Motto: اَللَّٰهُ أَكْبَرُ Allāhu ʾakbar (Takbir) "God is the Greatest" (de jure) استقلال، آزادی، جمهوری اسلامی Esteqlâl, Âzâdi, Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi "Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic" (de facto)[1]
Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC, including theJiroft culture in southeastern Iran.[23] Inscriptions in theProto-Elamite script, which predatescuneiform, have been found from during the early third millennium BC.[24][25] The western part of the Iranian plateau participated in the traditionalancient Near East withElam (3200–539 BC), and later with other peoples such as theKassites,Mannaeans, andGutians. The earliest Iranian peoples began to arrive from Central Asia in the 2nd millennium BCE.[26]
After the death of Cambyses II,Darius the Great (r. 522–486) ascended the throne by overthrowing the Achaemenid monarchBardiya. Darius' first capital was at Susa, and he started the building program atPersepolis. He improved the extensive road system, and during his reign the first recorded mentions are made of theRoyal Road, a highway from Susa toSardis.[35]
In 499 BC,Athens supported a revolt inMiletus, resulting in the sacking of Sardis. This led to theGreco-Persian Wars, which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC. In theFirst Persian invasion of Greece, Persian generalMardonius re-subjugated Thrace and made Macedon a full part of Persia.[36] Darius' successorXerxes I (r. 486–465) launched theSecond Persian invasion of Greece. At a crucial moment in the war, about half of mainland Greece was overrun by the Persians, including territories to the north of the Isthmus ofCorinth.[37][38] This was reversed by a Greek victory following the battles ofPlataea andSalamis, during which Persia lost its footholds in Europe, and withdrew from it.[39]
TheParthian Empire endured for five centuries, but civil wars destabilized it. Parthian power evaporated whenArdashir I revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler,Artabanus IV, in 224 AD. Ardashir established theSasanian Empire, which ruled Iran and much ofNear East before theMuslim conquests of the 7th century AD.[46]
At their zenith, the Sasanians controlled all of modern-day Iran and Iraq and parts of theArabian Peninsula, as well as theCaucasus, theLevant, and parts ofCentral andSouth Asia.[47] The strong economic conditions left by Parthians allowed the Sasanians to build a powerful and distinctive economic state whose reputation spread well beyond its political frontiers and time.[48] The Sasanian Empire was characterized by a complex and centralized government bureaucracy and the revitalization ofZoroastrianism as a legitimizing and unifying ideal.[49]
Medieval period
After the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651, theArabs of theUmayyad Caliphate adopted many Persian customs, especially the administrative and the court mannerisms. Arab provincial governors were either PersianizedArameans or ethnic Persians; Persian remained the official language of the caliphate until the adoption of Arabic toward the end of the 7th century.[50] However, Iran was still not entirely under Arab control; theDaylam region was under the control of theDaylamites,Tabaristan was underDabuyid andPaduspanid control, andMount Damavand underMasmughan control. Arabs had invaded these regions several times but the regions' inaccessible terrain prevented a decisive result. The most prominent ruler of the Dabuyids,Farrukhan the Great (r. 712–728), managed to hold his domains during his long struggle against the Arab generalYazid ibn al-Muhallab, who was defeated by a combined Daylamite–Dabuyid army and forced to retreat from Tabaristan.[51]
Iranian Intermezzo
TheSaffarid dynasty in 900 ADA map of Iranian dynasties in the mid 10th-century
Anti-Umayyad insurrections were supported by non-Arab Islamic converts, who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into theAbbasid revolution, in which descendants of Muhammad's uncle,Abbas, overthrew the Umayyads.[52] The political authority of theAbbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the 9th and 10th centuries.[53] This led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties,[53] the ousting of Arab rulers from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance.[54] The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by theSeljuk Turks in the 11th century is referred to as the "Iranian Intermezzo."[54]
The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties.[54] Among the most important of these overlapping dynasties were theTahirids inKhorasan (821–873); theSaffarids inSistan (861–1003); and theSamanids (819–1005), originally atBukhara. The Samanids eventually ruled an area from central Iran to Pakistan. By early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control to the growing Iranian faction known as theBuyid dynasty (934–1062). Since much of the Abbasid administration had been Persian, the Buyids were quietly able to assume real power in Baghdad. The Buyids were defeated in the mid-11th century by theSeljuq Turks, who continued to exert influence over the Abbasids. From the empire's inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the titlešāhānšāh (lit.'King of Kings') in its Persian form,[55] perhaps adopting it from the Buyids.[56] The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death ofAhmad Sanjar in 1157.
TheIslamization of Iran was a long process. As Persian Muslims consolidated their rule, the Muslim population rose from approximately 40% in the mid-9th century to close to 90% by the end of the 11th century. HistorianSeyyed Hossein Nasr suggests that the rapid increase in conversion was aided by the Persian nationality of the rulers.[57] Although Persians adopted the religion of their conquerors, over the centuries they worked to protect and revive their distinctive language and culture, a process known asPersianization. Arabs and Turks participated in this process.[58][59][60]
After the death ofMöngke Khan, theMongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East.Kublai Khan was eventually universally recognized, but the empire was irreversibly fragmented.[64] In much of the southwest of the empire, including Iran, power fell toHulegu Khan,[65] who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan.[64] Hulegu was accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was legitimized through afatwa issued by the Shia scholarAli ibn Tawus al-Hilli.[66] Iran experienced a cultural renaissance underIlkhanid rule.[66]Ghazan Khan converted to Islam in the late 13th century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms.[65]
After Ghazan's nephewAbu Said died in 1335, the Ilkhanate lapsed into civil war and was divided between several petty dynasties – most prominently theJalayirids,Muzaffarids,Sarbadars andKartids. The mid-14th-centuryBlack Death killed about 30% of the country's population.[67]
Iran remained divided until the establishment of the PersianateTimurid dynasty in 1370. Its founder, Timur (r. 1370–1405), hailed from aTurkified tribe of Mongols.[68] After establishing a power base inTransoxiana, Timur invaded Iran in 1381 and eventually conquered most of it. Timur's campaigns were known for their brutality; many people were slaughtered and several cities were destroyed.[69] In 1387, Timur ordered the completemassacre of Isfahan, killing 70,000 people.[70] The Timurids maintained control of most of Iran until 1452, when they lost the bulk of it to theQara Qoyunlu, who were conquered in turn by theAq Qoyunlu 1468.Uzun Hasan and his successors were the masters of Iran until the rise of the Safavids.[69]
TheSafavid Empire, founded byIsmail I (r. 1505–1524), is often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history.[71] While Safavid Iran predated the concept of the nation-state as such, it established the basis for the modern state of Iran.[71][72] TheSafavid dynastic period was one of the most important Iranian history, as it reunified Iran as a cohesive entity under native rule and established Shia Islam as theofficial religion.[73] The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722, and experienced a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736.
The Safavid state had a complex bureaucratic system of checks and balances, which ensured transparency and prevented fraud. However, this system was intended not to equalize power between branches of government, but to ensure total power of the shah. Legitimized by his bloodline as asayyid, or descendant of Muhammad, the shah monitored the actions of government officials through reports provided by the superintendent of each department.Jean Chardin, French merchant and eventual ambassador to Iran, wrote that the Safavid shahs ruled their land with an iron fist and often in adespotic manner.[74]
Complex rivalries in the region ofKhorasan led to the AfghanHotak dynasty invading Iran. In 1722, this conflict led to the collapse of the Safavid Empire after thesiege of Isfahan.[71][75] The brief interlude between 1722 and the rise of theQajar dynasty in 1789–1796 was marked by widespread political turmoil in Iran and several rival attempts to establish power over the country. The Safavids failed to regain power and the Hotaks failed to establish control. The rivalAfsharid andZand dynasties were established byNader Shah (r. 1736–1747) andKarim Khan (r. 1751–1779), respectively.[75]
Nader Shah has been described as "the last great Asiatic military conqueror," and compared by some historians to Napoleon and Alexander the Great.[76][77] His numerous campaigns created a great empire that, at its maximum extent, briefly encompassed all or part of modern-day Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Oman, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, theNorth Caucasus, and thePersian Gulf. However, his military spending had a ruinous effect on the Iranian economy.[78]
A map of Iran under theQajar dynasty in the 19th century.
Nader Shah's death was followed by aperiod of anarchy in Iran as rival army commanders fought for power. Nader's own family, the Afsharids, lost all but a small domain in Khorasan. The Zand family seized control of much of Iran in the 1750s.[79] The Zand rulers never proclaimed themselves to beshahs, but asregents of Iran.[79][80] They first staked their claim to power on behalf of the Safavid puppetIsmail III (r. 1750–1773) and then on behalf of the Iranian people.[79][80]
Rise of the Qajar dynasty and foreign interference
The Qajar dynasty gradually increased in power as they clashed with the Afsharids and the Zands for control of the land, culminating inAgha Mohammad Shah proclaiming himself ruler in 1789.[81] Agha Mohammad defeated the Zand dynasty in 1794 and was officially crowned in 1796.[79][81] Shortly thereafter, he captured and deposed the Afsharid Shahrokh Shah, reunifying Iran under a single ruler.[81]
In the 19th century, Iran lost significant territories in theCaucasus to theRussian Empire following theRusso-Persian Wars.[82] Meanwhile,Britain became involved insouthern Iran to counter Russia's presence in the north, which posed a threat toBritish India.[83] Amid this struggle for power, drought, shifting agricultural priorities, and poor governance culminated in theGreat Persian Famine of 1870–1871. While the death toll is unknown, the famine killed a significant portion of Iran's population; between several hundred thousand and four million Iranians are believed to have died as a result.[84]
To his supporters, his reign brought "law and order, discipline, central authority, and modern amenities – schools, trains, buses, radios, cinemas, and telephones."[89] However, his reign has been characterized as a corruptpolice state which provided only surface level modernization.[89][90][91]
World War II and post-occupation instability
Due in part to Nazi Germany'sinvasion of theSoviet Union, the Iranian government expected Germany to win the war and establish a powerful force on the Russian-Iranian border. Iran rejected British and Soviet demands to expel German residents from its borders. In response, the twoAllies invaded in August 1941 and easily overwhelmed the weak Iranian army inOperation Countenance. Iran became the major conduit of AlliedLend-Lease aid to the Soviet Union. The purpose was to secure Iranian oil fields and ensure Allied supply lines through thePersian Corridor. Iran remained officially neutral. Reza Shah was deposed during the subsequent occupation and replaced with his young sonMohammad Reza Pahlavi.[92] At the 1943Tehran Conference, the Allied "Big Three"—Joseph Stalin,Franklin D. Roosevelt, andWinston Churchill—issued the Tehran Declaration to guarantee the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran.[93]
In 1951, under Prime MinisterMohammad Mosaddegh, the Iranian parliament voted to nationalize the British-owned oil industry, leading to theAbadan Crisis. Despite British pressure, including an economic blockade, nationalization continued. Mosaddegh was removed from power in 1952 but was quickly re-appointed by the Shah, due to a popular uprising in support of the premier. He forced the Shah into a brief exile in August 1953 after a failed military coup byImperial Guard ColonelNematollah Nassiri.
On 19 August, a successfulcoup was headed by retired army generalFazlollah Zahedi, aided by the US (CIA)[94] and the British (MI6), known as Operation Ajax and Operation Boot to the respective agencies.[95] The coup—with ablack propaganda campaign against Mosaddegh[96] — forced Mosaddegh from office. Mosaddegh was arrested and tried for treason. Found guilty, his sentence was reduced to house arrest on his family estate while his foreign minister,Hossein Fatemi, was executed.Zahedi succeeded him as prime minister and suppressed opposition to the Shah, specifically from theNational Front and the communistTudeh Party.
From that time until the revolution, Iran was ruled as an autocracy under the Shah, with strong American support. Iran initiated economic, social, agrarian, and administrative reforms to modernize the country, which became known as theWhite Revolution. Many Islamic leaders criticized these initiatives, and the land reform had mixed results.[97] By 1978, the Shah had become wildly unpopular among the Iranian people. Daily demonstrations destabilized the region, and the Shah establishedmartial law to curb opposition. When hundreds of thousands of protestors persisted, security forces opened fire on the crowds in an incident that became known asBlack Friday.[98]
AyatollahKhomeini returns to Iran after 14 years exile in France on 1 February 1979.
The protests against the Shah grew to include more than 10% of the country; it is rare for revolutions to involve even 1% of a country's population.[99] Frustration with the Shah was so great that even secular and leftist groups supportedAyatollah Rohullah Khomeini, the leader of therevolution, despite sharing none of his political positions.[100] Under increasing pressure, the Shah eventually fled Iran, charging the interimRegency Council with his duties until a new government was formed.[101][102]Shapour Bakhtiar, the head of the Council, invited Khomeini to return from exile. However, upon return, Khomeini pledged to defeat the interim government led by Bakhtiar and claimed to support free democratic elections. Violence broke out between the two factions, ultimately leading Bakhtiar to flee Iran in disguise.
On 31 March 1979, areferendum was held on whether to transition from a government of monarchy to anIslamic republic. The referendum was approved by a massive margin. It mandated the creation of anassembly to draft the newtheocratic constitution, whereby Khomeini becameSupreme Leader in December 1979. Iran's modernizing, capitalist economy was replaced by populist Islamic economic and cultural policies. Industries were nationalized, laws and schoolsIslamized, andWestern influence restricted.[103]
Khomeini, Iran-Iraq War, and leadership transition
An Iranian soldier with gas mask during theIran–Iraq War
The shah, now out of power, went to the US to seek cancer treatment after other countries denied him entry. Supporters of the revolution feared that this was a step toward a coup to reinstate the Shah's reign. On 4 November 1979, Iranian studentsseized US embassy personnel, labeling the embassy a "den of spies."[104] 52 hostages were held for 444 days until January 1981.[105]
Iraqi leaderSaddam Hussein attempted to take advantage of the disorder of the revolution, the weakness of the Iranian military and the revolution's antagonism against Western governments. On 22 September 1980, the Iraqi armyinvaded Iran atKhuzestan, precipitating theIran–Iraq War. The attack took revolutionary Iran by surprise. Although Hussein's forces made early advances, Iranian forces pushed the Iraqi army back into Iraq by 1982. Khomeini sought toexport the revolution westward into Iraq, especially to the country's Shi'a Arab majority. The war continued until 1988, when Khomeini "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the UN.[106] The war, which ended in a stalemate in 1988, killed approximately 500,000 people.[107] During the war, Saddam extensively usedchemical weapons against Iranians.[108]
On his deathbed in 1989, Khomeini appointed a 25-man Constitutional Reform Council which namedAli Khamenei as the next Supreme Leader, and made changes to Iran's constitution.[109] A smooth transition followed Khomeini's death on 3 June 1989. While Khamenei lacked Khomeini's "charisma and clerical standing", he developed a network of supporters within Iran's armed forces and its economically powerfulreligious foundations.[110]
In 1989, PresidentAkbar Rafsanjani concentrated on a pro-business policy of rebuilding the economy, without breaking with the ideology of the revolution. He supported a free market, favoring privatization of state industries and a moderate position internationally. In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by moderatereformistMohammad Khatami, whose government advocatedfreedom of expression, constructive diplomatic relations with Asia and the European Union, and policy that supported a free market and foreign investment.
Iran's economic struggles, and the weakening of itskey allies and proxies since 2023 have left the Iranian government weakened and isolated.[137][138][139] In early 2025, Iran was rapidly advancing its nuclear program.[140] Analysts warned such activity exceeded any plausible civilian justification.[141] Beginning in April, Iran and the USentered negotiations for a new nuclear agreement, but progress stalled. In June,IAEA found Iran non-compliant with its nuclear obligations;[142] in response, Iran announced the activation of a new enrichment facility.[143]
Iran is in a seismically active area.[151] On average, an earthquake ofmagnitude 7.0 or higher occurs once every ten years.[152] Most earthquakes are shallow-focus and can be very devastating, such as the2003 Bam earthquake. Iran consists mostly of theIranian Plateau, with its southwestern region on theArabian Plate. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries; its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separatebasins orplateaus. The populous western Iran is the most mountainous, with ranges such as theCaucasus,Zagros, andAlborz.Mount Damavand is the highest point, at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is the highest volcano in Asia. Iran's mountains have impacted its politics and economics for centuries.
Northern Iran is covered by the lush lowlandCaspian Hyrcanian forests, near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. The east consists mostly ofdesert basins, such as theKavir Desert, which is the country's largest desert, and theLut Desert, as well as salt lakes. The Lut Desert is the hottest recorded spot on the Earth's surface, with 70.7 °C recorded in 2005.[153][154][155][156] Large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian and at the north end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of theArvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, theStrait of Hormuz, and Gulf of Oman.[157][158][159]
Iran's climate is diverse, ranging fromarid andsemi-arid, tosubtropical along the Caspian coast and northern forests.[160] On the north edge of Iran, temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F).[161] Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the eastern plains and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in the west. The UN Resident Coordinator for Iran has said that "Water scarcity poses the most severe human security challenge in Iran today".[162]
To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin have lower temperatures and severe winters, with freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The east and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain and have occasional deserts.[163] Average summer temperatures may reach 38 °C (100.4 °F). The southern coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in).[164]
Nearly 60% of Iran is mountainous, and less than 10% is forested.[165] About 120 million hectares of forests and fields are government-owned for national exploitation.[166][167] Iran's forests can be divided into five vegetation regions: the Hyrcanian region which forms the green belt of the north side of Iran; theTuran region, which are mainly scattered in the center of Iran; theZagros region, which mainly contains oak forests in the west; the Persian Gulf region, which is scattered in the southern coastal belt; theArasbarani region, which contains rare and unique species. More than 8,200plant species are grown. The land covered by natural flora is four times that of Europe's.[168] There are over 200 protected areas to preserve biodiversity and wildlife, with over 30 beingnational parks.
Supreme Leader (Persian:رهبر معظم,romanized: Rahbar-e Moazam), theRahbar, the Leader of the Revolution or Supreme Leadership Authority, is thehead of state and is responsible for supervision of policy. The president has limited power compared to theRahbar. Key ministers are selected with theRahbar's agreement, who has the ultimate say on foreign policy.[175] TheRahbar is directly involved in ministerial appointments for defense, intelligence and foreign affairs, and other top ministries after submission of candidates from the president.
TheRahbar directly controls regional policy, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs tasks limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. Ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by theQuds Force, which reports to the Rahbar.[176] TheRahbar can order laws to be amended.[177] TheSetad, astate-owned enterprise under theRahbar, was valued at $95bn in 2013, accounts of which are secret even to theparliament.[178][179]
TheRahbar is thecommander-in-chief of theArmed Forces,[g] controls military intelligence and security operations,[181] and has the sole power to declare war or peace.[h] TheRahbar also appoints the heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, commanders of the police and military, and members of theGuardian Council.
TheAssembly of Experts is responsible for electing theRahbar and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.[183] To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of theRahbar's decisions nor attempted to dismiss him. The previous head of the judicial system,Sadiq Larijani, appointed by theRahbar, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise theRahbar.[184] Many believe the Assembly of Experts has become a ceremonial body without any real power.[185][186][187] In February 2025,The New York Times reported that according toKarim Sadjadpour, an expert on Iran at theCarnegie Endowment for International Peace, there exists in the Islamic Republic of Iran two parallel systems.[188] One which is ruled by the military and intelligence forces, who report to theRahbar, and "who oversee the nuclear programme and regional proxies and are tasked withrepression, hostage taking and assassinations".[188] The other ruled by diplomats and politicians "who are authorized to speak to Western media and officials" and have minimal knowledge of Iran's nuclear programme.[188]
The president ishead of government and the second-highest-ranking authority after the Supreme Leader. The president is elected byuniversal suffrage for 4 years. Beforeelections, nominees to become a presidential candidate must be approved by theGuardian Council.[196] The council's members are chosen by the Leader, with the Leader having the power to dismiss the president.[197] The president can only be re-elected for one term.[198] The president is the chairman of theSupreme National Security Council, and has the power to declare astate of emergency after passage by the parliament.
The president is responsible for the implementation of the constitution and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by theRahbar, except for matters directly related to theRahbar, who has the final say.[199] The president functions as the executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by theRahbar.[200][201]
The president appoints ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament and theRahbar, who can dismiss or reinstate any minister.[202][203][204] The president supervises theCouncil of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.[205] Eight vice presidents serve under the president, as well as a cabinet of 22 ministers, all appointed by the president.[206]
Guardian Council
Presidential and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the 12-memberGuardian Council (all members of which are appointed by the Leader) or the Leader before running to ensure their allegiance.[207] The Leader rarely does the vetting, but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of the Guardian Council is not needed. The Leader can revert the decisions of the Guardian Council.[208]
The constitution gives the council three mandates: veto power over legislation passed by theparliament,[209][210] supervision of elections[211] and approving or disqualifying candidates seeking to run in local, parliamentary, presidential, or Assembly of Experts elections.[212] The council can nullify a law based on two accounts: being againstsharia (Islamic law), or being against the constitution.[213]
The leader selects the secretary of the Supreme Council, and the council's decisions are effective after the leader confirms them. The SNSC formulates nuclear policy and would become effective if the Leader confirms them.[220][221]
The legislature, known as theIslamic Consultative Assembly, Iranian Parliament or "Majles", is aunicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four years.[222] It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All parliamentary candidates and legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council.[223][224] The Guardian Council can dismiss elected members of the parliament.[225][226] The parliament has no legal status without the Guardian Council, and the Council holds absolute veto power over legislation.[227]
TheExpediency Discernment Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Guardian Council. It serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of Iran's most powerful governing bodies.[228][213] The Parliament has 207 constituencies, including the 5reserved seats for religious minorities. The remaining 202 are territorial, covering one or more of Iran's counties.
Iran uses the sharia law (based onJa'fari school) as its legal system, with elements ofcivil law. The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the Supreme Court and chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, andrevolutionary courts, which deal with certain offenses, such as crimes againstnational security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.
The Chief Justice heads the judicial system and is responsible for its administration and supervision. He is the highest judge of theSupreme Court of Iran. The Chief Justice nominates candidates to serve as minister of justice, and the president selects one. The Chief Justice can serve for two five-year terms.[229]
TheSpecial Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed byclerics, although it has taken on cases involvinglaypeople. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Rahbar. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.[206] The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for 8-year terms.
Iran is subdivided into thirty-oneprovinces (Persian:استانostân), each governed from a local centre, usually the largest local city, which is called the capital (Persian:مرکز,markaz) of that province. The provincial authority is headed by agovernor-general (استاندارostândâr), who is appointed by theMinister of the Interior subject to the approval ofthe cabinet.[230]
Russia is a key trading partner, especially in regard to its excess oil reserves.[251][252] Both share a close economic and military alliance and are subject to heavy sanctions by Western nations.[253][254][255][256] Iran is the only country in Western Asia that has been invited to join theCSTO, the Russia-based international treaty organization that parallelsNATO.[257]
Relations between Iran and China are strong economically; they have developed a friendly, economic and strategic relationship. In 2021, Iran and China signed a25-year cooperation agreement that will strengthen the relations between the two countries and would include "political, strategic and economic" components.[258]Iran-China relations dates back to at least 200 BC and possibly earlier.[259][260] Iran is one of the few countries in the world that has a good relationship with bothNorth andSouth Korea.[261] Iran is a member of dozens of international organizations, including theG-15,G-24,G-77,IAEA,IBRD,IDA,NAM,IDB,IFC,ILO,IMF,IMO,Interpol,OIC,OPEC,WHO, and theUN, and currently has observer status at theWTO.
Iran has over 610,000 active troops and around 350,000 reservists, which is at least over 1 million military personnel, one of the world's highestpercentage of citizens with military training.[265][266][267][268] The Basij, aparamilitary volunteer militia within the IRGC, has over 20 million members, 600,000 available for immediate call-up, 300,000 reservists, and a million that could be mobilised when necessary.[269][270][271] Faraja, the Iranian uniformedpolice force, has over 260,000 active personnel. Most statistical organizations do not include the Basij and Faraja in their rating reports.
Iran ranks 7th in the number of active military personnel[272] and 9th in size of both its ground force and armoured force. Iran's armed forces are the largest in West Asia and comprise the greatestArmy Aviation fleet in the Middle East.[273][274][275] Iran is among the top 15 countries in terms of military budget.[276] In 2021, its military spending increased for the first time in four years, to $24.6 billion, 2.3% of the national GDP.[277] Funding for the IRGC accounted for 34% of Iran's total military spending in 2021.[278]
Following Russia's purchase of Iranian drones during theinvasion of Ukraine,[289][290][291] in November 2023, the IRIAF finalized arrangements to acquire RussianSukhoi Su-35 fighter jets,Mil Mi-28 attack helicopters, air defense and missile systems.[292][293] The Iranian Navy has had joint exercises with Russia and China.[294]
In 2018, however, theUS withdrew from the deal under theTrump administration and reimposed sanctions. This was met with resistance by Iran and other members of the P5+1.[299][300][301] A year later, Iran began decreasing its compliance.[302] By 2020, Iran announced it would no longer observe any limit set by the agreement.[303][304] Progress since then has brought Iran to thenuclear threshold status.[305][306][302] As of November 2023[update], Iran had uranium enriched to up to 60% fissile content, close to weapon grade.[307][308][309][310] Some analysts already regard Iran as ade facto nuclear power.[311][312][313]
After the revolution, Iran grew its influence across and beyond the region.[321][322][323][324] It built military forces with a wide network of state and none-state actors, starting with Hezbollah in Lebanon in 1982.[325][326] The IRGC was key to Iranian influence, through its Quds Force.[327][328][329] The instability in Lebanon (from the 1980s),[330] Iraq (from 2003)[331] and Yemen (from 2014)[332] allowed Iran to build strong alliances and footholds beyond its borders. Iran had a prominent influence in the social services, education, economy and politics of Lebanon,[333][334] and Lebanon provides Iran access to theMediterranean Sea.[335][336] Hezbollah's strategic successes against Israel, such as its symbolic victory during the2006 Israel–Hezbollah War, elevated Iran's influence in theLevant and strengthened its appeal across theMuslim World.[337][338]
After theUS invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the arrival ofISIS in the mid-2010s, Iran financed and trained militia groups in Iraq.[339][340][341] After the Iran-Iraq war and the fall ofSaddam Hussein, Iran shaped Iraq's politics.[342][343][344] Following Iraq's struggle against ISIS in 2014, companies linked to the IRGC such asKhatam al-Anbiya, started to build roads, power plants, hotels and businesses in Iraq, creating an economic corridor worth around $9 billion beforeCOVID-19.[345]
In Syria, Iran supported PresidentBashar al-Assad;[357][358] the two countries were long-standing allies.[359][339] Iran provided significant military and economic support to Assad's government,[360][361] so had a considerable foothold in Syria.[362][363] Iran has long supported organizations inNorth Africa in countries likeAlgeria andTunisia, embracingHamas in part to help undermine the popularity of thePalestinian Liberation Organization (PLO).[364] Iran's support of Hamas emerged more clearly in later years.[365][366][367][368] According to US intelligence, Iran does not have full control over these state and non-state groups.[369]
The entrance toEvin Prison, established in 1972.VICE describes the prison as the "legendary terrifying place that nobody wants to end up."[370]
The Iranian government has been denounced by various international organizations and governments for violating human rights.[371] The government has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government. Iranian law does not recognisesexual orientations.Sexual activity between members of the same sex is illegal and ispunishable by death.[372][373]Capital punishment is a legal punishment, and according to the BBC, Iran "carries out more executions than any other country, except China".[374] UN Special RapporteurJavaid Rehman has reported discrimination against several ethnic minorities in Iran.[375] A group of UN experts in 2022 urged Iran to stop "systematic persecution" of religious minorities, adding that members of theBaháʼí Faith were arrested, barred from universities, or had their homes demolished.[376][377]
Censorship is ranked among the most extreme worldwide.[378][379][380] Iran has strictinternet censorship, with the government persistently blocking social media and other sites.[381][382][383] Since January 2021, authorities have blocked several social media platforms.[384]
The 2006 election results were widely disputed, resulting inprotests.[385][386][387][388] The2017–18 Iranian protests swept across the country in response to the economic and political situation.[389] It was formally confirmed that thousands of protesters were arrested.[390] The2019–20 Iranian protests started on 15 November inAhvaz, and spread across the country after the government announced increases in fuel prices of up to 300%.[391] Aweek-long total Internet shutdown marked one of the most severe Internet blackouts in any country, and the bloodiest governmental crackdown of the protestors.[392] Tens of thousands were arrested and hundreds were killed within a few days according to multiple international observers, includingAmnesty International.[393]
Tehran is the economic powerhouse of Iran.[404] About 30% of Iran's public-sector workforce and 45% of its large industrial firms are located there, and half those firms' employees work for government.[405] TheCentral Bank of Iran is responsible for developing and maintaining the currency: theIranian rial. The government does not recognisetrade unions other than theIslamic labour councils, which are subject to the approval of employers and the security services.[406] Iran was the first country to introduce anational basic income in Autumn 2010.[407] Unemployment was 9% in 2022.[408]
Budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due tolarge state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially petrol, totaling $100 billion in 2022 for energy alone.[409][410] In 2010, the economic reform plan was to cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance. The objective is to move towards free market prices and increase productivity and social justice.[411] The administration continues reform, and indicates it will diversify the oil-reliant economy. Iran has developed abiotechnology,nanotechnology, andpharmaceutical industry.[412] The government isprivatising industries.
Iran suffers from high inflation[417][418] and especiallysurging food prices. A major contributing factor is the involvement of the IRGC in the economy,[419] particularly in the agriculture and food sectors but also due to significant spending on the Axis of Resistance which increase the public deficit.[420]
Tourism had been rapidly growing before theCOVID-19 pandemic, reaching nearly 9 million foreign visitors in 2019, the world's third fastest-growing tourism destination.[422][423] In 2022 it expanded its share to 5% of the economy.[424] Iran's tourism experienced a growth of 43% in 2023, attracting 6 million foreign tourists.[425] The government ended visa requirements for 60 countries in 2023.[426]
98% of visits are for leisure, while 2% are for business, indicating the country's appeal as a tourist destination.[427] Alongside the capital, the most popular tourist destinations areIsfahan,Shiraz andMashhad.[428] Travellers from other West Asian countries grew 31% in the first seven months of 2023.[429] Domestic tourism is one of the world's largest; Iranian tourists spent $33bn in 2021.[430][431][432] Iran projects investment of $32 billion in the tourism sector by 2026.[433]
Roughly one-third of Iran's surface area is suitable for farmland. Only 12% of the total land area is under cultivation, and less than one-third of the cultivated area is irrigated. The rest is devoted todryland farming. Some 92% of agricultural products depend on water.[434] The western and northwestern portions of the country have the most fertile soils. Iran'sfood security index stands at around 96 percent.[435][436]
3% of Iran's land area is used for grazing and fodder production. Most of the grazing is done on mostly semi-dry rangeland in mountain areas and on areas surrounding the large deserts of central Iran. Progressive government efforts and incentives during the 1990s improved agricultural productivity, helping Iran toward its goal of reestablishing national self-sufficiency in food production.
Access to the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, and many river basins provides the potential to develop excellent fisheries. The government assumed control of commercial fishing in 1952. Expansion of the fishery infrastructure enabled Iran to harvest an estimated 700,000 tons of fish annually from the southern waters. Since the revolution, increased attention has been focused on producing fish from inland waters. Between 1976 and 2004, the combined take from inland waters by the state and private sectors increased from 1,100 tons to 110,175 tons.[437] Iran is the world's largest producer and exporter ofcaviar, exporting more than 300 tonnes annually.[438][439]
In 2024, Iran was ranked 16th in global car manufacturing, ahead of theUK,Italy, and Russia.[441][442] It built 1.188 million cars in 2023, a 12% growth compared to the previous years. Iran exports cars to countries such as Venezuela, Russia and Belarus. From 2008 to 2009, Iran leaped to 28th place from 69th in annual industrial production growth rate.[443] Iraniancontractors have been awarded several foreign tender contracts in different fields of construction ofdams,bridges, roads,buildings,railroads,power generation, andgas, oil andpetrochemical industries. In 2011, some 66 Iranian industrial companies were carrying out projects in 27 countries.[444] Iran exported over $20 billion worth of technical and engineering services over 2001–2011. The availability of local raw materials,rich mineral reserves, experienced manpower have all played crucial role in winning the bids.[445]
45% of large industrial firms are located in Tehran, and almost half of their workers work for government.[446] The Iranian retail industry is largely in the hands of cooperatives, many of them government-sponsored, and of independent retailers in thebazaars. The bulk of food sales occur at street markets, where the Chief Statistics Bureau sets the prices.[447]
Modern cafe in Tehran
Iran's automotive industry is the second most active industry of Iran, after its oil and gas industry.ITMCO is the biggest tractor manufacturer in the Middle East. Iran is the12th largest automaker in the world. Construction is one of the most important sectors in Iran. The annualturnover in the construction industry amounts to US$38.4 billion.[448] TheCentral Bank of Iran indicates that 70 percent of the Iranians own homes, with huge amounts of idle money entering the housing market.[449][450]
Iran is ranked among 15 major mineral-rich countries.[451][452] Iran has become self-sufficient in designing, building and operating dams and power plants. Iran is one of the six countries in the world that manufacture gas- and steam-powered turbines.[453]
Iran manufactures 60–70% of its industrial equipment domestically, including turbines, pumps, catalysts,refineries,oil tankers,drilling rigs,offshore platforms, towers, pipes, and exploration instruments.[471] The addition of newhydroelectric stations and streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33 GW; about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the firstsolar thermal plant began in 2009. Iran is the world's third country to developGTL technology.[472]
Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government's goal of 53 GW of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on linenew gas-fired plants, and adding hydropower and nuclear generation capacity.Iran's first nuclear power plant went online in 2011.[473][474] Despite being an energy superpower as of 2024–2025Iran suffers from an energy crisis, manifested by many power outages.[475][476]
CardiologistTofy Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of theartificial heart. Furthering research in diabetes, theHbA1c was discovered bySamuel Rahbar. Many papers instring theory are published in Iran.[484] In 2014, Iranian mathematicianMaryam Mirzakhani became the first woman, and Iranian, to receive theFields Medal, the highest prize in mathematics.[485]
Iran increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and ranked first in output growth rate, followed by China.[486] According to a study bySCImago in 2012, Iran would rank fourth in research output by 2018, if the trend persisted.[487] The Iranian humanoid robotSorena 2, which was designed by engineers at theUniversity of Tehran, was unveiled in 2010. TheInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has placed the name of Surena among the five most prominent robots, after analysing its performance.[488]
According to a 2019 study by Isabel Campos-Varela et al., Iran recorded the highest proportion of retracted publications globally, with 15.52 retractions per 10,000 publications. Media reports from 2023 indicate that Iran continues to rank among the countries with the highest retraction rates. Common types of misconduct include fraudulent peer review processes, plagiarism, and data fabrication. Data from the Retraction Watch Leaderboard further highlights that two of the 32 individuals with the highest number of retracted articles worldwide are based in Iran.[489] Iran was ranked 64th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[490]
TheIranian Space Agency was established in 2004. Iran became an orbital-launch-capable nation in 2009[491] and is a founding member of theUnited Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Iran placed its domestically built satelliteOmid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the revolution, in 2009,[492] through its first expendable launch vehicleSafir. It became the9th country capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.[493]Simorgh's launch in 2016, is the successor of Safir.[494]
In January 2024, Iran launched theSoraya satellite into its highest orbit yet (750 km),[495][496] a space launch milestone for the country.[497][498] It was launched byQaem 100 rocket.[499][500] Iran also successfully launched 3 indigenous satellites, The Mahda, Kayan and Hatef,[501] into orbit using the Simorgh carrier rocket.[502][503] It was the first time in the country's history that it simultaneously sent three satellites into space.[504][505] The three satellites are designed for testing advanced satellite subsystems, space-based positioning technology, and narrowband communication.[506]
In February 2024, Iran launched its domestically developed imaging satellite, Pars 1, from Russia into orbit.[507][508] This was the second time since August 2022, when Russia launched another Iranian remote-sensing,Khayyam satellite, into orbit fromKazakhstan, reflecting deep scientific cooperation between the countries.[509][510]
The telecommunications industry is almost entirely state-owned, dominated by theTelecommunication Company of Iran. As of 2020, 70 million Iranians use high-speed mobile internet. Iran is among the first five countries which have had a growth rate of over 20 percent and the highest level of development in telecommunication.[511] Iran has been awarded the UNESCO special certificate for providing telecommunication services to rural areas.
Globally, Iran ranks 75th in mobileinternet speed and 153rd in fixed internet speed.[512]
Population of Iranian provinces and counties in 2021
Iran's population grew rapidly from about 19 million in 1956 to about 85 million by February 2023.[513] Iran'sfertility rate has dropped dramatically, from 6.5 children born per woman to about 1.7 two decades later,[514][515][516] leading to a population growth rate of about 1.39% in 2018.[517] Due to its young population, studies project that the growth will continue to slow until it stabilises at around 105 million by 2050.[518][519][520]
Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations, with almost one million,[521] mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq.[522] As of 2025, Iran was home to an estimated 4 millionAfghan migrants and refugees.[523] According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen with access to social security, covering retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services.[524] This is covered bytax revenues and income derived from public contributions.[525]
Iran has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.[526] Iran's population is concentrated in its western half, especially in the north, north-west and west.[527] Tehran, with a population of around 9.4 million, is Iran's capital and largest city. Iran's second most populous city,Mashhad, has a population of around 3.4 million, and is capital of the province ofRazavi Khorasan. Isfahan has a population of around 2.2 million and is Iran's third most populous city. It is the capital ofIsfahan province and was the third capital of the Safavid Empire.
Ethnic group composition remains a point of debate, mainly regarding the largest and second largest ethnic groups, the Persians and Azerbaijanis, due to the lack of Iranian state censuses based on ethnicity.
According to a 2003 estimate,Persians make up 51% of the population, whileAzerbaijanis make up 24%,Gilaks andMazenderanis 8%, Kurds 7%,Arabs 3%,Lurs 2%,Balochis 2%,Turkmens 2% and other groups (includingArmenians, Jews,Assyrians,Qashqai,Shahsevan) make up the remaining 1%.[528]The World Factbook at 2011 gives the same figures.[529] TheLibrary of Congress in 2008 issued slightly different estimates: 65% Persians (also including Gilaks and Mazenderanis[l]), 16% Azerbaijanis, 7% Kurds, 6% Lurs, 2% Arabs, 2% Balochis, 1% Turkic tribal groups (such as Qashqai), and non-Persian, non-Turkic groups (including Armenians,Georgians, and Assyrians) less than 1%.[531]
Minorities in Iran have been disproportionately affected by the ongoingcrackdown aimed at repressing the "Woman, Life, Freedom" movement, according to the UN Fact-Finding Mission.[532]
Education is highly centralised.K–12 is supervised by theMinistry of Education. Higher education is supervised by theMinistry of Science and Technology. Literacy among people aged 15 and older was 86% as of 2016[update], with men (90%) significantly more literate than women (81%). Government expenditure on education is around 4% of GDP.[561]
The requirement to enter into higher education is to have ahigh school diploma and pass theIranian University Entrance Exam. Many students do a one–two-year course ofpre-university.[562] Iran's higher education has different levels of diplomas, including an associate degree in two years, a bachelor's degree in four years, and a master's degree in two years, after which another exam allows the candidate to pursue a doctoral programme.[563]
Healthcare is provided by the public-governmental system, the private sector, andNGOs.[565] Iran is the only country in the world with alegal organ trade.[566] Iran has been able to extend public healthpreventive services through the establishment of an extensivePrimary Health Care Network. As a result, child and maternal mortality rates have fallen significantly, and life expectancy at birth has risen. Iran's medical knowledge rank is 17th globally and 1st in the Middle East and North Africa. In terms of medical science production index, Iran ranks 16th in the world.[567] Iran is fast emerging as a preferred destination formedical tourism.[568]
Iran faces the common problem of other young demographic nations in the region, which is keeping pace with growth of an already huge demand for public services. An anticipated increase in the population growth rate will increase the need for public health infrastructures and services.[569] In 2016, about 90% of Iranians had health insurance.[570]
From the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), the courts of successive dynasties led the style of Persian art, and court-sponsored art left many of the most impressive pieces that remain. The Islamic style of dense decoration, geometrically laid out, developed in Iran into an elegant and harmonious style, combining motifs derived from plants with Chinese motifs such as the cloud-band, and often animals represented at a smaller scale. During the Safavid Empire in the 16th century, this style was used across a variety of media, and diffused from the court artists of the king, most being painters.[572]
By the time of the Sasanians, Iranian art had a renaissance.[573] During the Middle Ages, Sasanian art played a prominent role in the formation of European and Asian mediaeval art.[574][575][576][577] The Safavid era is known as the Golden Age of Iranian art.[578]Safavid art exerted noticeable influences upon theOttomans, theMughals, and theDeccans, and was influential through its fashion and garden architecture on 11th–17th-century Europe.
Iran'scontemporary art traces its origins toKamal-ol-molk, a prominentrealist painter at the court of the Qajar Empire who affected the norms of painting and adopted a naturalistic style that would compete with photographic works. A new Iranian school of fine art was established by him in 1928, and was followed by the so-called "coffeehouse" style of painting. Iran'savant-garde modernists emerged by the arrival of new western influences during World War II. The contemporary art scene originates in the late 1940s, and Tehran's first modern art gallery, Apadana, was opened in 1949 by Mahmud Javadipur, Hosein Kazemi, and Hushang Ajudani.[579] The new movements received official encouragement by the 1950s,[580] which led to the emergence of artists such asMarcos Grigorian.[581]
The history of architecture in Iran dates back to at least 5,000 BC, with characteristic examples distributed over an area from what is now Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and from the Caucasus to Zanzibar. The Iranians made early use of mathematics, geometry and astronomy in their architecture, yielding a tradition with structural and aesthetic variety.[582] The guidingmotif is its cosmic symbolism.[583]
In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques, the rapid growth of cities such as Tehran has brought a wave of construction. Iran ranks 7th among UNESCO's list of countries with the most archaeological ruins and attractions from antiquity.[584]
Iran's carpet-weaving has its origins in theBronze Age and is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Iranian art. Carpet weaving is an essential part ofPersian culture andIranian art. Persian rugs and carpets were woven in parallel by nomadic tribes in village and town workshops, and by royal court manufactories. As such, they represent simultaneous lines of tradition, and reflect the history of Iran, Persian culture, and its various peoples. Although the term "Persian carpet" most often refers to pile-woven textiles, flat-woven carpets and rugs likeKilim,Soumak, and embroidered tissues likeSuzani are part of the manifold tradition of Persian carpet weaving.
Iran produces three-quarters of the world's handmade carpets, and has 30% of export markets.[587][588] In 2010, the "traditional skills of carpet weaving" inFars Province andKashan were inscribed to theUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List.[589][590][591] Within theOriental rugs produced by the countries of the "rug belt", the Persian carpet stands out by the variety and elaborateness of its manifold designs.[592]
Carpets woven in towns and regional centres likeTabriz,Kerman,Ravar,Neyshabour,Mashhad,Kashan,Isfahan,Nain andQom are characterized by their specific weaving techniques and use of high-quality materials, colours and patterns. Hand-woven Persian rugs and carpets have been regarded as objects of high artistic value and prestige, since they were mentioned byancient Greek writers.
TheNational Museum of Iran in Tehran is the country's most important cultural institution. As the first and biggest museum in Iran, the institution includes theMuseum of Ancient Iran and theMuseum of the Islamic Era. The National Museum is the world's most important museum in terms of preservation, display and research of archaeological collections of Iran,[599] and ranks as one of the few most prestigious museums globally in terms of volume, diversity and quality of its monuments.[599]
AKarnay, an ancient Iranian musical instrument from 6th century BC, kept at the Persepolis Museum
Dancers on a piece of ceramic fromCheshmeh-Ali, 5000 BC
Iran is the apparent birthplace of the earliest complex instruments, dating to the 3rd millennium BC.[602] The use ofangular harps have been documented at Madaktu andKul-e Farah, with the largest collection of Elamite instruments documented at Kul-e Farah.Xenophon'sCyropaedia mentions singing women at the court of the Achaemenid Empire. Under the Parthian Empire, thegōsān (Parthian for 'minstrel') had a prominent role.[603][604]
TheTehran Symphony Orchestra was founded in 1933. By the late 1940s,Ruhollah Khaleqi founded the country's first national music society and established the School of National Music in 1949.[606]Iranian pop music has its origins in the Qajar era.[607] It was significantly developed since the 1950s, using indigenous instruments and forms accompanied by electric guitar and other imported characteristics.Iranian rock emerged in the 1960s andhip hop in the 2000s.[608][609]
Iran has known dance in the forms of music, play, drama or religious rituals since at least the 6th millennium BC. Artifacts with pictures of dancers were found in archaeological prehistoric sites.[610] Genres of dance vary depending on the area, culture, and language of the local people, and can range from sophisticated reconstructions of refined court dances to energetic folk dances.[611] Each group, region, and historical epoch has specific dance styles associated with it. The earliest researched dance from historic Iran is a dance worshipping Mithra. Ancient Persian dance was significantly researched by Greek historianHerodotus. Iran was occupied by foreign powers, causing a slow disappearance of heritage dance traditions.
The Qajar period had an important influence on Persian dance. In this period, a style of dance began to be called "classical Persian dance". Dancers performed artistic dances in court for entertainment purposes such as coronations, marriage celebrations, andNorouz celebrations. In the 20th century, the music came to be orchestrated and dance movement and costuming gained a modernistic orientation to the West.
Iran ranks 17th amongcountries by number of Internet users.Google Search is Iran's most widely used search engine andInstagram is the most popular onlinesocial networking service.[613] Direct access to many worldwide mainstream websites has been blocked in Iran, includingFacebook, which has been blocked since 2009. About 90% of Iran'se-commerce takes place on the Iranian online storeDigikala, which has around 750,000 visitors per day and is the most visited online store in the Middle East.[614]
Iran is the birthplace ofpolo,[622][623][624] locally known as chogan, with its earliest records attributed to the ancient Medes.[625] Freestyle wrestling is traditionally considered the national sport, andIran's wrestlers have been world champions many times. Iran's traditional wrestling, calledkoڑti e pahlevāni ("heroic wrestling"), is registered on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.[626] Iran'sNational Olympic Committee was founded in 1947. Wrestlers and weightlifters have achieved the country's highestrecords at the Olympics. In 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host theAsian Games.[627][628][629]
As a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing,[630] and mountain climbing.[631][632] It is home to ski resorts, the most famous beingTochal,Dizin, andShemshak.[633] Dizin is the largest, and authorised byFIS to administer international competitions.[634]
^Iran has been described as a "theocratic republic".[9]
^The Parni was an eastern Iranian tribe established on the Amu Darya in the conferedation ofDahae.[42] To Yarshater, they were aSaka tribe, who penetrated Parthia, adopted its language, and eventually challenged the Seleucids' power in Parthia.[43]
^"Appointing and dismissing the chief of the general staff, the commander-in-chief of the Islamic Revolution Guards Corps, and the commanders of the armed forces."[180]
^"Declaring war and peace, and the mobilization of the armed forces."[182]
^Officially the Ansar Allah,de facto government in Northwestern Yemen since 28 July 2016 under theSupreme Political Council.
^Officially the Islamic Resistance Movement,de facto government of theGaza Strip since15 June 2007.
^"TheFactbook puts 'Persian and Persian dialects' at 58 percent, but 51 percent of the population as ethnic Persians, while the Library of Congress states that Persian 'is spoken as a mother tongue by at least 65 percent of the population and as a second language by a large proportion of the remaining 35 percent. The 'Persian' mentioned in the latter report must thus also include Gilaki and Mazi. However, Gilaki and Mazi are actually from a different branch of the Iranian language subfamily than Persian, and could be as such be seen not as dialects, but as distinct languages. Suffice it here to say that while some scholars see categories such as Gilakis and Mazandaranis as referring to separate ethnic groups due to their linguistic traits, others count them as 'Persians' on exactly the same basis."[530]
Osanloo 2009, p. 184: "Both the Iranian state's framework as a theocratic republic and its discordant and inconsistent institutions make for a fascinating assessment of the resulting human rights program."
Ehteshami 2017, p. 27: "A new constitutional order emerged, in its early years dominated by the clerical establishment. Thus, as a theocratic republic Iran's republican institutions are laced with doctrinal bodies and religious-based organs."
Malekzadeh 2018, p. 195: "In the space of those 60 years, Iran transitioned from a monarchy to a theocratic republic."
^Fishman, Joshua A. (2010).Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: Disciplinary and Regional Perspectives. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 266.ISBN978-0195374926.'Iran' and 'Persia' are synonymous. The former has always been used by the Iranian speaking peoples themselves, while the latter has served as the international name of the country in various languages.
^J.D. Vigne, J. Peters and D. Helmer,First Steps of Animal Domestication, Proceedings of the 9th Conference of the International Council of Archaeozoology, Durham, August 2002,ISBN1-84217-121-6
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^Yeganeh, Sepideh Jamshidi, et al., "Complexity of proto-elamite administration system: Insights from compositional data from sealings and tablets", Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 61 : 104973, 2025
^Golden 2011, p. 94: "He was born some 100 km (62 miles) south of Samarkand into a clan of the Barlas, a Turkicized tribe of Mongol descent."
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^Kane, J. Robert (2018). "A Life Cycle Analysis of Hezbollah: Where the Group Came from and Where It Is Going".American Intelligence Journal.35 (2):67–73.JSTOR26566567.
^DeVore, Marc R. (2012). "Exploring the Iran-Hezbollah Relationship: A Case Study of how State Sponsorship affects Terrorist Group Decision-Making".Perspectives on Terrorism.6 (4/5):85–107.JSTOR26296878.
^Ali, Mohanad Hage (30 January 2024). "Hezbollah?s Intervention in the Syrian Conflict".Hezbollahʼs Intervention in the Syrian Conflict. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. pp. 8–13.JSTORresrep20960.6.{{cite book}}:|journal= ignored (help)
^Samii, Abbas William (2008). "A Stable Structure on Shifting Sands: Assessing the Hizbullah-Iran-Syria Relationship".Middle East Journal.62 (1):32–53.doi:10.3751/62.1.12.JSTOR25482471.
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