IUPAC was established in 1919 as the successor of the International Congress of Applied Chemistry for the advancement ofchemistry. Its members, the National Adhering Organizations, can be nationalchemistry societies, nationalacademies of sciences, or other bodies representing chemists. There are fifty-four National Adhering Organizations and three Associate National Adhering Organizations.[2] IUPAC's Inter-divisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IUPAC nomenclature) is the recognized world authority in developing standards for naming thechemical elements andcompounds. Since its creation, IUPAC has been run by many different committees with different responsibilities.[5] These committees run different projects which include standardizingnomenclature,[6] finding ways to bring chemistry to the world,[7] and publishing works.[8][9][10]
IUPAC is best known for its works standardizing nomenclature in chemistry, but IUPAC has publications in many science fields including chemistry, biology, and physics.[11] Some important work IUPAC has done in these fields includes standardizingnucleotide base sequence code names; publishing books for environmental scientists, chemists, and physicists; and improving education in science.[11][12] IUPAC is also known for standardizing the atomic weights of the elements through one of its oldest standing committees, theCommission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW).
The need for an international standard for chemistry was first addressed in 1860 by a committee headed by German scientistFriedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz. Thiscommittee was the first international conference to create an international naming system fororganic compounds.[11] The ideas that were formulated at that conference evolved into the officialIUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry.[11] IUPAC is a legacy of this meeting, making it one of the most important historical international collaborations ofchemistry societies.[11] IUPAC as such was established in 1919.[13]Since this time, IUPAC has been the official organization with the responsibility of updating and maintaining officialorganic nomenclature.[14]
One notable country excluded from early IUPAC was Germany. Germany's exclusion was a result of prejudice towards it by the Allied powers afterWorld War I.[15] Germany was finally admitted into IUPAC in 1929. However,Nazi Germany was removed from IUPAC duringWorld War II. At this time, IUPAC was affiliated with theAllied powers, but had little involvement with the war effort itself.East andWest Germany were only readmitted to IUPAC in 1973.[15][16] Since World War II, IUPAC has focused on standardizing nomenclature and methods in science.
In 2016, IUPAC denounced the use ofchlorine as achemical weapon. In a letter to Ahmet Üzümcü, director of theOrganisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), the organization pointed out their concerns in regards to chlorine weapon usage in theSyrian civil war and other places. The letter stated, "Our organizations deplore the use of chlorine in this manner. The indiscriminate attacks, possibly carried out by a member state of theChemical Weapons Convention (CWC), are of concern to chemical scientists and engineers around the globe and we stand ready to support your mission of implementing the CWC." According to the CWC, "the use, stockpiling, distribution, development or storage of any chemical weapons is forbidden by any of the 192 state party signatories."[17]
IUPAC is governed by several committees that all have different responsibilities. The committees are as follows: Bureau, CHEMRAWN (Chem Research Applied to World Needs) Committee, Committee on Chemistry Education, Committee on Chemistry and Industry, Committee on Printed and Electronic Publications, Evaluation Committee, Executive Committee, Finance Committee, Interdivisional Committee on Terminology, Nomenclature and Symbols, Project Committee, and Pure and Applied Chemistry Editorial Advisory Board.[5] Each committee is made up of members of different National Adhering Organizations from different countries.[2]
The steering committee hierarchy for IUPAC is as follows:[18]
All committees have an allotted budget to which they must adhere.
Any committee may start a project.
If a project's spending becomes too much for a committee to continue funding, it must take the issue to the Project Committee.
The project committee either increases the budget or decides on an external funding plan.
The Bureau and Executive Committee oversee operations of the other committees.
IUPAC committees
Committee name (abbreviation)
Responsibilities
Bureau
Discussing and making changes to which committee has authority over a specific project
Controlling finances for all other committees and IUPAC as a whole
Inorganic and inorganic materials chemistry, isotopes, and atomic weights,periodic table
Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry Division(Division III)
Promoting the goals of IUPAC in the field of organic and biomolecular chemistry in the broadest sense
Polymer Division(Division IV)
The science and technology of macromolecules and polymers
Analytical Chemistry Division(Division V)
The general aspects of analytical chemistry, separation methods, spectrochemical methods, electrochemical methods, nuclear chemistry methods, and applications to human health and the environment.
Chemistry and the Environment Division(Division VI)
Providing unbiased and timely authoritative reviews on the behavior of chemical compounds in food and the environment.
Chemistry and Human Health Division(Division VII)
Medicinal and clinical chemistry
Chemical Nomenclature and Structure Representation Division (Division VIII)
Maintaining and developing standard systems for designating chemical structures, including both conventional nomenclature and computer-based systems.
CHEMRAWN Committee (Chem Research Applied to World Needs)
Discussing different ways chemistry can and should be used to help the world[7]
Committee on Chemistry Education (CCE)
Coordinating IUPAC chemistry research with the educational systems of the world[20]
IUPAC establishes rules forharmonized spelling of some chemicals to reduce variation among different local English-language variants. For example, they recommend "aluminium" rather than "aluminum", "sulfur" rather than "sulphur", and "caesium" rather than "cesium".[28][29]
IUPAC organic nomenclature has three basic parts: thesubstituents,carbon chain length, and chemical affix.[14] The substituents are any functional groups attached to the main carbon chain. The main carbon chain is the longest possible continuous chain. The chemical affix denotes what type of molecule it is. For example, the endingane denotes a single bonded carbon chain, as in "hexane" (C 6H 14).[30]
Another example of IUPAC organic nomenclature iscyclohexanol:
Basic IUPAC inorganic nomenclature has two main parts: thecation and theanion. The cation is the name for the positively chargedion and the anion is the name for the negatively charged ion.[14]
An example of IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry ispotassium chlorate (KClO3):
IUPAC also has a system for giving codes to identifyamino acids andnucleotide bases. IUPAC needed a coding system that represented long sequences of amino acids. This would allow for these sequences to be compared to try to findhomologies.[32] These codes can consist of either a one-letter code or a three-letter code.
These codes make it easier and shorter to write down the amino acid sequences that make upproteins. The nucleotide bases are made up ofpurines (adenine andguanine) andpyrimidines (cytosine andthymine oruracil). These nucleotide bases make upDNA andRNA. These nucleotide base codes make the genome of an organism much smaller and easier to read.[33]
Principles and Practices of Method Validation is a book entailing methods of validating and analysing manyanalytes taken from a singlealiquot.[34] Also, this book goes over techniques for analysing many samples at once. Some methods discussed include chromatographic methods, estimation of effects, matrix-induced effects, and the effect of an equipment setup on an experiment.[34]
Fundamental Toxicology
Fundamental Toxicology is a textbook that proposes acurriculum fortoxicology courses.[35]Fundamental Toxicology is based on the bookFundamental Toxicology for Chemists.[36]Fundamental Toxicology is enhanced through many revisions and updates. New information added in the revisions includes:risk assessment and management; reproductive toxicology; behavioral toxicology; andecotoxicology.[36] This book is relatively well received as being useful for reviewing chemical toxicology.[35]
Macromolecular Symposia
Macromolecular Symposia is a journal that publishes fourteen issues a year. This journal includes contributions to the macromolecular chemistry and physics field. The meetings of IUPAC are included in this journal along with theEuropean Polymer Federation, theAmerican Chemical Society, and theSociety of Polymer Science in Japan.[37]
TheExperimental Thermodynamics books series covers many topics in the fields of thermodynamics.
Book
Description
Measurement of the Transport Properties of Fluids
Measurement of the Transport Properties of Fluids is a book that is published byBlackwell Science. The topics that are included in this book are low and high-temperature measurements, secondary coefficients,diffusion coefficients,light scattering, transient methods forthermal conductivity, methods for thermal conductivity, falling-body viscometers, and vibratingviscometers.[38]
Solution Calorimetry
Solution Calorimetry is a book that gives background information onthermal analysis andcalorimetry. Thermoanalytical and calorimetric techniques along with thermodynamic and kinetic properties are also discussed. Later volumes of this book discuss the applications and principles of these thermodynamic and kinetic methods.[39]
Equations of State for Fluids and Fluid Mixtures Part I
Equations of State for Fluids and Fluid Mixtures Part I is a book that gives up to date equations of state for fluids and fluid mixtures. This book covers all ways to develop equations of state. It gives the strengths and weaknesses of each equation. Some equations discussed include:virial equation of state cubic equations; generalizedVan der Waals equations; integral equations; perturbation theory; and stating and mixing rules. Other things thatEquations of State for Fluids and Fluid Mixtures Part I goes over are: associating fluids, polymer systems, polydisperse fluids, self-assembled systems, ionic fluids, and fluids near their critical points.[40]
Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Single Phases
Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Single Phases is a book that gives an overview of techniques for measuring the thermodynamic quantities of single phases. It also goes into experimental techniques to test many differentthermodynamic states precisely and accurately.Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Single Phases was written for people interested in measuring thermodynamic properties.[41]
Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Multiple Phases
Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Multiple Phases is a book that includes multiple techniques that are used to study multiple phases of pure component systems. Also included in this book are the measurement techniques to obtain activitycoefficients,interfacial tension, andcritical parameters. This book was written for researchers and graduate students as a reference source.[42]
Series of books on analytical and physical chemistry of environmental systems
Atmospheric Particles is a book that delves into aerosol science. This book is aimed as a reference for graduate students and atmospheric researchers.Atmospheric Particles goes into depth on the properties of aerosols in the atmosphere and their effect. Topics covered in this book are:acid rain;heavy metal pollution;global warming; andphotochemical smog.Atmospheric Particles also covers techniques to analyse the atmosphere and ways to take atmospheric samples.[43]
Environmental Colloids and Particles: Behaviour, Separation and Characterisation
Environmental Colloids and Particles: Behaviour, Separation and Characterisation is a book that discusses environmentalcolloids and current information available on them. This book focuses on environmental colloids and particles in aquatic systems and soils. It also goes over techniques such as techniques for sampling environmental colloids, size fractionation, and how to characterize colloids and particles.Environmental Colloids and Particles: Behaviour, Separation and Characterisation also delves into how these colloids andparticles interact.[44]
Biophysical Chemistry of Fractal Structures and Processes in Environmental Systems
Biophysical Chemistry of Fractal Structures and Processes in Environmental Systems is meant to give an overview of a technique based onfractal geometry and the processes of environmental systems. This book gives ideas on how to use fractal geometry to compare and contrast differentecosystems. It also gives an overview of the knowledge needed to solve environmental problems. Finally,Biophysical Chemistry of Fractal Structures and Processes in Environmental Systems shows how to use the fractal approach to understand the reactivity offlocs, sediments, soils, microorganisms, andhumic substances.[45]
Interactions Between Soil Particles and Microorganisms: Impact on the Terrestrial Ecosystem
Interactions Between Soil Particles and Microorganisms: Impact on the Terrestrial Ecosystem is meant to be read by chemists and biologists that study environmental systems. Also, this book should be used as a reference for earth scientists, environmental geologists, environmental engineers, and professionals in microbiology and ecology.Interactions Between Soil Particles and Microorganisms: Impact on the Terrestrial Ecosystem is about how minerals, microorganisms, and organic components work together to affectterrestrial systems. This book identifies that there are many different techniques and theories about minerals, microorganisms, and organic components individually, but they are not often associated with each other. It further goes on to discuss how these components of soil work together to affectterrestrial life.Interactions Between Soil Particles and Microorganisms: Impact on the Terrestrial Ecosystem gives techniques to analyse minerals, microorganisms, and organic components together. This book also has a large section positing why environmental scientists working in the specific fields of minerals, microorganisms, and organic components of soil should work together and how they should do so.[46]
The Biogeochemistry of Iron in Seawater
The Biogeochemistry of Iron in Seawater is a book that describes how low concentrations of iron inAntarctica and the Pacific Ocean are a result of reduced chlorophyll for phytoplankton production.[47] It does this by reviewing information from research in the 1990s. This book goes into depth about: chemical speciation; analytical techniques; transformation of iron; how iron limits the development of high nutrient lowchlorophyll areas in thePacific Ocean.[48]
In Situ Monitoring of Aquatic Systems: Chemical Analysis and Speciation
In Situ Monitoring of Aquatic Systems: Chemical Analysis and Speciation is a book that discusses techniques and devices to monitoraquatic systems and how new devices and techniques can be developed. This book emphasizes the future use of micro-analytical monitoring techniques andmicrotechnology.In Situ Monitoring of Aquatic Systems: Chemical Analysis and Speciation is aimed at researchers and laboratories that analyse aquatic systems such as rivers, lakes, and oceans.[49]
Structure and Surface Reactions of Soil Particles
Structure and Surface Reactions of Soil Particles is a book about soil structures and the molecular processes that occur in soil.Structure and Surface Reactions of Soil Particles is aimed at any researcher researching soil or in the field ofanthropology. It goes into depth on topics such as: fractal analysis of particle dimensions; computer modelling of the structure; reactivity of humics; applications of atomic force microscopy; and advanced instrumentation for analysis of soil particles.[50]
Metal Speciation and Bioavailability in Aquatic Systems, Series on Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Environmental Systems Vol. 3
Metal Speciation and Bioavailability in Aquatic Systems, Series on Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Environmental Systems Vol. 3 is a book about the effect oftrace metals on aquatic life.[51] This book is considered a specialty book for researchers interested in observing the effect of trace metals in the water supply. This book includes techniques to assess howbioassays can be used to evaluate how anorganism is affected by trace metals. Also,Metal Speciation and Bioavailability in Aquatic Systems, Series on Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Environmental Systems Vol. 3 looks at the limitations of the use of bioassays to observe the effects of trace metals on organisms.
Physicochemical Kinetics and Transport at Biointerfaces
Physicochemical Kinetics and Transport at Biointerfaces is a book created to aidenvironmental scientists in fieldwork. The book gives an overview of chemical mechanisms, transport, kinetics, and interactions that occur inenvironmental systems.Physicochemical Kinetics and Transport at Biointerfaces continues from whereMetal Speciation and Bioavailability in Aquatic Systems leaves off.[52]
Coloured cover book and website series (nomenclature)
IUPAC colour code their books in order to make each publication distinguishable.[11]
Title
Description
Compendium of Analytical Nomenclature
One extensive book on almost all nomenclature written (IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry and IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry) by IUPAC committee is theCompendium of Analytical Nomenclature (the "Orange Book"; 1st edition 1978).[53] This book was revised in 1987. The second edition has many revisions that come from reports on nomenclature between 1976 and 1984.[54] In 1992, the second edition went through many different revisions, which led to the third edition.[54]
Pure and Applied Chemistry (journal)
Pure and Applied Chemistry is the official monthly journal of IUPAC. This journal debuted in 1960. The goal statement forPure and Applied Chemistry is to "publish highly topical and credible works at the forefront of all aspects of pure and applied chemistry."[55] The journal itself is available by subscription, but older issues are available in the archive on IUPAC's website.
Pure and Applied Chemistry was created as a central way to publish IUPAC endorsed articles.[56] Before its creation, IUPAC did not have a quick, official way to distribute new chemistry information.
Its creation was first suggested at the Paris IUPAC Meeting of 1957.[56] During this meeting the commercial publisher of the journal was discussed and decided on. In 1959, the IUPAC Pure and Applied Chemistry Editorial Advisory Board was created and put in charge of the journal. The idea of one journal being a definitive place for a vast amount of chemistry was difficult for the committee to grasp at first.[56] However, it was decided that the journal would reprint old journal editions to keep all chemistry knowledge available.
Compendium of Chemical Terminology
TheCompendium of Chemical Terminology, also known as the "Gold Book", was originally worked on byVictor Gold. This book is a collection of names and terms already discussed inPure and Applied Chemistry.[57] TheCompendium of Chemical Terminology was first published in 1987.[11] The first edition of this book contains no original material, but is meant to be a compilation of other IUPAC works.
The second edition of this book was published in 1997.[31] This book made large changes to the first edition of theCompendium of Chemical Terminology. These changes included updated material and an expansion of the book to include over seven thousand terms.[31] The second edition was the topic of an IUPACXML project. This project made an XML version of the book that includes over seven thousand terms. The XML version of the book includes an open editing policy, which allows users to add excerpts of the written version.[31]
IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry (online publication)
IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry, also known as the "Blue Book", is a website published by the Advanced Chemistry Department Incorporated with the permission of IUPAC. This site is a compilation of the booksA Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds andNomenclature of Organic Chemistry.[58]
IUPAC andUNESCO were the lead organizations coordinating events for theInternational Year of Chemistry, which took place in 2011.[59][60] The International Year of Chemistry was originally proposed by IUPAC at the general assembly inTurin, Italy.[61] This motion was adopted by UNESCO at a meeting in 2008.[61] The main objectives of the International Year of Chemistry were to increase public appreciation of chemistry and gain more interest in the world ofchemistry. This event is also being held to encourage young people to get involved and contribute to chemistry. A further reason for this event being held is to honour how chemistry has made improvements to everyone's way of life.[12]
^abKaderas, Brigitte (2002).Wissenschaften und Wissenschaftspolitik: Bestandsaufnahmen zu Formationen, Brüchen und Kontinuitäten im Deutschland des 20. Jahrhunderts (in German). Franz Steiner Verlag.ISBN978-3-515-08111-5.
