  United States |
|---|---|
| Diplomatic mission | |
| Interests Section of Iran in theEmbassy of Pakistan, Washington, D.C. | Interests Section of the United States in theEmbassy of Switzerland, Tehran |
| Envoy | |
| Director of the Interests Section Mehdi Atefat | Deputy Special Envoy Abram Paley |
Relations betweenIran and theUnited States in modern day are turbulent and have a troubled history. They began in the mid-to-late 19th century, when Iran was known to theWestern world asQajar Persia. Persia was very wary of British and Russian colonial interests duringthe Great Game. By contrast, the United States was seen as a more trustworthy foreign power, and the AmericansArthur Millspaugh andMorgan Shuster were even appointed treasurers-general by theShahs of the time. During World War II, Iran wasinvaded by theUnited Kingdom and theSoviet Union, both US allies, but relations continued to be positive after the war until the later years of the government ofMohammad Mosaddegh, who was overthrown by acoup organized by the Central Intelligence Agency and aided by MI6. This was followed by an era of close alliance between ShahMohammad Reza Pahlavi'sauthoritarian regime and the US government,[1] Iran being one of the US's closest allies during theCold War,[2][3][4] which was in turn followed by a dramatic reversal and disagreement between the two countries after the 1979Iranian Revolution.[1][5]
The two nations have had no formaldiplomatic relations since April 7, 1980.[1] Instead,Pakistan serves as Iran'sprotecting power in the United States, whileSwitzerland serves as the United States' protecting power in Iran. Contacts are carried out through theIranian Interests Section of thePakistani Embassy inWashington, D.C.,[6] and theUS Interests Section of the Swiss Embassy inTehran.[7] In August 2018,Supreme Leader of IranAli Khamenei banned direct talks with the United States.[8] According to theUS Department of Justice, Iran has since attempted to assassinate US officials and dissidents, includingUS presidentDonald Trump.[9][10]
Iranian explanations for the animosity with the United States include "the natural and unavoidable conflict between the Islamic system" and "such an oppressive power as the United States, which is trying to establish a global dictatorship and further its own interests by dominating other nations and trampling on their rights", as well as theUnited States support for Israel ("theZionist entity").[11][12] In the West, however, different explanations have been considered,[1] including theIranian government's need for an externalbogeyman to furnish a pretext for domestic repression againstpro-democratic forces and to bind the government to its loyal constituency.[13] The United States attributes the worsening of relations to the 1979–81Iran hostage crisis,[1] Iran's repeatedhuman rights abuses since the Islamic Revolution, different restrictions on using spy methods on democratic revolutions by the US, its anti-Western ideology, itsnuclear program, and its funding of terrorist organizations like Hamas (Gaza), Hezbollah (Lebanon), and the Houthis (Yemen) as proxies.[14][15]
Since 1995, the United States has had anembargo on trade with Iran.[16] In 2015, the United States led successful negotiations for a nuclear deal (theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action) intended to place substantial limits on Iran's nuclear program, includingIAEA inspections and limitations on enrichment levels. In 2016, mostsanctions against Iran were lifted.[17][18][19] The Trump administration unilaterallywithdrew from the nuclear deal and re-imposed sanctions in 2018, initiating what became known as the "maximum pressure campaign" against Iran.[20] In response, Iran gradually reduced its commitments under the nuclear deal and eventually exceeded pre-JCPOA enrichment levels.[21]
According to a 2013BBC World Service poll, 5% ofAmericans view Iranian influence positively, with 87% expressing a negative view, the most unfavorable perception of Iran in the world.[22] On the other hand, research has shown that most Iranians hold a positive attitude about the American people, though not the US government.[23][24] According to a 2019 survey by IranPoll, 13% of Iranians have a favorable view of the United States, with 86% expressing an unfavourable view, the most unfavorable perception of the United States in the world.[25] According to a 2018 Pew poll, 39% of Americans say that limiting the power and influence of Iran should be a top foreign policy priority.[26] Relations tend to improve when the two countries have overlapping goals, such as repellingSunni militants during theIraq War and theintervention against the Islamic State in the region.[27]
American newspapers in the 1720s were uniformly pro-Iranian, especially during the revolt of Afghan emirMahmud Hotak (r. 1722–1725) against theSafavid dynasty.[28]
Political relations betweenQajar Persia and theUnited States began when theShah of Iran,Nassereddin Shah Qajar, officially dispatched Iran's first ambassador, Mirza Abolhasan, toWashington, D.C. in 1856.[29] In 1883,Samuel G. W. Benjamin was appointed by the United States as the first official diplomatic envoy to Iran; however, ambassadorial relations were not established until 1944.[29]
The US had little interest inPersian affairs, while the US as a trustworthy outsider did not suffer. The Persians again sought the US for help in straightening out its finances afterWorld War I. This mission was opposed by powerful vested interests and eventually was withdrawn with its task incomplete.[30]
During thePersian Constitutional Revolution in 1909, AmericanHoward Baskerville died inTabriz while fighting with a militia in a battle against royalist forces.[31] After the Iranian parliament appointed United States financierMorgan Shuster as Treasurer General of Iran in 1911, an American was killed inTehran by gunmen thought to be affiliated with Russian or British interests. Shuster became even more active in supporting the Constitutional Revolution of Iran financially.[32]
Arthur Millspaugh, an American economic adviser, was sent to Persia in 1923 as a private citizen to help reform its inefficient administration. His presence was seen by Persians as a means to attract foreign investment and counterbalance European influence. The mission ended in 1928 after Millspaugh fell out of favor with the shah.[33]
Until World War II, relations between Iran and the United States remained cordial. As a result, many Iranians sympathetic to thePersian Constitutional Revolution came to view the US as a "third force" in their struggle to expel British and Russian dominance in Persian affairs. American industrial and business leaders were supportive of Iran's drive to modernize its economy and to expel British and Russian influence from the country.[34]
Reza Khan, a military officer in Persia’sCossack Brigade, came to power after leading a British-backed coup in 1921 that overthrew theQajar Dynasty.[35][36] He later declared himselfshah (king) and took the name Reza Pahlavi.[37] He launched modernization efforts, building a national railway and introducing secular education, while also censoring the press, suppressing unions and parties, and later banning the hijab in favor of Western dress.[37] In 1936, Iran withdrew its ambassador in Washington for nearly one year after the publication of an article criticizing Reza Shah in theNew York Daily Herald.[38]
After a dispute over German influence duringWorld War II, Reza Shah was forced to abdicate in 1941 and was succeeded by his son,Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.[37] During the rest of World War II, Iran becamea major conduit forBritish and American aid to the Soviet Union and an avenue through whichover 120,000 Polish refugees andPolish Armed Forces fled the Axis advance.[39] At the 1943Tehran Conference, theAllied "Big Three"—Joseph Stalin,Franklin D. Roosevelt, andWinston Churchill—issued theTehran Declaration to guarantee the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran. In 1949, theConstituent Assembly of Iran gave the shah the power to dissolve the parliament.[37]
Until the outbreak of World War II, the United States had no active policy toward Iran.[40] When theCold War began, the United States was alarmed by the attempt by the Soviet Union to set up separatist states in Iranian Azerbaijan and Kurdistan, as well as its demand for military rights to theDardanelles in 1946. This fear was enhanced by theloss of China to communism, the uncovering of Soviet spy rings, and the start of theKorean War.[41]
In 1951, Irannationalised its oil industry,[42] effectively seizing the assets of theAnglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC).[43] On April 28, 1951,Mohammad Mosaddegh was elected as Prime Minister by theParliament of Iran.
The British planned to retaliate by attacking Iran,[44] but U.S. PresidentHarry S. Truman pressed Britain to moderate its position in the negotiations and to not invade Iran. American policies fostered a sense in Iran that the United States supported Mossadeq, along with optimism that the oil dispute would soon be resolved through "a series of innovative proposals" that would provide Iran with "significant amounts of economic aid." Mossadeq visited Washington, and the American government made "frequent statements expressing support for him."[45]
At the same time, the United States honored the British embargo and, without Truman's knowledge, the Central Intelligence Agency station in Tehran had been "carrying out covert activities" against Mosaddeq and the National Front "at least since the summer of 1952".[46]
In 1953, the U.S. andBritain orchestrated acoup to overthrow Iran’s prime ministerMohammad Mosaddeq,[47] fearing communist influence and economic instability after Iran nationalized its oil industry. The coup, led by theCIA andMI6,[47] initially failed but succeeded on a second attempt. It reinstalledShah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who then received substantial U.S. financial and military support. The U.S. helped establishSAVAK,[37] the Shah’s brutal secret police, to maintain his rule. Many liberal Iranians believe that the coup and the subsequent U.S. support for the shah enabled the Shah's arbitrary rule, contributing to the "deeply anti-American character" of the1979 revolution later.[48]
After the coup, the United States played a central role in reorganizing Iran’s oil sector. Under U.S. pressure,BP joined aconsortium of Western companies to resume Iranian oil exports.[49][50] The consortium operated on behalf of the state-owned National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC), which retained formal ownership of Iran’s oil and infrastructure.[49][50] While Iran received 50% of the profits, U.S. companies collectively secured 40% of the remaining share.[51] However, the consortium maintained operational control, barred Iranian oversight of its financial records, and excluded Iranians from its board.[52] The agreement was part of a wider transition from British to American dominance in the region and worldwide.[53]
While initially seen as aCold War success, the coup later became a source of deep resentment, with critics calling it a blow to democracy and a lasting stain on U.S.-Iran relations.
| |
 Iran | United States |
|---|---|
| Diplomatic mission | |
| Embassy of Iran, Washington, D.C. | Embassy of the United States, Tehran |
Iran's nuclear program was launched as part of theAtoms for Peace program that was announced by U.S. presidentEisenhower in 1953.[54][55] The U.S. helped Iran create its nuclear program in 1957 by providing Iran its firstnuclear reactor and nuclear fuel, and after 1967 by providing Iran with weapons gradeenriched uranium.[56][54][57] Iran is among the 51 original signatories of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) on July 1, 1968, and its Parliament ratifies the treaty in February 1970.[33] The participation of the U.S. and Western European governments continued until the 1979Iranian Revolution.[58]
Iran's border with theSoviet Union, and its position as the largest, most powerful country in the oil-rich Persian Gulf, made Iran a "pillar" ofUS foreign policy in the Middle East.[59] In 1960, Iran joined four other countries to form the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), aiming to challenge the dominance of Western oil companies and reclaim control over national oil resources.[60] In the 1960s and 1970s, Iran's oil revenues grew considerably. Beginning in the mid-1960s, this development "weakened U.S. influence in Iranian politics" while strengthening the Iranian state's power over its own population.[citation needed] By the 1970s, surging OPEC profits gave the group substantial leverage over Western economies and elevated Iran’s strategic value as a U.S. ally.[60] According to scholarHoma Katouzian, this put the United States "in the contradictory position of being regarded" by the Iranian public "as the chief architect and instructor of the regime," while "its real influence" in domestic Iranian politics and policies "declined considerably".[61]
James Bill and other historians have said that between 1969 and 1974 U.S. PresidentRichard Nixon actively recruited the Shah as an American puppet and proxy.[62] However, Richard Alvandi argues that it worked the other way around, with the Shah taking the initiative. President Nixon, who had first met the Shah in 1953, regarded him as a westernizing anticommunist statesman who deserved American support now that the British were withdrawing from the region. They met again in 1972 and the Shah agreed to buy large quantities of American military hardware, and took responsibility for ensuring political stability and fighting off Soviet subversion throughout the region.[63] Permitting Iran to purchase U.S. arms servedCold War objectives by securing the Shah’s alignment with Washington after Iran had briefly explored Soviet alternatives in the 1960s, while also benefiting the American economy.[64] However, because of the1973 Arab-Israeli War and the subsequentArab oil embargo against the United States, oil prices became very high. This enabled the shah to buy more advanced weaponry than U.S. officials had expected, which caused concern in Washington.[60]
In the 1970s, approximately 25,000 American technicians were deployed to Iran to maintain military equipment (such asF-14s) that had been sold to the Shah's government.[65]
Cultural relations between the two countries remained cordial until 1979.Pahlavi University,Sharif University of Technology, andIsfahan University of Technology, three of Iran's top academic universities, were directly modeled onprivate American institutions such as theUniversity of Chicago,MIT, and theUniversity of Pennsylvania.[66][67] The Shah was generous in awarding American universities with financial gifts. For example, theUniversity of Southern California received an endowed chair of petroleum engineering, and a million dollar donation was given to theGeorge Washington University to create anIranian Studies program.[66]
Prior to the Iranian Revolution of 1979, many Iranian citizens, especially students, resided in the United States and had a positive and welcoming attitude toward America and Americans.[5] From 1950 to 1979, an estimated 800,000 to 850,000 Americans had visited or lived in Iran, and had often expressed their admiration for the Iranian people.[5]
Under presidentGerald Ford, U.S.–Iran relations began to cool. Unlike Richard Nixon, Ford lacked a close personal relationship with the Shah, and his administration took a more cautious stance on nuclear cooperation.[68] Negotiations over American nuclear exports to Iran faltered as Ford insisted on additional safeguards beyond those required by the NuclearNon-Proliferation Treaty, which the Shah rejected as an infringement on Iran’s sovereignty.[69]
In 1975, President Ford approved a plan allowing Iran to process U.S. nuclear materials and purchase a plutonium reprocessing facility.Henry Kissinger later described it as a commercial deal with an ally, with no discussion of weapons concerns.[33]
Despite continuing Nixon’s arms sales policy, granting Iran wide access to U.S. weapons, Ford faced internal opposition and growing concerns in Congress.[64] Meanwhile, U.S. officials—particularly Treasury SecretaryWilliam Simon grew increasingly critical of the Shah's role in maintaining high oil prices, during a time when surging inflation was driving the U.S. economy toward a recession.[70] In 1976, the U.S. covertly supported Saudi Arabia’s move to drive down oil prices, undercutting Iran’s revenues.[68]
The resulting oil price collapse in early 1977 triggered a severe financial crisis in Iran, forcing austerity measures that led to rising unemployment and social unrest. These developments significantly weakened the Shah’s regime and contributed to the conditions that precipitated the 1979Islamic Revolution. Later declassified documents suggest that key U.S. policymakers underestimated the risks of destabilizing their long-time ally.[68]
In the late 1970s, American PresidentJimmy Carter emphasized human rights in his foreign policy, but went easy in private with the Shah.[71] By 1977, Iran had garnered unfavorable publicity in the international community for its bad human rights record.[72] That year, the Shah responded to Carter's "polite reminder" by granting amnesty to some prisoners and allowing theRed Cross to visit prisons. Through 1977, liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the Shah's regime.[73][74]
Carter angered anti-Shah Iranians with a New Year's Eve 1978 toast to the Shah in which he said:
Under the Shah's brilliant leadership Iran is an island of stability in one of the most troublesome regions of the world. There is no other state figure whom I could appreciate and like more.[75]
Observers disagree over the nature of United States policy toward Iran under Carter as the Shah's regime crumbled. According to historianNikki Keddie, the Carter administration followed "no clear policy" on Iran.[76] TheUS National Security AdvisorZbigniew Brzezinski "repeatedly assured Pahlavi that the U.S. backed him fully". At the same time, officials in the State Department believed the revolution was unstoppable.[77] After visiting the Shah in 1978, Secretary of the TreasuryW. Michael Blumenthal complained of the Shah's emotional collapse.[78] Brzezinski andEnergy SecretaryJames Schlesinger were adamant in assurances that the Shah would receive military support.
SociologistCharles Kurzman argues that the Carter administration was consistently supportive of the Shah and urged the Iranian military to stage a "last-resort coup d'état".[79][80]
The Iranian/Islamic Revolution (1978–1979) ousted the Shah and replaced him with the anti-American Supreme LeaderAyatollahRuhollah Khomeini.[81] The United States government State Department and intelligence services "consistently underestimated the magnitude and long-term implications of this unrest".[82] Six months before the revolution culminated, the CIA had produced a report stating that "Iran is not in a revolutionary or even a 'prerevolutionary' situation."[83][84]
Revolutionary students feared the power of the United States, particularly the CIA, to overthrow a new Iranian government. One source of this concern was a book by CIA agentKermit Roosevelt Jr. titledCountercoup: The Struggle for Control of Iran. Many students had read excerpts from the book and thought that the CIA would attempt to implement this countercoup strategy.[85]
Khomeini referred to America as the "Great Satan"[86] and instantly got rid of the Shah's prime minister, replacing him with politicianMehdi Bazargan. Until this point, the Carter administration was still hoping for normal relationships with Iran, sending its National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski.
The Islamic revolutionaries wished to extradite and execute the ousted Shah, and Carter refused to give him any further support or help return him to power. The Shah, suffering from terminal cancer, requested entry into the United States for treatment. The American embassy in Tehran opposed the request, as they were intent on stabilizing relations between the new interim revolutionary government of Iran and the United States.[74] However, President Carter agreed to let the Shah in, after pressure fromHenry Kissinger,Nelson Rockefeller and other pro-Shah political figures. Iranians' suspicion that the Shah was actually trying to conspire against the Iranian Revolution grew; thus, this incident was often used by the Iranian revolutionaries to justify their claims that the former monarch was an American puppet, and this led to the storming of the American embassy by radical students allied with Khomeini.[74]
On November 4, 1979, Iranian student revolutionaries, withAyatollah Khomeini’s approval, seized theU.S. embassy in Tehran, holding 52 American diplomats hostage for 444 days in response to the U.S. granting asylum to the deposed Shah. The crisis, seen in Iran as a stand against American influence and in the U.S. as a violation of diplomatic law, led to failed rescue attempts and lasting damage to Iran-U.S. relations. Six Americans escaped via theCIA-Canadian "Canadian Caper" operation, later dramatized in the filmArgo.
As a response to the seizure of the embassy, Carter banned Iranian oil imports,[87] followed by hisExecutive Order 12170 froze about $12 billion in Iranian assets,[88] including bank deposits, gold and other properties. They were the first of a number ofinternational sanctions against Iran.[89]
The crisis ended with theAlgiers Accords in January 1981. Under the terms of the agreement and Iran's compliance, the hostaged diplomats were allowed to leave Iran. One of the chief provisions of the Accords was that the United States would lift the freeze on Iranian assets and remove trade sanctions.[90] The agreement also established theIran–U.S. Claims Tribunal in The Hague to handle claims brought by Americans against Iran, as well as claims by Iran against Americans and the former shah.[87] The diplomatic ties remain severed, withSwitzerland andPakistan handling each country's interests.
American intelligence and logistical support played a crucial role in arming Iraq in theIran–Iraq War. However,Bob Woodward states that the United States gave information to both sides, hoping "to engineer a stalemate".[91] In search for a new set or order in this region, Washington adopted a policy designed to contain both sides economically and militarily.[92] During the second half of the Iran–Iraq War, theReagan administration pursued several sanction bills against Iran; on the other hand, it established full diplomatic relations withSaddam Hussein'sBa'athist government inIraq by removing it from the US list ofState Sponsors of Terrorism in 1984.[92] According to theU.S. Senate Banking Committee, the administrations of Presidents Reagan andGeorge H. W. Bush authorized the sale to Iraq of numerousdual-use items, including poisonous chemicals and deadly biological viruses, such asanthrax andbubonic plague.[93] The Iran–Iraq War ended with both agreeing to a ceasefire in 1988.
Hezbollah, an Iran-backedShi'ite Islamist group, has carried out multiple anti-American attacks, including the 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing inBeirut (killing 63, including 17 Americans), the Beirut barracks bombing (killing 241 U.S. Marines), and the 1996Khobar Towers bombing. U.S. courts have ruled Iran responsible for these attacks, with evidence showing Hezbollah operated under Iran’s direction and thatSupreme Leader Ali Khamenei authorized the Khobar Towers bombing.
According to theTower Commission report:
In 1983, the U.S. helped bring to the attention of Tehran the threat inherent in the extensive infiltration of the government by the communistTudeh Party and Soviet or pro-Soviet cadres in the country. Using this information, the Khomeini government took measures, including mass executions, that virtually eliminated the pro-Soviet infrastructure in Iran.[94]
To evade congressional rules regarding an arms embargo, officials inPresident Ronald Reagan's administration arranged in the mid-1980s to sell arms to Iran in an attempt to improve relations and obtain their influence in the release of hostages held in Lebanon.Oliver North of theNational Security Council diverted proceeds from the arms sale to fund anti-MarxistContra rebels inNicaragua.[95][96] In November 1986, Reagan issued a statement denying the arms sales.[97] One week later, he confirmed that weapons had been transferred to Iran, but denied that they were part of an exchange for hostages.[96] Later investigations by Congress and an independent counsel disclosed details of both operations and noted that documents relating to the affair were destroyed or withheld from investigators by Reagan administration officials on national security grounds.[98][99] The revelation that profits from the arms sales had been illegally funneled to the Contras created a major political scandal for Reagan.[47]
In 1988, the U.S. launchedOperation Praying Mantis in retaliation for Iran mining thePersian Gulf during the Iran–Iraq War, followingOperation Nimble Archer. It was the largest American naval operation sinceWorld War II, with strikes that destroyed two Iranian oil platforms and sank a major warship. Iran sought reparations at theInternational Court of Justice, but the court dismissed the claim. The attack helped pressure Iran into agreeing to a ceasefire with Iraq later that year.
On July 3, 1988, during theIran–Iraq War, the U.S. Navy'sUSSVincennes mistakenly shot downIran Air Flight 655, a civilianAirbus A300B2, killing 290 people.[47] The U.S. initially claimed the aircraft was a warplane and outside the civilian air corridor, but later acknowledged the downing was an accident in a combat zone. Iran, however, argued it was gross negligence and sued the U.S. in the International Court of Justice, resulting in compensation for the victims' families. The U.S. expressed regret, calling it a tragic accident, while the Vincennes crew received military honors.
Newly elected U.S. presidentGeorge H. W. Bush announced a "goodwill begets goodwill" gesture in his inaugural speech on January 20, 1989. The Bush administration urgedPresident of IranAkbar Hashemi Rafsanjani to use Iran's influence in Lebanon to obtain the release of the remainingUS hostages held by Hezbollah. Bush indicated there would be a reciprocal gesture toward Iran by the United States.[100]
Relevant background events during the first year of Bush's administration include the ending of theIran–Iraq War and the death ofAyatollah Khomeini.[101] Khomeini believed he had a sacred duty to purge Iran of what he saw as Western corruption and moral decay, aiming to restore the country to religious purity under Islamic theocratic rule.[101] Khomeini was succeeded byAli Khamenei.
In 1990,Iraq invaded Kuwait,[101] which led to theGulf War. The U.S.persuaded Iran to vote in favor ofUN resolution 678 - which issued an ultimatum for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait - by promising to lift its objections to a series of World Bank loans. The first loan, totaling $250 million, was approved just one day before the ground assault on Iraq began.[102] The war ended on February 28, 1991.[101]
In April 1995, a total oil and tradeembargo on dealings with Iran by American companies was imposed byBill Clinton.[37] This ended trade, which had been growing following the end of the Iran–Iraq War.[103] The next year, the American Congress passed the Iran-Libya Sanctions act, designed to prevent other countries from making large investments in Iranian energy. The act was denounced by the European CC as invalid.[104]
In January 1998, newly elected Iranian PresidentMohammad Khatami called for a "dialogue of civilizations" with the United States. In the interview, Khatami invokedAlexis de Tocqueville'sDemocracy in America to explain similarities between American and Iranian quests for freedom.[105] American Secretary of StateMadeleine Albright responded positively. This brought free travel between the countries as well as an end to the American embargo ofIranian carpets andpistachios. Relations then stalled due to opposition fromIranian conservatives and American preconditions for discussions, including changes inIranian policy on Israel, nuclear energy, andsupport for terrorism.[106][107]
On August 31, 2000, four United States Congress members, SenatorArlen Specter, RepresentativeBob Ney, RepresentativeGary Ackerman, and RepresentativeEliot L. Engel held informal talks inNew York City with several Iranian leaders. The Iranians includedMehdi Karroubi, speaker of theMajlis of Iran (Iranian Parliament);Maurice Motamed, aJewish member of the Majlis; and three other Iranian parliamentarians.[108]
Iran–United States relations during the George W. Bush administration (2001–2009) were marked by heightened tensions, mutual distrust, and periodic attempts at limited engagement. Following theSeptember 11 attacks in 2001, Iran initially was sympathetic with the United States.[109] However, relations deteriorated sharply after PresidentGeorge W. Bush labeled Iran part of the "Axis of Evil" in 2002, accusing the country of pursuing weapons of mass destruction that posed a threat to the U.S.[110][111] In 2003, Swiss Ambassador Tim Guldimann relayed an unofficial proposal to the U.S. outlining a possible "grand bargain" with Iran. He claimed it was developed in cooperation with Iran, but it lacked formal Iranian endorsement, and the Bush administration did not pursue the offer.[112][113][114]
Between 2003 and 2008, Iran accused the United States of repeatedly violating its territorial sovereignty through drone incursions,[115][116] covert operations, and support for opposition groups.[117][118] In August 2005,Mahmoud Ahmadinejad became Iran's president. During his presidency, attempts at dialogue, including apersonal letter to President Bush,[119] were dismissed by U.S. officials,[120] while public tensions grew over Iran’s nuclear program, U.S. foreign policy, and Ahmadinejad’s controversial remarks at international forums. The United States intensified covert operations against Iran, including alleged support for militant groups such asPEJAK andJundullah, cross-border activities, and expanded CIA and Special Forces missions. Iran was repeatedly accused by the U.S. of arming and training Iraqi insurgents, includingShiite militias and groups linked toHezbollah, with American officials citing captured weapons, satellite images, and detainee testimonies. During this period, additional flashpoints included the U.S. raid on Iran's consulate inErbil, sanctions targeting Iranian financial institutions, a naval dispute in theStrait of Hormuz, and the public disclosure of covert action plans against Iran.
Iran–United States relations during the Obama administration (2009–2017) were defined by a shift from confrontation to cautious engagement, culminating in the landmark nuclear agreement of 2015.
At the start ofObama's presidency, both sides exchanged public messages signaling a possible thaw, with Iran voicing long-standing grievances[121] and the United States calling for mutual respect and responsibility.[122] However, afterMahmoud Ahmadinejad's disputed re-election in 2009, which sparked mass protests and allegations of fraud, the United States responded with skepticism and concern.[123] In late 2011 and early 2012,Iran threatened to close the Strait of Hormuz[124] and warned a U.S. aircraft carrier not to return to the Persian Gulf. The U.S. rejected the warning and maintained its naval presence, while experts doubted Iran’s ability to sustain a blockade.[125][126]
The 2013 election of PresidentHassan Rouhani, seen as a moderate,[127] marked a shift in tone, with his outreach at the UN and a historicphone call with Obama signaling renewed diplomatic engagement.[128][129] While high-level contact resumed and symbolic gestures were exchanged, conservative backlash in Iran highlighted internal divisions over rapprochement.[130] In 2015, the United States and other world powers reached theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) with Iran, under which Iran agreed to limit its nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief.[131] The agreement marked a major diplomatic achievement for the Obama administration, though it faced skepticism in Congress[132] and mixed public support in the U.S.
Despite the JCPOA, tensions between the United States and Iran persisted over ballistic missile tests, continued U.S. sanctions, and European business hesitancy due to fear of U.S. penalties.[133][134][135][136] The administration also faced criticism for its handling of these issues, both from Iran[137] and from political opponents.
Iran–United States relations during the first Trump administration (2017–2021) were marked by a sharp policy shift fromObama's engagement-oriented approach. Trump began with atravel ban affecting Iranian citizens,[138] andwithdrew from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action(JCPOA). A broadermaximum pressure campaign followed, with over 1,500 sanctions targeting Iran’s financial, oil, and shipping sectors, as well as foreign firms doing business with Iran, severely damaging its economy.[139] The effort aimed to isolate Iran but met with strong resistance—even from U.S. allies—and often left Washington diplomatically isolated.[140]
Iran responded by threatening to resume unrestricted uranium enrichment;[141] rejecting negotiations with the Trump administration,[142] and intensified rhetoric. Tensions escalated in 2019 with U.S. intelligence reports of Iranian threats,[143][144] attacks on oil tankers, thedowning of a U.S. drone by Iran,[145] and suspected Iranian strikes on Saudi oil facilities.[146] President Trump called off retaliatory strikes,[147] using for cyberattacks and additional sanctions instead.[148]
A major escalation followed a December 2019rocket attack on the K-1 Air Basein Iraq,[149] which led to American airstrikes on Iranian-backed militias[150] and a retaliatoryattack on the U.S. embassy in Baghdad.[151] On January 3, 2020, the U.S.assassinated Iranian General Qasem Soleimani in a drone strike,[152] prompting Iranian missile attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq and heightened fears of war. The crisis deepened with the accidentaldowning of a Ukrainian passenger plane by Iranian forces and continued through early 2020 with retaliatory strikes and threats.[153]
Later in 2020, Iran blamed U.S. sanctions for limiting its COVID-19 response.[154] They launched a military satellite,[155] and were later accused of interfering in the U.S. presidential election[156] and proxy attacks.[157] Relations ended under Trump with continued hostility and unresolved disputes.
Iran–United States relations during the Biden administration (2021–2025) were shaped by efforts to revive the 2015 nuclear agreement alongside ongoing regional tensions, sanctions, cyberattacks, and proxy conflicts. Early in Joe Biden’s presidency, U.S. officials expressed interest in returning to theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA),[158] but negotiations in Vienna eventually stalled.[159][160]Iran increased uranium enrichment and imposed retaliatory sanctions,[159][161] while the U.S. imposed new sanctions over missile programs, oil exports, and human rights abuses.[162][163][164]
Tensions persisted throughout this era, marked by recurring proxy attacks on U.S. bases,[165] which intensified following the outbreak of the Gaza war in late 2023,[166] and by subsequent American retaliatory strikes.[167] The period also saw disputes over theassassination of Qasem Soleimani,[168][169][170] and military escalations across the Gulf region.[171][172][173] In 2023, a breakthrough occurred with a U.S.–Iran prisoner swap and the release of frozen Iranian funds,[174][175][176] though indirect diplomacy remained fragile.[177] Iran was later accused of interfering in the 2024 U.S. presidential election through cyber operations and AI disinformation.[178][179][180] Alleged assassination plots targeting Donald Trump and dissidents on U.S. soil further strained relations.[10] By late 2024, relations remained adversarial, marked by unresolved security disputes and growing mistrust.
In February 2025, Trump said he had given the military and his advisors instructions to obliterate Iran if he were to be assassinated.[181]He signed the return of theMaximum pressure campaign against the Iranian government.[182]Trump called for talks for a nuclear peace agreement.[183]
In theFriday prayer of February 7, Khamenei dismissed negotiations and stated that the Iranian government should not make a deal with the US.[184] February 9, Trump said that he would rather make a deal with Iranians than let them be bombed by Israel.[185][186]
In March 2025, Khamenei stated that he did not intend to negotiate with Trump.[187] IRGC General Salami threatened United States military with devastation.[188] Trump threatened he would hold Iranian regime to blame for any shots fired by Houthis.[189]
Putin and Trump reached an agreement that Iran should never be in a position to destroy Israel.[190]
In April,Ali Larijani, advisor to Khamenei, threatened Trump that Iran would make nuclear weapons.[191] Islamic Republic military allegedly had recommended a preemptively strike on US military bases.[192]
In April President Trump stated that Iranians want direct negotiations.[193]US–Iran negotiations began on April 12, 2025.[194]
In April 2025, U.S. CongressmenJoe Wilson andJimmy Panetta introduced a 'Free Iraq from Iran' bill. The legislation mandates the development of a comprehensive U.S. strategy to irreversibly dismantle Iran-backed militias, including thePopular Mobilization Forces (PMF), and calls for the suspension of U.S. assistance to Iraq until these militias are fully removed. The bill also imposes sanctions on Iraqi political and military figures aligned with Iran, and provides support for Iraqi citizens and independent media to expose abuses committed by these militias. Its primary objective is to restore Iraq’s sovereignty and reduce Iranian dominance without resorting to direct military intervention.[195]
In his speechhis May 2025 trip to Middle East Trump called out the Iranians as the most destructive force and denounced the Iran leaders for having managed to be turning green fertile farmland and rolling blackouts calling on it to make a choice between war and violence and making a deal.[196][197]On June 7, 2025, the U.S. Treasury Department imposed sanctions on 10 individuals and 27 entities, including Iranian nationals and firms based in the UAE and Hong Kong. These targets include the Zarringhalam brothers, accused of laundering billions via shell companies tied to the IRGC and Iran’s Central Bank. The funds reportedly supported Iran’s nuclear and missile programs, oil sales, and militant proxies.[198][199]
Relations further worsened after Iranian authorities threatened to attack U.S. and allied bases in the Middle East if the former were to involve itself in theIran–Israel war,[200] after which the U.S. intervened in the Israeli attacks and bombed key Iranian nuclear sites.[201]
On June 21, 2025, the U.S., under the orders of President Trump,bombed 3 Iranian nuclear enrichment sites,Fordow,Natanz, andIsfahan, briefly joining theIran-Israel war.[202] Following the attacks, Iran pulled out and suspended nuclear talks indefinitely.[203]
During the2025–2026 Iranian protests, Trump repeatedly stated to the Iranian authorities that the US would "intervene" if the Iranian government did not halt itscrackdown on protesters.[204]
In January 2026, during the widespread and increasingly violent crackdown on nationwide protests in Iran, Trump stated that the US was seriously considering a range of responses, including potential military options, if Iranian government actions crossed established "red line"s. Trump said that the US military was evaluating "very strong options" and that senior advisers were scheduled to discuss possible actions, while also noting that Iranian leaders had reached out for negotiations. Iranian officials stated that Iranian forces would retaliate against US forces and allied interests in the region if US forces attacked.[205] On January 16, 2026, Trump announced that the Iranian leadership had reportedly canceled over 800 planned executions.[206] On January 27, 2026, following the deployment of theUSS Abraham Lincoln to the region the day before, a multi-day US aerial military drill in the region was announced.[207] On the same day Trump said: "There is another beautiful war fleet sailing toward Iran right now."[208][209] In addition,The Pentagon ordered US Air Force F-15E Strike Eagles that were deployed atRoyal Air Force Lakenheath in Britain to move forward to American air bases inJordan.[209]
In February 2026, following the heightened tensions in January,Iran and the United States held a new round of diplomatic talks in Muscat, Oman, with Oman acting as a mediator. The discussions primarily focused on Iran's nuclear program and the potential easing of economic sanctions. The Iranian delegation was led by Foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi, while the U.S. delegation included senior officials from the State Department.[210][211][212]
During the talks, the United States reportedly sought to address Iran's missile program and regional activities, whereas Iran emphasized that negotiations should remain limited to nuclear issues and sanctions relief. Both sides expressed commitment to continuing diplomatic engagement, though no immediate agreement was announced.[213]
Trade between Iran and the United States reached $623 million in 2008. According to theUnited States Census Bureau, American exports to Iran reached $93 million in 2007 and $537 million in 2008. American imports from Iran decreased from $148 million in 2007 to $86 million in 2008.[214] This data does not include trade conducted through third countries to circumvent thetrade embargo. It has been reported that theUnited States Treasury Department has granted nearly 10,000 special licenses to American companies over the past decade to conduct business with Iran.[215]
US exports to Iran include[when?] cigarettes (US$73 million); corn (US$68 million); chemical wood pulp, soda or sulfate (US$64 million); soybeans (US$43 million); medical equipment (US$27 million); vitamins (US$18 million); and vegetable seeds (US$12 million).[214]
In May 2013, US PresidentBarack Obama lifted a tradeembargo of communications equipment and software to non-government Iranians.[216] In June 2013, the Obama administration expanded its sanctions against Iran, targeting its auto industry and, for the first time, its currency.[217]
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According to a 2014 study by theNational Iranian American Council, sanctions cost the US over $175 billion in lost trade and 279,000 lost job opportunities.[218]
According toBusiness Monitor International:
The tentative rapprochement between Iran and the US, which began in the second half of 2013, has the potential to become a world-changing development, and unleash tremendous geopolitical and economic opportunities, if it is sustained. Tehran and Washington have been bitter enemies since 1979, when the Iranian Revolution overthrew the pro-American Shah and replaced him with a virulently anti-American Islamist regime. Since then, Iran has been at the vanguard of countries actively challenging the US-led world order. This has led to instability in the Middle East, and Iran's relative isolation in international affairs. Yet, if Iran and the US were to achieve a diplomatic breakthrough, geopolitical tensions in the Middle East could decline sharply, and Iran could come to be perceived as a promising emerging market in its own right.[219]
On April 22, 2019, under the Trump administration, the U.S. demanded that buyers of Iranian oil stop purchases or face economic penalties, announcing that the six-month sanction exemptions for China, India, Japan, South Korea and Turkey instated a year prior would not be renewed and would end by May 1. The move was seen as an attempt to completely stifleIran's oil exports. Iran insisted the sanctions were illegal and that it had attached "no value or credibility" to the waivers. U.S. Secretary of StateMike Pompeo said President Trump's decision not to renew the waivers showed his administration was "dramatically accelerating our pressure campaign in a calibrated way that meets our national security objectives while maintaining well supplied global oil markets".[220] On April 30, Iran stated it would continue to export oil despite U.S. pressure.[221]
On May 8, 2019, exactly one year after the Trump administration withdrew the United States from theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action, the U.S. imposed a new layer of duplicate sanctions on Iran, targeting its metal exports, a sector that generates 10 percent of its export revenue. The move came amid escalating tension in the region and just hours after Iran threatened to start enriching more uranium if it did not get relief from U.S. measures that are crippling its economy. The Trump administration has said the sanctions will only be lifted if Iran fundamentally changes its behavior and character.[222]
On June 24, 2019, following continued escalations in theStrait of Hormuz, President Donald Trump announced new targeted sanctions against Iranian and IRGC leadership, includingSupreme LeaderAli Khamenei and hisoffice. IRGC targets includedNaval commanderAlireza Tangsiri,Aerospace commanderAmir Ali Hajizadeh, andGround commanderMohammad Pakpour, and others.[223][224]U.S. Treasury SecretarySteven Mnuchin said the sanctions will block "billions" in assets.[225]
The US Treasury DepartmentFinancial Crimes Enforcement Network imposed a measure that further prohibits the US banking system from use by an Iranian bank, thereby requiring US banks to step up due diligence on the accounts in their custody.[226]
The US Department of Treasury'sOffice of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) blacklisted four Iranian metal sector organizations along with their foreign subsidiaries, on July 23, 2020. One German subsidiary and three in theUnited Arab Emirates – owned and controlled by Iran's biggest steel manufacturer,Mobarakeh Steel Company – were also blacklisted by Washington for yielding millions of dollars for Iran's aluminum, steel, iron, and copper sectors. The sanctions froze all US assets controlled by the companies in question and further prohibited Americans from associating with them.[227][228]
On October 8, 2020, the U.S. Treasury Department placed sanctions on 18 Iranian banks. Any American connection to these banks is to be blocked and reported to the Office of Foreign Assets Control, and, 45 days after the sanctions take effect, anyone transacting with these banks may "be subject to an enforcement action." Treasury SecretarySteven Mnuchin said the goal was to pressure Iran to end nuclear activities and terrorist funding.[229]
On October 30, 2020, it was revealed that the US had "seized Iranian missiles shipped toYemen", and it had "sold 1.1 million barrels of previously seized Iranian oil that was bound forVenezuela" in two shipments: theLiberia-flaggedEuroforce andSingapore-flaggedMaersk Progress, and sanctioned 11 new Iranian entities.[230]
In February 2026, Donald Trump issued an executive order imposing tariffs of up to 25 percent on nations engaged in trade with Iran. The policy focuses on Iran’s commercial partners rather than the country itself and aims to reduce international transactions with Iran, even as diplomatic talks continued.[231][232]
It is natural that our Islamic system should be viewed as an enemy and an intolerable rival by such an oppressive power as the United States, which is trying to establish a global dictatorship and further its own interests by dominating other nations and trampling on their rights. It is also clear that the conflict and confrontation between the two is something natural and unavoidable. [Address by Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, to students at Shahid Beheshti University, May 12, 2003]
To give up this trump card—the non-relationship with the United States, the easy evocation of an external bogeyman—would be costly for the Iranian leadership. It would be a Gorbachevian signal that the revolution is entering a dramatically new phase—one Iran's leaders cannot be certain of surviving in power.
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