Aninvasion is amilitary offensive ofcombatants of onegeopoliticalentity, usually in large numbers, enteringterritory controlled by another similar entity, often involvingacts of aggression.[1] Generally, invasions have objectives of conquering, liberating or reestablishing control or authority over a territory; forcing the partition of a country; altering the establishedgovernment or gaining concessions from said government; or a combination thereof.[citation needed] An invasion can be the cause of awar, be a part of a larger strategy to end a war, or it can constitute an entire war in itself. Due to the large scale of the operations associated with invasions, they are usuallystrategic in planning and execution.[not verified in body]
Before the days of package tours and cut-price airlines, military invasions functioned as a standard major form of proto-tourism[3] – bringing large numbers of foreign visitors into new environments, with the consequential social, cultural and economic impacts on indigenous populations and on the invaders.
States with potentially hostile neighbors typically adoptdefensive measures to delay or forestall an invasion. In addition to utilizing geographical barriers such asrivers,marshes, or ruggedterrain, these measures have historically includedfortifications. Such a defense can be intended to actively prevent invading forces from entering the country by means of an extended and well-defended barrier; theGreat Wall of China,Hadrian's Wall, and theDanewerk are famous examples. Such barriers have also includedtrench lines and, in more modern times,minefields,cameras, andmotion-sensitivesensors.[4] However, these barriers can require a large military force to provide the defense, as well as maintain the equipment and positions, which can impose a greateconomic burden on the country. Some of those same techniques can also be turned against defenders, used to keep them from escape or resupply. DuringOperation Starvation,Allied forces used airdropped mines to severely disruptJapanese logistical operations within their own borders.[5]
Alternatively, the fortifications can be built up at a series of sites, such ascastles or forts placed near a border. These structures are designed to delay an invasion long enough for the defending nation to mobilize an army of a size sufficient for defense or, in some cases, counter-invasion—such as, for example, theMaginot Line. Forts can be positioned so that thegarrisons can interdict thesupply lines of the invaders. The theory behind these spaced forts is that the invader cannot afford to bypass these defenses, and so must laysiege to the structures.[6]
The view from a battery at Ouvrage Schoenenbourg inAlsace; notice the retractable turret in the left foreground.
In modern times, the notion of constructing large-scale static defenses to combat land-based threats has largely become obsolete. The use of precision air campaigns and large-scalemechanization have made lighter, more mobile defenses desirable to military planners. The obsolescence of large fortifications was displayed by the failure of theMaginot Line in the beginning of World War Two. Nations defending against modern invasions normally use large population centers such ascities ortowns as defensive points. The invader must capture these points to destroy the defender's ability to wage war. The defender uses mobilearmored andinfantry divisions to protect these points, but the defenders are still very mobile and can normally retreat. A prominent example of the use of cities as fortifications can be seen in theIraqi Army's stands in the2003 invasion of Iraq atBaghdad,Tikrit, andBasra in the major combat in theIraq War. A defender can also use these mobile assets to precipitate a counteroffensive like theSovietRed Army at theBattle of Kursk or theNorthern Alliance inAfghanistan.[citation needed]
Island nations, such as theUnited Kingdom orJapan, and continental states with extensivecoasts, such as the United States, have utilized a significantnaval presence to forestall an invasion of their country, rather than fortifying their border areas. A successful naval defense, however, usually requires a preponderance of naval power and the ability to sustain and service that defense force.[citation needed]
In particularly large nations, the defending force may alsoretreat to facilitate acounterattack by drawing the invaders deeper into hostile territory. One effect of this tactic is that the invading force becomes too spread out, making supply difficult and making the lines more susceptible to attack. This tactic, although costly, helped the Soviets stop the German advance atStalingrad.[7] It can also cause the invading force to extend too far, allowing apincer movement to cut them off from reinforcements. This was the cause of the British defeat at theBattle of Cowpens during theAmerican Revolutionary War.[8] Finally, sending too many reinforcements can leave too few defenders in the attackers' territory, allowing a counter-invasion from other areas, as happened in theSecond Punic War.
There are many different methods by which an invasion can take place, each method having arguments both in their favour and against. These include invasion by land, sea, or air, or any combination of these methods.
Invasion over land is the straightforward entry ofarmed forces into an area using existing land connections, usually crossingborders or otherwise defined zones, such as ademilitarized zone, overwhelming defensive emplacements and structures. Although this tactic often results in a quick victory, troop movements are relatively slow and subject to disruption by terrain and weather. Furthermore, it is hard to conceal plans for this method of invasion, as most geopolitical entities take defensive positions in areas that are the most vulnerable to the methods mentioned above.[citation needed]
In modern warfare, invasion by land often takes place after, or sometimes during, attacks on the target by other means. Air strikes andcruise missiles launched from ships at sea are a common method of "softening" the target. Other, more subtle, preparations may involve secretly garnering popular support,assassinating potentially threatening political or military figures, and closing off supply lines where they cross into neighboring countries. In some cases, those other means of attack eliminate the need for ground assault; the 1945 atomic-bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ultimately made it unnecessary for the Allies to invade the Japanese home islands with infantry troops. In cases such as this, while some ground troops are still needed to occupy the conquered territory, they are allowed to enter under the terms of atreaty and as such are no longer invaders. As unmanned, long-range combat evolves, the instances of basic overland invasion become fewer; often the conventional fighting is effectively over before the infantry arrives in the role of peacekeepers (see "Applications regarding non-state combatants" in this article).[citation needed]
Invasion by sea is the use of a body of water to facilitate the entry of armed forces into an area, often a landmass adjoining the body of water or an island. This is generally used either in conjunction with another method of invasion, and especially before theinvention of flight, for cases in which there is no other method to enter the territory in question. Arguments in favor of this method usually consist of the ability to perform a surprise attack from sea, or that naval defenses of the area in question are inadequate to repel such an attack. However, the large amount of specialized equipment, such asamphibious vehicles and the difficulty of establishing defenses—usually with a resulting highcasualty count—in exchange for a relatively small gain, are often used as arguments against such an invasion method. Underwater hazards and a lack of good cover are very common problems during invasions from the sea. At theBattle of Tarawa,Marine landing craft became hung up on acoral reef and wereshelled from the beach. Other landers were sunk before they could reach the shore, and thetanks they were carrying were stranded in the water. Most of the few survivors of the first wave ended up pinned down on the beach.[9] The island was conquered but at a heavy cost, and the loss of life sparked mass protests from civilians in the United States.
Invasion by air is an invention of the 20th century andmodern warfare. The idea involves sending military units into a territory byaircraft. The aircraft either land, allowing the military units to debark and attempt their objective, or the troops exit the aircraft while still in the air, usingparachutes or similar devices to land in the territory being invaded. Many times air assaults have been used to pave the way for a ground- or sea-based invasion, by taking key positions deep behind enemy lines such as bridges and crossroads, but an entirely air-based invasion has never succeeded. Two immediate problems are resupply and reinforcement. A large airborne force cannot be adequately supplied without meeting up with ground forces; an airborne force too small simply places themselves into an immediate envelopment situation. Arguments in favor of this method generally relate to the ability to target specific areas that may not necessarily be easily accessible by land or sea, a greater chance of surprising the enemy and overwhelming defensive structures, and, in many cases, the need for a reduced number of forces due to the element of surprise. Arguments against this method typically involve capacity to perform such an invasion—such as the sheer number of planes that would be needed to carry a sufficient number of troops—and the need for a high level ofintelligence in order for the invasion to be successful.[citation needed]
The closest examples to a true air invasion are theBattle of Crete,Operation Thursday (theChindits second operation during theBurma Campaign) andOperation Market Garden. The latter was an assault on the German-occupiedNetherlands conducted in September 1944. Nearly 35,000 men were dropped by parachute andglider into enemy territory in an attempt to capture bridges from the Germans and make way for the Allies' advance. However, even with such a massive force taking the Germans completely by surprise, the assault was a tactical failure and after 9 days of fighting the Allies managed only to escape back to their own lines, having sustained over 18,000 casualties.[10] In the 21st century, as vast improvements are made in anti-aircraft defenses, it seems that the air invasion is a strategy whose time may never come.
U.S. forces distribute information leaflets on the streets ofKut, Iraq in May 2003.
Once political boundaries and military lines have been breached,pacification of the region is the final, and arguably the most important, goal of the invading force. After the defeat of the regular military, or when one is lacking, continued opposition to an invasion often comes from civilian or paramilitaryresistance movements. Complete pacification of an occupied country can be difficult, and usually impossible, but popular support is vital to the success of any invasion.[citation needed]
Mediapropaganda such as leaflets, books, and radio broadcasts can be used to encourage resistance fighters to surrender and to dissuade others from joining their cause. Pacification, often referred to as "the winning of hearts and minds", reduces the desire for civilians to take up resistance. This may be accomplished throughreeducation, allowing conquered citizens to participate in their government, or, especially in impoverished or besieged areas, simply by providing food, water, and shelter. Sometimes displays of military might are used; invading forces may assemble and parade through the streets of conquered towns, attempting to demonstrate the futility of any further fighting. These displays may also include publicexecutions of enemy soldiers, resistance fighters, and other conspirators. Particularly in antiquity, the death or imprisonment of a popular leader was sometimes enough to bring about a quick surrender. However, this has often had the unintended effect of creatingmartyrs around which popular resistance can rally. For example,Bobby Sands, who died during a hunger strike inLong Kesh prison, became a symbol of theProvisional Irish Republican Army.[11]
Russian convoy in Kyiv region, during 2022 invasion.
Without a steady flow of supplies, an invading force will soon find itself retreating. Before his invasion ofGreece,Xerxes I spent three years amassing supplies from all over Asia;Herodotus wrote that thePersian army was so large it "drank the rivers dry".[12]
In most invasions, even in modern times, many fresh supplies are gathered from the invaded territories themselves. Before thelaws of war, invaders often relied heavily on the supplies they would win by conquering towns along the way. During theSecond Punic War, for example,Hannibal diverted his army to conquer cities simply to gather supplies; his strategy in crossing theAlps necessitated traveling with as few provisions as possible, expecting theRoman stores to sustain them when they had breached the border.[13] Thescorched earth tactics used in Russia forcedNapoleon to withdraw his forces due to lack of food and shelter. Today, theLaw of land warfare forbidslooting and the confiscation of private property, but local supplies, particularly perishables, are still purchased when possible for use by occupying forces, and airplanes often use parachutes to drop supplies to besieged forces. Even as rules become stricter, the necessities of war become more numerous; in addition to food, shelter, and ammunition, today's militaries require fuel, batteries, spare mechanical parts, electronic equipment, and many other things. In the United States, theDefense Logistics Agency employs over 22,000 civilians with the sole task of logistics support, and 30,000 soldiers graduate from theU.S. Army Logistics Management College each year.[14]
Another consideration is the importance of leadership being able to communicate with the invasion force. In ancient times, this often meant that a king needed to lead his armies in person to be certain his commands were timely and followed, as in the case ofAlexander the Great (356–323 BCE). At that time, the skills needed to lead troops in battle were as important as the skills needed to run a country during peacetime. When it was necessary for the king to be elsewhere, messengers would relay updates back to the rear, often on horseback or, in cases such as theBattle of Marathon (490 BCE), with swift runners.[citation needed]
The development ofMorse Code, and later of voice communications by radio and satellite, have allowed even small units of skirmishers to remain in contact with a larger invasion force, to verify orders or to call for artillery support and air strikes. These communications were critical to the Germanblitzkrieg strategy, as infantry commanders relayed defensive positions to tanks and bombers.[citation needed]
President of UkraineVolodymyr Zelenskyy addressing the European Parliament during an extraordinary plenary session in Brussels.
In diplomatic, public relations and propaganda terms, it may help an invader (or a potential invader) to have an invitation as an excuse to intervene with a view to "restoring order" or "righting wrongs". Dissident groups,fifth columns or official circles may conspire to "call in" foreign assistance. Cases include:
From the point of view of theByzantine Empire, theFirst Crusade's invasion and conquest of the Levant (1096–1099) resulted from an invitation issued by EmperorAlexios I Komnenos in 1095, seeking assistance against the Turks in Anatolia.
English barons opposed to KingJohn invited the French PrinceLouis to undertake a French invasion of England in theFirst Barons' War of 1215–1217.
National foundation-legends can echo the theme of inviting foreign warriors to come and rule a people: note the traditional account in theTale of Bygone Years of howVarangian invaders came establish long-term rule inNovgorod (and subsequently throughoutRussia).
In contrast, in modern times, a defender can improve public relations with a right message: Ukrainanian PresidentVolodymyr Zelenskyy's popularity was suffering after years of his presidency, but during theRussian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 his popularity improved dramatically, while Putin's image of a calculating strategist was damaged and Russia was growingly being seen as apariah in the international stage.[15]
In the 20th and 21st centuries, questions arose regarding the effectiveness of the invasion strategy in neutralizing non-state combatants, a type of warfare sometimes referred to as "fourth generation warfare". In this case, one or more combatant groups are controlled not by a centralized state government but by independent leadership, and these groups may be made up of civilians, foreign agents,mercenaries, politicians, religious leaders, and members of the regular military. These groups act in smaller numbers, are not confined by borders, and do not necessarily depend on the direct support of the state. Groups such as these are not easily defeated by straightforward invasion, or even constant occupation; the country's regular army may be defeated, the government may be replaced, butasymmetric warfare on the part of these groups can be continued indefinitely.[16] Because regular armed forces units do not have the flexibility and independence of smallcovert cells, many believe that the concept of a powerful occupying force actually creates a disadvantage.[17]
An opposing theory holds that, in response to extremist ideology and unjust governments, an invasion can change the government and reeducate the people, making prolonged resistance unlikely and averting future violence. This theory acknowledges that these changes may take time—generations, in some cases—but holds that immediate benefits may still be won by reducing membership in, and choking the supply lines of, these covert cells. Proponents of the invasion strategy in such conflicts maintain the belief that a strong occupying force can still succeed in its goals on a tactical level, building upon numerous small victories, similar to a war of attrition.[18]
Contemporary debate on this issue is still fresh; neither side can claim to know for certain which strategies will ultimately be effective in defeating non-state combatants. Opponents of the invasion strategy point to a lack of examples in which occupying orpeacekeeping forces have met with conclusive success.[19] They also cite continuing conflicts such asNorthern Ireland,Israel,Chechnya, andIraq, as well as examples which they claim ultimately proved to be failures, such asLebanon, andAfghanistan. Supporters of the invasion strategy hold that it is too soon to call those situations failures, and that patience is needed to see the plan through. Some say that the invasions themselves have, in fact, been successful, but that political opponents[20] and the international media[21] skew the facts forsensationalism or political gain.
The outcomes of an invasion may vary according to the objectives of both invaders and defenders, the success of the invasion and the defense, and the presence or absence of an agreed settlement between the warring parties. The most common outcome of a successful invasion is the loss of territory from the defender, generally accompanied by a change in government and often the loss of direct control of that government by the losing faction. This sometimes results in the transformation of that country into aclient state, often accompanied by requirements to payreparations ortribute to the victor. In other cases the results of a successful invasion may simply be a return to thestatus quo; this can be seen inwars of attrition, when the destruction of personnel and supplies is the main strategic objective,[22] or where a nation previously subdued and currently occupied by an aggressive third party is restored to control of its own affairs (i.e. Western Europe following the Normandy landings in 1944, or Kuwait following the defeat of Iraq in 1991). In some cases, the invasion may be strategically limited to a geographical area, which is carved into a separate state as with theBangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
^Compare:Sharma, K. K. (1999).Tourism and Culture. Sarup & Sons. p. 30.ISBN978-8176250566. Retrieved21 May 2020.From its beginnings tourism is a kind of secondary invasion, secondary to outright military invasion or economic penetration.
^Kaufmann, J.E.; Kaufmann, H.W. (2005).Fortress France: The Maginot Line and French Defenses in World War II. Prager Security International.ISBN0-275-98345-5.
^Koskimaki, George E. (1989).Hell's Highway: Chronicle of the 101st Airborne Division in the Holland Campaign, September–November 1944. 101st Airborne Division Association.ISBN1-877702-03-X.
^LINTHICUM, KATE; BULOS, NABIH (2022-02-28)."Ukraine is winning — at least in the public relations battle".Los Angeles Times. Retrieved2023-07-21.The war for Ukraine may be far from decided, but in the public relations battle, Zelensky is clearly winning. [...] As a possible conflict with Moscow loomed in recent months, many Ukrainians wondered whether Zelensky had the steel nerves a wartime president needed to keep the country together against the formidable Russian force [...] But in the four days since Russia invaded, Zelensky has shone
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