TheScottish Government conduct international engagements with foreign leaders,heads of state and diplomats of international countries to promoteScotland and Scottish interests overseas. Scottish Ministers, such as thefirst minister as thehead of government, and theirexternal affairs and constitution secretary, promote the country'sculture,education and research,economy and advocate Scotland as a place for trade and business. As of 2023, Scotland has a total of nine Scottish Government offices –Beijing,Berlin,Brussels,Copenhagen,Dublin,London,Ottawa,Paris andWashington D.C. The Scottish Government plan on opening a further office inWarsaw by the end of thecurrent parliamentary term.[1]
Thirty international offices of the Scottish Government currently operate in twenty countries globally.[1] Scottish offices in other countries act as a mechanism to promote collaboration and engagement between the Scottish Government and other international governments whilst two Scotland Houses, one inLondon and another inBrussels, are both independent establishments created by the Scottish Government to promote Scotland. There are seven Scottish Government offices based inBritish embassies or British High Commission offices.[2]
Scottish culture is celebrated in a number of countries worldwide, a symbolism of the approximately 40 millionScottish diaspora globally. Events such asTartan Day are celebrated in theUnited States,Canada andNew Zealand annually.[3] TheCabinet Secretary for the Constitution, External Affairs and Culture in the Scottish Government is responsible for the international development of Scotland, international strategy implementation and the countries international network whilst supporting thefirst minister in their promotion of Scotland internationally.[4][5]
The Scottish Government, along with the other devolved governments of the United Kingdom, pay theForeign, Commonwealth and Development Office an annual charge to be able to access facilities and support in the embassy or High Commission in which the Scottish international offices are based.
The Scottish Government's international network allows Scottish Government ministers to interact with other international governments and bodies in relation to the government's policy objectives as well as that of Scottish businesses. Additionally, the international network of the Scottish Government acts as a mechanism to promote and strengthen the Scottish economy by creating opportunities for Scottish businesses to increase export sales of Scottish products, whilst working with their current, and any future, foreign investors to establish and maintain Scottish jobs in the goods sector.[6]
The Scottish Government has at least one British Embassy-located office in each of Belgium, Canada, China, Denmark, France, Germany and Ireland.
TheKingdom of England and theKingdom of Scotland engaged in a number of battles with each other. Both countries were independent prior to theTreaty of Union 1707, and fought typically over land, and theAnglo-Scottish border frequently changed as a result. Prior to the establishment of the two kingdoms, in the 10th and 9th centuries, their predecessors, theNorthumbrians,Picts andDal Riatans, also fought a number of battles. Major conflicts between the two parties include theWars of Scottish Independence (1296–1357), and theRough Wooing (1544–1551), as well as numerous smaller campaigns and individual confrontations. In 1603, England and Scotland were joined in a "personal union" whenKing James VI of Scotland succeeded to the throne of England as King James I. War between the two states largely ceased, although theWars of the Three Kingdoms in the 17th century, and theJacobite risings of the 18th century, are sometimes characterised as Anglo-Scottish conflicts.
Scotland experienced a number of invasions by England, such as theEnglish invasion of Scotland (1296) which occurred in retaliation to the Scottish treaty with France, the renouncing of fealty ofJohn, King of Scotland, and the Scottish raids which occurred in Northern England. Two years later, the English invaded Scotland again during theEnglish invasion of Scotland (1298), a military campaign undertaken byEdward I of England in retaliation to a Scottish uprising in 1297, the defeat of the English army at theBattle of Stirling Bridge and Scottish raids into Northern England. While the English defeated a Scottish army at theBattle of Falkirk, Edward I, hampered by food shortages, was only able to reach Stirling before heading back to England. Scotland was invaded by England a further four times – in1300,1385,1400 and1482.
In 1653, Scotland joined England and theKingdom of Ireland to form theCommonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland (also known as The Protectorate), which existed until 1659. During this period, Oliver Cromwell, theLord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, faced challenges in foreign policy. TheFirst Anglo-Dutch War, which had broken out in 1652, against theDutch Republic, was eventually won by AdmiralRobert Blake in 1654. Having negotiated peace with the Dutch, Cromwell then proceeded to engage theSpanish Empire in warfare through hisWestern Design. That involved secret preparations for an attack on the Spanish colonies in theCaribbean and resulted in the invasion ofJamaica, which then became an English colony.[8][9] The Lord Protector became aware of the contribution the Jewish community made to the economic success of the Netherlands, now England's leading commercial rival. Allied to Cromwell's toleration of private worship of non-Puritans, that led to hisencouragement of Jews to return to England, 350 years aftertheir banishment byEdward I, in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars.[10]
In 1655 acrypto-Jew known as Simón de Casseres proposed to Cromwell a plan to take overSpanish-rule Chile with only four ships and a thousand men. However English plans to engage in Chile came into fruition only in 1669, withJohn Narborough's expedition.[11] After theBattle of the Dunes (1658), the town ofDunkirk was awarded by France to the Protectorate. It would be sold back to France by Charles II in 1662.
In sports, theEngland–Scotland football rivalry between theEngland andScotland national football teams,[12][13] is the oldest international fixture in the world,first played in 1872 atHamilton Crescent, Glasgow.Scottish nationalism has been a factor in the Scots' desire to defeat England above all other rivals, with Scottish sports journalists traditionally referring to the English as the "Auld Enemy".[14]
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The historical Kingdom of Scotland andKingdom of France experienced a close economic, military and personal relationship which was known as theAuld Alliance. The Auld Alliance Treaty was drafted in 1295 between Scotland and France againstEngland. The alliance played a significant role in the relations among Scotland, France and England. The alliance was renewed by all theFrench andScottish monarchs of that period exceptLouis XI.[15] By the late 14th century, the renewal occurred regardless of whether either kingdom was at war with England at the time.[16] The alliance began with the treaty signed byJohn Balliol andPhilip IV of France in 1295 againstEdward I of England. The terms of the treaty stipulated that if either country were attacked by England, the other country would invade English territory. The 1513Battle of Flodden, where the Scots invaded England in response to the English campaign against France, was one such occasion.Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray, negotiated the renewal of the alliance in 1326. The alliance played an important role in theWars of Scottish Independence, theHundred Years' War, theWar of the League of Cambrai, and theRough Wooing.
The alliance underwent a dramatic revival when it was formally reviewed in 1512 and again in 1517 and 1548.Scotland still suffered badly following the death ofJames IV and most of his nobles atFlodden in 1513. Periodic Anglo-French and Anglo-Scottish conflict throughout the sixteenth century continued, but the certainties that had driven the Auld Alliance were disappearing. AsProtestantism gained ground in Scotland, more and more people favoured closer links withEngland than withFrance.[17]
In a speech which he delivered in Edinburgh in June 1942,Charles de Gaulle described the alliance between Scotland and France as "the oldest alliance in the world". He also declared that:[18]
In every combat where for five centuries the destiny of France was at stake, there were always men of Scotland to fight side by side with men of France, and what Frenchmen feel is that no people has ever been more generous than yours with its friendship.
In 1995, celebrations were held in both countries marking the 700th anniversary of the beginning of the alliance.[16] After extensive research, British historian Siobhan Talbott concluded that the Auld Alliance had never been formally revoked and that it endured and thrived long after theActs of Union in 1707 and theEntente Cordiale of 1904.[19][20] Scotland and France continue to share a close relationship, and theFrench Institute for Scotland aims to promote French language and culture in Scotland, and theAuld Alliance Trophy in theSix Nations Championship is held annually between the national rugby teams ofFrance andScotland.
Like other European nations, Scotland engaged in colonial expansion in the 17th century whilst it was an independent country.
In a joint-enterprise with England, Scottish planters settledUlster in 1603, ultimately laying the foundation ofNorthern Ireland. Scotland would later unsuccessfully attempt to coloniseNova Scotia in the 1620s and infamously suffered financial ruin in the 1690s after theDarien scheme failed colonisation attempt by theCompany of Scotland in modern-day Panama. The failure of Scotland's colonisation attempts influenced members of theParliament of Scotland in seekingUnion with England in 1707 in order to gain access toEnglish overseas possessions.
After the Acts of Union 1707 Scotland would continue to engage in colonial expansion through the umbrella of the newly christenedBritish Empire. Due to Scotland's limited autonomy and distinct identity, the Empire was the primary mode of interaction between Scottish civic society and the outside world. Scottish institutions such as theChurch of Scotland were at the forefront of imperial expansion and Scotland had a disproportionate impact on the Empire and wider world. Areas of the Empire that were subject to heavy Scottish influence includeCanada,Southern New Zealand,Malawi,the Caribbean andMyanmar.
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Prior to the 1990s, Scotland's primary outlet for international relations and affairs had been the British Empire. However organisations such as the Scottish Council Development and Industry, founded in 1931, engaged with international affairs as they related to trade and the economy.[21]
The 1990s saw an increase in Scottish civic society's capacity to engage with international affairs, following a post-imperial decline. After the 1992 general election,Ian Lang,Secretary of State for Scotland and Conservative MP forGalloway and Upper Nithsdale, established Scotland Europa inBrussels. This served as an unofficial embassy to promote national and local interests including business, industry and culture.[22]
Scotland Europa is an organisation which aims to provide a presence and networking opportunities across Europe, project support and policy advice to members. Members include universities and research and business groups as well as non-profit and government organisations.[23] Before theScottish Parliament was reconvened in 1999, Scottish international engagement was mostly via civic society andUK governmentquangos including Scotland Europa. Devolution provided Scotland with an autonomous voice in international affairs via theScottish Government. The initial Scottish government headed by First MinisterDonald Dewar added to this by opening an office in Brussels in 1999. Although the 1998 Scotland Act reserves foreign relations as a non-devolved matter handled by theUK Parliament, Scottish governments have pursued an autonomous foreign policy.[24]
Since devolution, paradiplomacy has been pursued via economic development, tourism, promotion of culture and nation-building as well as projecting a positive image of Scotland internationally. Part of this related to the SNP Scottish government's support for independence. Some aspects of nation-building were also evident in the Scottish Labour-led devolved governments ofHenry McLeish andJack McConnell.[21]
Government policy over the last twenty years has included diaspora-relationships related to the economy and culture with Australia, Canada, and the USA; long-term relationship with China; international development with Africa and Pakistan. There has also been involvement in EU bodies like theCommittee of the Regions and theCouncil of European Municipalities and Regions, and in non-EU organisations including the Conference of Peripheral Maritime Regions and theNorth Sea Commission.[21]
There have also been local partnerships: e.g. Aberdeen City Council having partners with energy areas in Brazil, Canada, Faroe Islands, Kazakhstan, and Mexico. Edinburgh is established as a UNESCO City of Literature and was involved in creating the Creative Cities network.[21]
In the aftermath of the2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, the Scottish Government explored how to maintain links with the EU. This was in opposition to the policy of the UK Government, which conducts diplomacy on behalf of the entire United Kingdom.
On 24 June, Sturgeon said she would communicate to all EU member states that Scotland had voted to stay in the EU.[25] An emergency Scottish cabinet meeting on 25 June agreed that the Scottish Government would seek to enter negotiations with the EU and its member states, to explore options to protect Scotland's place in the EU.[26][27] In response to the vote, the Scottish Government launched theScotland's Place in Europe document,[28] a white paper setting out the Scottish Government's aims and wishes of Scotland's role in Europe post-Brexit. Sturgeon later said that while she believed in Scottish independence, her starting point in these discussions was to protect Scotland's relationship with the EU.[29] One option that was explored was access to theEuropean Economic Area viaEFTA membership for Scotland.[30] However, other EFTA states have stated that only sovereign states are eligible for membership, so it could only join if it became independent from the UK.[31]
In 2020, the United Kingdom left the European Union under the termsBrexit withdrawal agreement. Northern Ireland's relationship with the bloc is governed by theNorthern Ireland Protocol, which maintains an open border with the Republic of Ireland by keeping Northern Ireland in the EU single market for goods.[32]
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In 2001, the Scottish Executive established the Scottish Government Office inWashington D.C. Two Scottish Government staff are deployed from Scotland to the United States and are based at the Scottish Government Office, alongside two "country based" staff. As the United States is a "priority market" for the Scottish economy, 34 staff are deployed to the Washington D.C. office of the Scottish Government from the Scottish Development International (SDI) body ofScottish Enterprise, the country's national economic development agency. As of December 2023, the SDI operates a range of trade and investment projects from Scottish Enterprise offices in areas such asChicago,Houston andSan Jose, California, with a number of other locations around the United States.[33]
Sturgeon was highly critical ofDonald Trump and his policies during the2016 United States presidential election and had publicly backed hisDemocratic rivalHillary Clinton.[34] Sturgeon highlighted her disapproval of his language and views relating to sexism and misogyny, and stated upon Trump's victory that she hoped "Trump turns out to be a president different to the one he was during his campaign and reaches out to those who felt vilified by his campaign".[35] Sturgeon had previously stripped Trump of his ambassadorial role for Scottish businesses with the Scottish Government in the aftermath of Trump's views of an outright ban ofMuslims from entering the United States. Sturgeon claimed following comments made by Trump in relation to Muslims entering the United States that he was "not fit" for the ambassadorial role with the Scottish Government.[36]
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In December 2024, First Minister John Swinney andPresident-elect of the United States, Donald Trump, spoke by telephone, and Swinney congratulated Trump on his election victory. The call was requested by Trump's associates, and during the conversation Swinney and Trump discussed trade, cultural ties and the importance of the American trading market to Scotland. Swinney stated that he was "hopeful" that Scotland and the United States would "continue to work together". Swinney had previously backed Trump's rival,Kamala Harris, in the2024 United States presidential election.[37] In response to thetariffs introduced by Trump at the beginning of his second presidency in January 2025, Swinney claimed that he would be willing to use Trump's "affinity for Scotland in a bid to avoid the prospect of tariffs being applied on imports to the US".[38] Ahead of Trump's inauguration as U.S. president on 20 January 2025, experts pointed towards a "complicated" relationship between Swinney and Trump, despite Trump's family connections and affinity to the country.[39]
Swinney and Trump met for the first time inAberdeenshire in July 2025 at MacLeod House on the Menie Estate.[40] The Scottish Government announced that Swinney used the opportunity to discuss matters relating to Scotland such as whisky tariffs, where Swinney "urged the president to consider economic protections for Scotland’s whisky and salmon sector", and advocated for Scotch whisky to be an exempt product from Trump's proposed 10% tariff applied to exports.[40] He also urged Trump to use his "immense influence to bring an end to the humanitarian crisis" in Gaza, whilst also urging Trump to "stand firm in defence of democracy" inUkraine.[40] During the meeting, Swinney also produced plans to Trump for consideration forEdinburgh Airport to be provided with United States Customs pre-clearance facilities, which Swinney said would "demonstrate the strength of America’s enduring relationship with its friend and partner".[40] Ahead of the official opening of Trump's second Scottish golf course, Swinney was hosted by Trump for dinner.[41]
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As well as being Scotland's only land border,England and Scotland are part of theUnited Kingdom, having both signed theTreaty of Union in 1707 and ending the independence of their respective kingdoms. In 2017, the Scottish Government opened Scotland House inLondon, the capital of both England and the United Kingdom, and is a collaboration between the Scottish Government and Scottish Enterprise (including Scottish Development International),Visit Scotland and Highland and Islands Enterprise. Scotland House in London has 14 permanent Scottish Government staff, as well as from other partnership agencies of the Scottish Government within London. As well as being used as a base for visiting Scottish ministers and Scottish Government officials, Scotland House also acts as a means to support trade and investment, strengthening relationships between the Scottish Government and the British Government and facilitate working on a number of joint issues and areas of priorities for Scotland, England and the wider United Kingdom.[42]
The Scottish Government played a minor role in the later stages of theNorthern Irish peace process, hosting theBritish andIrish governments and Northern Irish political parties atSt Andrews,Fife for multi-party talks held from 11 to 13 October 2006. The talks resulted in theSt Andrews Agreement which restored theNorthern Ireland Assembly, allowed for the formation (on 8 May 2007) of a newNorthern Ireland Executive and resulted inSinn Féin declaring its support for thePolice Service of Northern Ireland, courts and rule of law.
The Scottish Government office in theRepublic of Ireland was opened inDublin in 2016. The establishment of a Scottish Government office in the capital city of Ireland was viewed as a means of promoting and protecting the close relationship shared between Ireland and Scotland, both prior to the Treaty of Union and since devolution. A total of four staff – two Scottish Government and two Scottish Development International specialists – make up the team of the Scottish Government office in Ireland. Additionally, First MinisterNicola Sturgeon became the first serving head of a foreign government to address the upper house of the Irish Parliament, theSeanad, during a two-day state visit to Ireland in 2016.[43] During the two day visit, Sturgeon met withPresident of IrelandMichael D. Higgins and foreign affairs ministerCharlie Flanagan. In her address to the Irish Parliament, Sturgeon said that "the shared history between Scotland and Ireland had created inextricable links and a bond of mutual co-operation that a consequence of Brexit in Scotland was an even sharper focus on social justice", further adding "although we share more than a thousand years of history, I hope and believe that relations between Scotland and Ireland are now stronger, warmer and more harmonious than they have ever been".[44]
In the run up to the2017 Catalan independence referendum, Nicola Sturgeon offered her own personal backing and that of theScottish Government toCatalonia in the holding of a referendum.[45] TheGovernment of Spain criticised Sturgeon, claiming she had "totally misunderstood" the situation in Spain and Catalonia.[45] Sturgeon highlighted that Spain should follow "the shining example" that was created as part of theEdinburgh Agreement between the Scottish and British Governments that allowed Scotland to hold a legally binding referendum.[46]
Sturgeon joined other leaders in condemning the actions ofVladimir Putin in the wake ofRussia's invasion of Ukraine.[47][48] In response to the crisis, Sturgeon committed £4 million foreign aid to support Ukrainians.[49] In August 2023, first minister Yousaf attended a wreath laying ceremony in Edinburgh to commemorate Ukraine's independence day. During the event, Yousaf reaffirmed Scotland's support towards Ukraine and stated that Scotland "stands in absolute solidarity with Ukraine". He also highlighted that Scotland had welcomed more than 25,000 Ukrainian people since the Russian invasion in February 2022.[50]
Scotland has two offices in France – the Scottish Government France Office and the Scottish Development International France Office. Three staff are deployed to the Scottish Government France Office, with a further nine in the SDI France Office. Both offices aim to promote Scotland and French relationships by spearheading diplomatic and political engagements in France, with the SDI France office focusing more on trade and investment opportunities in Scotland whilst encouraging new investment opportunities in Scotland across a number of varying sectors.[51] A Scottish Government Office was established inGermany in 2018, situated in the capital city ofBerlin. Together with Scottish Development International, the office promotes Scotland's political, economic and cultural relations with Germany, whilst providing opportunities for engagement between the governments of Scotland and Germany on devolved matters which are the legal responsibility of the Scottish Government.[52]
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In 2023, ConservativeSecretary of State for Scotland,Alister Jack said to theScottish Affairs Committee that he did not approve of; former Scottish First MinisterNicola Sturgeon discussing the constitution with a US official in 2022; constitution secretaryAngus Robertson discussing the Erasmus and Turing schemes in France; former business ministerIvan McKee stating in Poland that Brexit had been a mistake.Foreign SecretaryJames Cleverly responded by instructing UK diplomats to be present during visits involving Scottish ministers and banned MPSs fromlobbying for Scotland.[53]
In October 2023, Cleverly threatened to pull foreign office support for SNP ministers after First minister Humza Yousaf blocked UK diplomats from a meeting with the prime minister of Iceland.[54] This is because foreign relations are a matterreserved, to the UK Parliament and Government, under the terms of theScotland Act 1998.
In December 2023, it was again claimed by the UK Government that they would withdraw all co-operation with Scottish Government ministers following a meeting between First MinisterHumza Yousaf andPresident of TurkeyRecep Tayyip Erdoğan at theCOP28 summit which occurred between November and December, 2023. British Foreign Secretary,David Cameron, claimed the meeting was a "breach of protocol" as there was no official from the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office present during the meeting between Yousaf and Erdoğan.
In response, Cameron wrote to the Scottish Government'sCabinet Secretary for the Constitution, External Affairs and Culture,Angus Robertson, highlighting that despite assurances from the Scottish Government that any meetings would be made known to the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, the meeting between Yousaf and Erdoğan had taken place "without sufficient advance notice" which would allow "one of his officials to attend the meeting", claiming that this "was not done". Cameron also highlighted that "any further breaches of the protocol of ministerial meetings to have an FCDO official present will result in no further FCDO facilitation of meetings or logistical support".[55]
Responding to the letter and claims made by Cameron, First Minister Yousaf claimed it was "petty", and that officials from the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office had been made aware of the meeting scheduled to take place, but had decided "not to remain with the Scottish delegation" after the meeting had been changed at short notice on behalf of Turkish President, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.[56]
As the most northern constituent country of the UK, Scotland shares a long history with the Nordic countries.Norse and Viking settlers ruled parts of Scotland between the 8th and 15th centuries, with Norse rule ending only when Orkney and Shetland were pledged toKing James III of Scotland in 1468 and 1469 respectively.
In the Northern Isles the Scandinavian connection remained strong centuries after Norse rule was ended.Norn, aNorth Germanic language, was spoken in the Northern isles until the death of thelast speaker in 1850. In particular, Shetland's connection with Norway has proven to be enduring. When Norway became independent again in 1905 the Shetland authorities sent a letter to KingHaakon VII in which they stated: "Today no 'foreign' flag is more familiar or more welcome in our voes and havens than that of Norway, and Shetlanders continue to look upon Norway as their mother-land, and recall with pride and affection the time when their forefathers were under the rule of the Kings of Norway."
The Norse connection is still celebrated in the Northern isles, one of the best-known such events being theLerwick fire-festivalUp Helly Aa. At the 2013 Viking Congress held in Shetland theScottish Government announced plans to strengthen Scotland's historic links with Scandinavia.
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The most recent Scottish Government international office opened in 2022 inDenmark. Based inCopenhagen, the Scottish Government Nordic Office promotes collaboration between Scotland and the fiveNordic countries, as well as establishing opportunities for greater Scottish involvement in multilateral organisations based in Copenhagen, such as theUnited Nations and its associated agencies.[57] Scottish Government policy advocates for stronger political relations with theNordic andBaltic countries, which has resulted in some Nordic-inspired policies being adopted such as baby boxes.[58][59]
In 2021, a Member of Parliament fromFinland said he would begin an initiative to grant Scotland "observer status" on theNordic Council, the official body for formal inter-parliamentary Nordic cooperation among the Nordic countries. A spokesperson for the Scottish Government had previously said that the Scottish Government was "committed to exploring opportunities for even greater policy and knowledge exchange". It has been argued that modern Scotland is "more like the Nordic nations than it is the rest of the United Kingdom", leading to claims that an independent Scotland would be a "good fit" for membership of the Nordic Council.[60] Representatives from the Scottish Parliament attended theNordic Council for the first time in 2022.[61]
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Scotland provides a number of support packages to African countries, such as emergency relief forMalawi, £500,000 provided to the East African community for combat food crises, the establishment of the Zambia Development Programme, life saving research funding for Zambia, as well as £24 million in funding toRwanda, Malawi and Zambia to tackle climate justice.[62]
Scotland maintains a close relationship with Malawi in particular. In 2005, theScotland Malawi Partnership was formed. Links between Scotland and Malawi began withDavid Livingstone's journeys up theZambezi andShire Rivers toLake Malawi in 1859, long before the borders of the modern nation of Malawi had been established. Both theChurch of Scotland and theFree Church of Scotland had established missions in Malawi by the mid-1870s.[63] These missionaries persuaded theUK government to declare the area aBritish Protectorate. Colonial rule lasted, in various forms, until full independence was achieved on 6 July 1964, with Malawi becoming a member of theCommonwealth. Under colonial rule, Scottish influence was strong in Malawi. Several Scottish companies such as theAfrican Lakes Corporation operated in Malawi and much of the land was owned by Scottish settlers, who made up the majority of the small white minority in the protectorate and utilised the labour of the native African population to extract profits from their lands. TheChilembwe uprising of 1915 was caused in part by the brutality of Scottish landowners in pursuit of this profit. The Church of Scotland would later play an important role in advocating for Malawian independence in the 1950s and 60s, ultimately helping to bring down the colonial system it ha helped establish in the 19th Century. Malawi retains the marks of the influence to this day, with several regions and cities bearing Scottish names such asBlantyre.
The Scotland Malawi partnership was officially launched in theGlasgow City Chambers on 22 April 2004 by theLord Provosts ofGlasgow andEdinburgh, with the support of Ibrahim Milazi, the High Commissioner of Malawi, and representatives from the Universities ofGlasgow andStrathclyde, theChurch of Scotland, and theScottish Catholic International Aid Fund (SCIAF).[64]
November 2005 was a significant month for the Scotland Malawi Partnership. The partnership's conference, 'Malawi After Gleneagles: A Commission for Africa Case-Study', was held at theScottish Parliament, involving over 250 delegates from Malawi and Scotland engaged in debates about international development.[65][66] TheFirst Minister,Jack McConnellMSP, and the latePresident of Malawi,Dr Bingu wa Mutharika, were keynote speakers – and during the President's visit the Cooperation Agreement between Scotland and Malawi was signed.[67]
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The Scottish Government China Office works closely with the ISD of Scottish Enterprise to strengthen collaboration between China and Scotland in areas such as political, economic and cultural ties, as well as education and social relations between the two countries. The Scottish Government office in China is based inBeijing, and four staff are deployed from Scotland – one from the Scottish Government and another three which are "country based" staff. A Scottish Government presence within China has existed since 2005.[68]
The Scottish Government has also worked to create closer relationships withIndia andPakistan. Scottish Development International has offices inMumbai andIslamabad. In 2016, the Scottish Government published an engagement strategy for both countries.[69][70] Shortly after his election as First Minister, Humza Yousaf met with thePrime Minister of PakistanShehbaz Sharif, at the Pakistani embassy in London[71] to discuss relations between the two countries.
Yousaf andPrime Minister of PakistanShehbaz Sharif met in May 2023 in London, with both Yousaf and Sharif declaring a commitment to "further strengthen historic ties between Pakistan and Scotland, including in the domains of trade, investment, education, water management, wind & solar technology and people to people links".[72]
Yousaf condemnedHamas's October 2023 attack on Israel.[73] He called for a ceasefire in theGaza war and criticized Israel'sblockade andbombing of the Gaza Strip thatkilled thousands of Palestinian civilians, saying that "Israel has a right to protect itself from terror, but that cannot be at the price of innocent men, women and children who have nothing to do with those attacks. That collective punishment has to be condemned."[74][75] On 1 November 2023, he condemned Israel for the "blatant disregard for human life" afterairstrikes on theJabalia refugee camp in Gaza.[76]
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Scotland has a total of over 60 consulate generals across the country, the majority of which are based in the capital city, Edinburgh.[77] Consulate generals located in Scotland as of March 2025 include:[78]
Brazil Consulate General[79]
China Consulate General[80]
France Consulate General[80]
Germany Consulate General[80]
India Consulate General[80]
Ireland Consulate General[80]
Italy Consulate General[80]
Japan Consulate General[80]
Pakistan Consulate General[80]
Poland Consulate General[80]
Romania Consulate General[80]
Russia Consulate General[80]
Spain Consulate General[80]
Turkey Consulate General[80]
Ukraine Consulate[80]
United States Consulate General[80]Additionally, a number of Honorary consuls are located across Scotland, including inAberdeen,Dundee,Glasgow andInverness.[81]
DuringDonald Dewar's tenure as First Minister, he made a total of five international visits –Belgium,Republic of Ireland,Netherlands,Japan and another in Ireland – before his death in October 2000.
Henry McLeish conducted six international visits –Italy, three in Belgium,United States of America,Finland, and a joint visit to Japan andTaiwan. McLeish led the Scottish Executive's response to theSeptember 11 attacks in the United States.[82] He was initially concerned about Scotland's defence strategy and feared the country's major cities, such asGlasgow,Edinburgh andAberdeen, would be targets based on their economic strength and significance to the Scottish, UK and European economies.[82]
On September 13, 2001, McLeish moved a motion in theScottish Parliament to send condolences to thepeople of the United States and New York.[50] Through the motion, McLeish said "the Parliament condemns the senseless and abhorrent acts of terrorism carried out in the United States yesterday and extends our deepest sympathies to those whose loved ones have been killed or injured".[83]
McLeish initially supported thewar on terror, however, twenty years on he regrets that the war ultimately turned out as a "war onIslam".[82]
Henry McLeish's successor,Jack McConnell engaged in a total of 28 international visits during his tenure as First Minister between 2001 and 2007. McConnell carried out international engagements in Ireland, five in the United States, eight in Belgium,South Africa, two in Italy,Austria, three inFrance,Germany,Greece, the Netherlands,China,Malawi,Canada andAustralia. McConnell spearheaded the establishment of theScotland Malawi Partnership in 2004, which co-ordinates the activities of Scottish individuals and organisations with existing links to Malawi, and aims to foster further links between both countries.
Alex Salmond, Scotland's fourth First Minister from 2007 to 2014, engaged in a total of twenty overseas visits during his tenure as First Minister. Salmond's international engagements included visits to Belgium, five in the United States,Sri Lanka, three in Ireland,Spain,Hong Kong, two in China,Denmark,Guernsey, two in theIsle of Man,Norway andIndia.
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Sturgeon had undertaken a number of visits to Europe, North America and Asia to promote Scotland as a place of investment and Scottish businesses to trade and do business with.[84][85][86] Sturgeon has committed to strengthening links between Scotland and theAfrican continent.[87] In response to the Brexit vote, to discuss Scotland's interests, Sturgeon travelled toBrussels to meet with bothJean-Claude Juncker, thePresident of the European Commission as well asMartin Schulz, thePresident of the European Parliament.[88][89]
Yousaf entered office as First Minister on the backdrop of the Supreme Court ruling that the Scottish Government does not have the power to legislate for another referendum on Scottish independence.[90] His predecessor, Nicola Sturgeon, had, prior to leaving office, published a series of Scottish Government papers on Scottish independence, titledBuilding a New Scotland.[91] Yousaf's first international visit as First Minister was toBrussels in June 2023,[92] which, during a three-day visit, sought to set out his "vision for a meaningful and mutually beneficial relationship" between Scotland and theEuropean Union.[93] Yousaf declared his desire to set up a permanent Scottish Government envoy to the European Union in Brussels to "aid the cause of independence".[94][93] Yousaf used the visit to Brussels to reiterate the SNP's position on the European Union and future membership should Scotland become independent, citing that a majority of Scottish voters voted to remain a member of the European Union in the 2016 referendum on UK membership of the European Union. However, theSpanish Government has "professed" opposition to future Scottish membership of the European Union, citing fears that a future independent Scotland would lead to advancements inCatalonia's attempts for independence from Spain. Yousaf said that the Spanish Government made it "abundantly clear" and that he "agrees with the Spanish Government - that the situation in Scotland and Catalonia are different".[95]
In June 2024, Swinney welcomedPresident of Zambia,Hakainde Hichilema, toBute House in Edinburgh for a series of "high–level engagements", including strengthening bilateral relations betweenZambia and Scotland, economic cooperation, education, and sustainable development.[96] During a visit to Germany in June 2024, Swinney met with theBritish Ambassador to Germany,Jill Gallard, and visitedMunich in order to promote Scotland, Scottish culture and tourism.[97] In April 2025, Swinney made his first official visit to theUnited States since becoming first minister to take part inTartan Day engagements inNew York City. During his visit, Swinney attended a meeting of theCouncil on Foreign Relations and met with a number of American businesses to promote Scottish business opportunities and investment.[98] Prior to his visit to the United States, Swinney confirmed that there had been "no discussions" or "any plans" to hold talks with representatives from PresidentDonald Trump's administration in regards to theannouncement of trade tariffs which would impact Scottish exports to the United States by 10%.[99]
Scotland has international hubs that are dedicated to the following for Scotland:
Scotland has international hub offices in the following locations:
The First Minister, ashead of government of Scotland, is a member of theHeads of Government Council and theCouncil of the Nations and Regions which facilitates intergovernmental relations between the Scottish Government, UK Government,Welsh Government, andNorthern Ireland Executive.[102] Scotland is a member of theBritish–Irish Council and theBritish–Irish Parliamentary Assembly, both of which are intended to foster collaboration between the legislative bodies of theUnited Kingdom and theRepublic of Ireland.[103][104] Representatives from the Scottish Parliament attended theNordic Council for the first time in 2022.[61]
As one of thecountries of the United Kingdom, Scotland is currently a member of theCommonwealth of Nations, theG7, theG20, theInternational Monetary Fund, theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, theWorld Bank, theWorld Trade Organization,Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and theUnited Nations.
As part of the United Kingdom, Scotland was a member of theEuropean Union (EU), from the United Kingdom's accession in 1973 (when it was known as theEuropean Communities), until 2020, when the majority of the United Kingdom voted to leave.
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There is an International Strategy of the Scottish Parliament which is agreed upon by theScottish Parliamentary Corporate Body and implemented by the International Relations Office (IRO) of the Scottish Parliament. The office supports thePresiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament and otherMSPs when representing the Scottish Parliament both in the Parliament and abroad. The office also supports the Scotland Branch of the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association of which all MSPs are members, and MSPs on theBritish Irish Parliamentary Assembly (BIPA).[105]
The Scottish government currently has engagement strategies with the following countries:
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The Scottish Government led by theScottish National Party (SNP) have identified the following as part of their international affairs vision:
| Rank | Country | Total value of exports (2019)[113] | |
|---|---|---|---|
| £ millions | % of total | ||
| 1 | Rest of the United Kingdom | £52,040 million | 59.8 |
| 2 |  United States | £6,025 million | 17.2 |
| 3 | France | £2,920 million | 8.3 |
| 4 |  Netherlands | £2,720 million | 7.8 |
| 5 | Germany | £2,370 million | 6.8 |
| 6 | Ireland | £1,445 million | 4.1 |
| 7 |  Belgium | £1,270 million | 3.6 |
| 8 |  Norway | £1,100 million | 3.1 |
| 9 | Spain | £1,035 million | 3.0 |
| 10 | Italy | £850 million | 2.4 |
| 11 |  Australia | £740 million | 2.1 |
| 12 |  Singapore | £730 million | 2.1 |
| 13 |  United Arab Emirates | £705 million | 2.0 |
| 14 |  Sweden | £700 million | 2.0 |
| 15 |  Denmark | £695 million | 2.0 |
| 16 | China | £685 million | 2.0 |
| 17 | Brazil | £640 million | 1.8 |
| 18 |  Canada | £640 million | 1.8 |
| 19 | Japan | £620 million | 1.8 |
| 20 |  Switzerland | £595 million | 1.7 |
| 21 |  Luxembourg | £445 million | 1.3 |
| Rank | Region | Total value of exports (2019)[113] | |
|---|---|---|---|
| £ millions | % of total | ||
| 1 | Rest of the United Kingdom | £52,040 million | 59.98 |
| 2 |  European Union | £16,395 million | 18.8 |
| 3 | North America | £6,665 million | 7.7 |
| 4 | Asia | £3,860 million | 4.4 |
| 5 | Rest of Europe | £2,505 million | 2.9 |
| 6 | Middle East | £1,845 million | 2.1 |
| 7 | Central and South America | £1,490 million | 1.7 |
| 8 | Africa | £1,430 million | 1.6 |
| 9 | Australasia | £865 million | 1.0 |
| Total international exports (inc. rUK) | £87,095 million | 100 | |
For a detailed list of international visits and engagements conducted by First Ministers of Scotland, see:
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