International Gothic (or Late Gothic)art is a style offigurative art datable between about 1370 and,in Italy, the first half of the 15th century.
As the name emphasizes, this stylistic phase had an international scope, with common features as well as many local variables. The style did not spread from a center of irradiation, as had been the case, for example, withGothic art and theÎle-de-France, but was rather the result of a dialogue between European courts, fostered by the numerous mutual exchanges.[1] Among these courts, the papal court played a prominent role, particularly theAvignon court, a true center of gathering and exchange for artists from all over the continent.[2]
Italy, politically divided, was traversed by artists who spread this style, moving constantly (especiallyPisanello,Michelino da Besozzo andGentile da Fabriano) and also generating numerous regional variations. The "international" Gothic style meant the rejuvenation of the Gothic tradition (still linked at the end of the 14th century to the style ofGiotto), but only some areas offered original and "leading" contributions to the European scene, while others only partially and more superficially acquired individual stylistic features. Prominent among the areas wereLombardy and, to varying degrees,Venice andVerona. InFlorenceInternational Gothic art came into early competition with the nascentRenaissance style, but it nevertheless met with favor among the rich and cultured clientele, both religious and private.[3]
UnderGian Galeazzo Visconti (in power from 1374 to 1402) a political program was begun aimed at unifying northern Italy into a monarchy. In 1386 the construction ofMilan Cathedral began, for which Visconti called in French and German workers,[3] while in 1396 the same lord laid the foundation stone of theCertosa di Pavia.
Visconti's atelier of miniaturists was mainly active inPavia (in whosecastleGian Galeazzo's court was based) and by about 1370 had already elaborated a refined fusion of Giottesque chromaticism and courtly and chivalric themes. Protagonists of this early period were the anonymous miniaturist author of theGuiron le Coutois and theLancelot du Lac, now in theNational Library of France in Paris, andGiovannino de' Grassi, who illuminated the prayer book known as theHours of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, with representations of great linear elegance, naturalistic accuracy and decorative preciousness.[4] The next generation, especially in the personality ofMichelino da Besozzo, elaborated this legacy even more freely, imaginatively and internationally. In theOffiziolo Bodmer he used a flowing line, soft colors and a precious rhythm in the drawing of figures, which indifferently disregarded spatial issues; all were enriched by very fresh naturalistic details, taken from direct observation.[3]
Michelino's graceful style was successful and widely followed for a long time. For example, still in 1444, the frescoes in the Chapel of Teodolinda in theCathedral of Monza by theZavattari brothers are characterized by muted hues, astonished and weightless characters taken from the courtly world; other examples can also be counted for the second half of the 15th century.[5]
The other strand alongside Michelino's gentle style was the grotesque style, evidenced by the works of Franco and Filippolo de Veris in the fresco of theLast Judgment in the church of Santa Maria dei Ghirli inCampione d'Italia (1400), or the expressive miniatures ofBelbello da Pavia. For example, in theBible of Niccolò d'Este, illuminated by Belbello in 1431-1434, fluid, deforming lines, physically imposing figures, excessive gestures, and bright, iridescent colors are used. He remained faithful to this lexicon throughout his long career, until about 1470.[5]
In the secular field, the major pictorial cycles preserved today, with elegant scenes illustrating the pastimes of courtly life, are thefresco cycle of the so-calledBorromeo Games in theBorromeo Palace in Milan, the decorations of theSala degli Svaghi and theSala dei Vizi e delle Virtù in theMasnago Castle, whose authors have not yet been identified[6] and the dames commissioned byGian Galeazzo in 1393 to be frescoed in the "ladies' room" of theVisconti Castle, recently attributed toGentile da Fabriano.[7]
In the first two decades of the 15th centuryVenice initiated a momentous political shift, concentrating its interests toward the mainland, inserting itself more actively into the Western framework and gradually detaching itself from Byzantine influence. In painting, sculpture and architecture there was a contemporary grafting of late Gothic motifs, amalgamated with the Byzantine substratum: the linear and chromatic finesse of Gothic art were in fact very akin to the sumptuous abstractions of the oriental stamp. The renovation was also favored by the influx of artists from outside, enlisted atSt. Mark's Basilica and theDoge's Palace.[8]
The Basilica was crowned with domes, and it was decided in 1422 to extend the Doge's Palace on the side of the square to St. Mark's, continuing the style of the earlier, 14th-century part. Thus was consecrated a "Venetian" architectural style, free from the European trends of the time, which was reused for centuries. Belonging to this style are the elegantpoliforas with finely ornamented arches ofCa' Foscari,Palazzo Giustinian andCa' d'Oro, where at one time the facade was also decorated with dazzling gilding andpolychrome effects. These palaces are characterized by a ground-floorportico open to the water for docking vessels, while the upper floor is lit by large poliforas, usually at the central hall, which is reached by a grand staircase that also serves the other rooms. The small arches create dense and modular decorations, which multiply the openings and create rhythms of lace-likechiaroscuro.[9]
TheDoge's Palace was covered with frescoes between 1409 and 1414, featuring renowned artists such asPisanello,Michelino da Besozzo andGentile da Fabriano, works now almost totally lost due to various causes. The Venetian influence is seen in some of Gentile's works, such as theCoronation of the Virgin in theValle Romita Polyptych (1400-1410), painted for a hermitage nearFabriano.[8]
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InIstria, Venetian territory,John of Kastav worked in theHoly Trinity Church inHrastovlje, and Vincenzo di Càstua[10] in the sanctuary of Santa Maria alle Lastre inBeram.
Verona, although subjugated toVenice from 1406, long maintained its own artistic school, closer to the Lombard style brought by the earlier Visconti domination and the stay of artists such asMichelino da Besozzo (Madonna of the Rose Garden, c. 1435).[11]
Prominent was the painterStefano da Verona, son of a French painter (Jean d'Arbois, who was formerly in the service ofPhilip II of Burgundy andGian Galeazzo Visconti). In theAdoration of the Magi (signed and dated 1435), he constructed with soft strokes and sinuous lines one of the finest works of international Gothic art, paying great attention to detail, to the rendering of precious materials and fabrics, and to the calibration of the crowded composition, with a mostly linear style.[11]
However, the most important artist active in Verona wasPisanello, who brought northern figurative art to its peak. In thePellegrini Chapel of thechurch of Santa Anastasia is located his best-known work,Saint George and the Princess, wherein a wholly personal manner he mixed elegance of detail and tension of narrative, reaching heights of "idealized realism." Today the paintings are not in the best state of preservation, with many alterations to the paint surface and the loss of the entire left side. Pisanello later moved to other Italian courts (Pavia,Ferrara,Mantua,Rome), where he spread his artistic accomplishments, being in turn influenced by local schools, with particular regard to the rediscovery of the ancient world already promoted byPetrarch, to which he devoted himself by copying numerous Roman reliefs into drawings that have partly come down to us. Also extraordinary is his production of drawings, and veritable studies from life, among the first in the history of art to acquire a value independently of the finished panel work.[12]
Trentino was linked beyond the Alpine range to German-speaking and Central European countries. The entire area is rich in secular cycles, among which the work of Master Wenceslas, of Bohemian origin, who decorated the Eagle Tower in theBuonconsiglio Castle inTrent with theCycle of the Months, commissioned by George of Lichtenstein, stands out for its richness and quality. The scenes are rich in details inferred from the iconographies of theTacuina sanitatis, with a dense interweaving of the chivalrous and everyday worlds, yet devoid of grotesque overtones.[13]
Another interesting piece of evidence, in the Alpine area, is Sibyl's fresco, found inCortina d'Ampezzo. The fresco has survived in fragments: the scene probably compared six or more Sibyls in pairs, holding scrolls. Five remain: from the left, one recognizes the "Sibyl Valuensis," a symbol of justice. The second, holding a palm tree, may be the "Sibyl Nicaulia" or "Tiburtina." The central sibyl with three lions, according to the scroll she is holding, is the "Sibilla Portuensis"; but it could also be the "Sibilla Libica," because of the presence of the lions. The fourth, best preserved one should be the "Erythraean Sibyl," pointing to the rays of the Sun with her right hand. The fifth sibyl wears a different crown and looks outward.
Johannes Hinderbach, Bishop of Trent, enlarged his residence, theBuonconsiglio Castle in Trent, by making, among other things, a Venetianloggia withCorinthian capitals in Gothic style in the 15th century.[14]
InSouth Tyrol, the frescoes with chivalric and profane-courtly cycles inRunkelstein Castle and Rodengo Castle are relevant and valuable, while in Trentino those inCastle of Avio are worth mentioning.
The entire Alpine range had always been traversed via the passes by various flows of travelers, which is why it was a place of smooth cultural exchanges.
InPiedmont,Amadeus VIII linked his duchy through close diplomatic relations toBerry andBurgundy, going so far as to marryMary of Burgundy, the daughter of the Duke of BurgundyPhilip the Bold. The art produced at his court reflected this cosmopolitan climate, with artists such asGiacomo Jaquerio.[13]
He took Burgundian sculpture as his model, but soon developed a more personal style, where the finest stylistic sweetnesses and the sharpest expressive depictions coexisted, as in the movingAscent to Calvary frescoed in the formersacristy of thechurch of St. Anthony inRanverso (c. 1430). In the great variety of human types in the procession around Christ, a linear sense prevails due to the pronounced black line of the borders, yet each subject detaches expressively from the neutral background and group, creating a dramatic vision devoid of sentimentality.[13]
The Master of the Castello della Manta, formerly identified as Jaquerio and now regarded as a separate individual,[15] painted around 1420 a cycle of fine frescoes in thecastle nearSaluzzo, very rich in courtly elements on a bright, yet flat, white background. In scenes such as theFountain of Youth, the fairy-tale world of sinuous lines, drawn from private miniatures, is transferred to a monumental scale, with great attention to detail and numerous genre scenes: the heavy trudging of the elderly, men undressing, the old woman acting as a stepladder to her sore peer, the scenes of love and joy within the elaborate Gothic miraculous fountain.[16]
In theAosta Valley, the frescoes inFénis Castle andIssogne Castle belong to the International Gothic.
Inthe Marches there was a period of sudden artistic flourishing due to the emergence of special wide-ranging political and commercial relations. Small local lordships undertook very active exchanges with the Emilian, Venetian and Lombard area, as during the lordship ofPandolfo II Malatesta, lord ofFano, but also ofBergamo andBrescia, or during the alliance of many small local lords withGian Galeazzo Visconti in an anti-Florentine perspective.[17]
Ancona, at once antagonist and admirer of theSerenissima, from the mid-15th century began an ambitious restyling of its monuments according to the latest trends of the time, following the Venetian style. The architectGiorgio di Matteo, first called to the city by the Benincasa family of shipowners, who commissioned him to build the new family palace, was the architect behind this turnaround. Later the Council of the Republic entrusted him sequentially with the constructions of theLoggia dei Mercanti in 1451, theChurch of San Francesco alle Scale, where in 1454 he made the portal, one of his highest masterpieces, and the Church of Sant'Agostino, where in 1460 he made another remarkable portal.
InSan Severino Marche the Smeducci family had a period of considerable economic prosperity with trade beyond the region. This economic and cultural openness is reflected in works such asLorenzo Salimbeni'sMystic Marriage of St. Catherine (1400, Pinacoteca comunale di San Severino), characterized by a swirling movement of the lines of the drapery, unreal colors and detailed realism, following the most up-to-date Lombard-Emilian and French models.[17] A masterpiece of the Salimbeni brothers, in an excellent state of preservation, are the frescoes in theoratory of St. John the Baptist inUrbino.
InSan Ginesio there is tangible evidence of foreign contributions in the field of architecture with an ornate terracotta decoration applied to the old facade of theCollegiate Church of Santa Maria Assunta in 1421 by a certain master Enrico Alemanno, a Bavarian,[18] brother ofPietro Alemanno, thus making it the only example oflate Gothic, precisely florid Gothic, in theMarche region.[19]
Gentile da Fabriano, a native of the Marche town nearUmbria, was one of the greatest exponents of the Late Gothic style throughout the peninsula. Nourished by an Umbrian-Marche background with Lombard influences, taken on as a result of frequent travels, he fostered the flourishing of the Late Gothic style at first not far from his hinterland (the frescoes of humanistic inspiration inside thePalazzo Trinci inFoligno are illustrative), later gaining prominence even farther afield: to this day inFlorence, theAdoration of the Magi, his greatest work, is on display in theUffizi Gallery. In Umbria, the Late Gothic style also flourished due to the Salimbeni brothers.Ottaviano Nelli, who worked throughout the region, was formed inGubbio
Active inTerni were Francesco di Antonio, more commonly calledMaestro della Dormitio di Terni, andBartolomeo di Tommaso.
InFlorence theInternational Gothic penetrated with very specific characteristics (as had happened with Gothic painting), linked strongly, as a tradition, to classicism. The city at the beginning of the 15th century was beginning a period of apparent stability, after the serious upheavals of the previous century, with the end of theVisconti threat, territorial (subjugation ofPisa in 1406, ofCortona in 1411, ofLivorno in 1421) and economic growth dominated by thebourgeoisie. The costs of these achievements, however, wore down the political class from within, paving the way for the advent of the oligarchy, which came to fruition in 1434 with thede facto seigniory of theMedici. This fragility, however, was not felt by contemporaries, who rather praised the reaffirmation of prestige, according to the "civil"humanism of therepublic's chancellors such asColuccio Salutati. The appreciation of local tradition and theRoman origins of the city led again to the rejection of the courtly models, which had already been tried out, for example, in nearbySiena in the 14th century. In architecture, classical design already manifested itself with the construction of theLoggia della Signoria (1376-1382), with its wide round arches in the midst of the Gothic era; in sculpture, a greater adherence to classical plasticity was sought, as in the decoration of the Porta della Mandorla (1391-1397, then 1404-1406 and later) of theCathedral, byNanni di Banco and others; in painting, adherence toGiotto's style remained strong, with little further development.[20]
Toward the end of the 14th century, people began to tire of the old models and two main paths to renewal appeared: embrace the International Style or develop classical roots with even greater rigor. An extraordinary synthesis of the two schools of thought is offered by the two surviving panels from the 1401 competition for the north door of theBaptistery of Florence, cast in bronze byLorenzo Ghiberti andFilippo Brunelleschi respectively and now in theBargello National Museum. The test was to depict theBinding of Isaac within aquatrefoil, like those already used byAndrea Pisano in the older gate, which the two artists resolved very differently.[20]
Ghiberti divided the scene into two vertical bands harmonized by a rocky spur of archaic flavor, with a balanced narrative, proportionate figures and updated to Gothic cadences. He also included generic quotations from "antiquity" with aHellenistic flavor, as in the powerful nude of Isaac, thus mediating between the stimuli available at the time. The use of the rocky background also generated a finechiaroscuro, which "enveloped" the figures without violent breaks (which also influencedDonatello'sstiacciato).[21]
Quite different was the relief created by Brunelleschi, who divided the scene into two horizontal bands, with overlapping planes creating a pyramidal composition. At the apex, behind a flat background where the figures violently emerge, is the climax of the sacrifice episode, where perpendicular lines create the collision between the three different wills (of Abraham, Isaac and the angel, who grasps Abraham's armed arm to stop him). The scene is rendered with such expressiveness that Ghiberti's tile looks like a calm recitation by comparison. This style derives from a meditation on the work ofGiovanni Pisano (as in theSlaughter of the Innocents in thepulpit of St. Andrew) and on ancient art, as evidenced also by the mention of thespinario in the left corner. The victory fell to Ghiberti, a sign of how Florence was not yet ready for the innovative classicism that was at the origin of theRenaissance, precisely in sculpture before painting. In 1414, while working on the bronze gate, he produced aSt. John the Baptist with a falling cloak with a large rhythmic stride, canceling out the forms of the body, just as was done by contemporary Bohemian masters.[21]
In painting,Gherardo Starnina's trip toValencia in 1380 was of considerable importance; having brought himself up to date with international innovations, when he returned to Florence he had a strong influence on the new generation of painters such asLorenzo Monaco andMasolino da Panicale. Lorenzo Monaco, aCamaldolese painter and miniaturist, painted, from 1404, elongated figures covered in broad drapery, with refined and unnaturally bright hues. However, he did not adhere to the secular courtly culture; rather, he lavished his works with a strong spirituality accentuated by the detachment of the figures from reality and by the aristocratic gestures that are only slightly hinted at. Masolino da Panicale was a sensitive and gifted interpreter, only recently reevaluated by critics because of the canonical comparison with the works of his "pupil"Masaccio: a mutual influence between the two has now been pointed out, not only from Masaccio to Masolino.[22]
Gentile da Fabriano also lived in Florence for a time, leaving behind his masterpiece, theAdoration of the Magi (1423), commissioned by the wealthiest citizen,Palla Strozzi, for his chapel. The laterQuaratesi Polyptych already shows an influence related toMasaccio's isolated monumentality.[23]
InSiena, artists of the first half of the 15th century elaborated on the prestigious local tradition, which had been among the founding contributions of thelate Gothic style at the papal court inAvignon, while grafting some Florentine elements and maintaining a composed sense of religiosity.
The leader of this period isSassetta, who painted works with figures that have a typically elongated silhouette. The light is clear and sharp, and the compositions are often original but measured. In the early part of his activity the attention to ornament and linear effects is very meticulous, while after 1440, when he worked, among other places, inSansepolcro and probably saw the first works ofPiero della Francesca, his painted panels became essential.[24]
Other important artists were theMaster of the Osservanza, perhaps to be identified asSano di Pietro, andGiovanni di Paolo, the latter linked to late Gothic Lombard andFlemish painting,[25] visible in the importance given to the landscape, which dominates the background, with careful definition of details even at a great distance (Madonna of Humility dated 1435). Gradually the stylistic features of the Renaissance permeated the Sienese artists, so much so that it seems extremely difficult to draw a line between the two styles, which in Siena in particular seem to merge seamlessly. Examples of this are some works by Giovanni di Paolo himself, attached to tradition but with Renaissance elements such as the use of perspective.
InAbruzzo the late Gothic period was influenced by artists from other areas, such asGentile da Fabriano, who was called to paint afresco in San Flaviano (c. 1420), L'Aquila. Among the adherents was theMaster of the Beffi Triptych, perhaps the leading Abruzzese exponent.[26] In the Peligna-Marsica area, on the other hand, Giovanni da Sulmona, a painter and sculptor who also worked in theMarsica region, stood out.[27] There were two important artists in theprovince of Teramo:Jacobello del Fiore (of Venetian origin) and Antonio Martini of Atri, who, formed inSiena and the Emilian area, is documented throughout the whole of Abruzzo.
Late Gothic goldsmithing had its center inSulmona, where a veritable school was established whose artists also worked outside the region (as evidenced by their works inMontecassino,Venafro,Apulia and parts ofcentral Italy).[28] A prominent figure wasNicola da Guardiagrele, a goldsmith and painter trained at the school ofGhiberti in Florence and the proponent in his region of an interesting blend of Gothic and Renaissance.
In the Angevin, first, and later the Aragonese court ofNaples, many foreign artists worked, making the city a point of artistic exchange and interaction. Among the most significant were the CatalanJaime Baço, the VeronesePisanello and the FrenchJean Fouquet. Prominent among local artists wasColantonio.[29] The traditional alliance between the Angevin kings and their French cousins made possible for nearly two centuries the construction of many religious and civil buildings of typically Gothic-French workmanship.
After the mid-15th century, withRené of Anjou, the works of theFlemish masters arrived in the city, maturing an adherence to the Northern-inspired Renaissance, with the presence in the city of artists such asAntonello da Messina. René of Anjou was also the commissioner of an illustrated codex calledLivre du coeur d'amour epris, which was probably begun in Naples and completed after his exile inTarascon.
With the Aragonese, patronage remained typically Gothic, and Catalan Gothic blended with French Gothic and the emerging Renaissance style. For a spread of the Renaissance style one had to wait until the 1570s and 1580s.
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InSicily, with the settlement ofFerdinand I (1412) andAlfonso V of Aragon (who in 1416 made it his base for the conquest of theKingdom of Naples), there was a rapid artistic flowering favored first and foremost by the rich and demanding royal patronage and the system of trade and cultural exchanges withCatalonia,Valencia,Provence, northernFrance and theNetherlands.[17]
The finest work of this era was the fresco of theTriumph of Death for the courtyard of theSclafani Palace (now detached and preserved in theRegional Gallery of Palermo), probably commissioned directly by the sovereign and characterized by a lofty quality unprecedented in the area. In a garden, Death bursts in, on a ghostly skeleton horse, and shoots arrows that strike people from all walks of life and different religions, killing them. The iconography is not new, and the attention to the most grotesque and macabre details reveals a transalpine hand. The expressiveness is extraordinary, with many secondary episodes of remarkable preciousness: musicians and hunters who continue their activities undaunted, characters barely surprised by death, and the sorrowful humbler characters who invoke Death but are ignored by it.[17]
With the personal union of the Kingdom of Sicily and that of Naples, the island lost the impulse of a political center to stimulate its own artistic activity. The local tradition thus continued to repeat itself, especially in architecture and sculpture, renewing itself superficially and taking in some elements of the new styles in isolation.[30]
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