Internal fertilization is the union of anegg andsperm cell duringsexual reproduction inside the female body. Internal fertilization, unlike its counterpart,external fertilization, brings more control to the female with reproduction.[1] Male animalsinseminate females in order to internally fertilize their egg cells.
Fertilization which takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilization inanimals is done through the following different ways:[10][11][12]
Cloacal kiss, which consists in that the two animals touch their cloacae together in order to transfer thesperm of the male to the female. It is used in most birds and in thetuatara, that do not have an intromittent organ.[6]
Viaspermatophore, a sperm-containing cap placed by the male in the female's cloaca. Usually, the sperm is stored in spermathecae on the roof of the cloaca until it is needed at the time of oviposition. It is used by somesalamander and newt species, by theArachnida, some insects and somemollusks.[15][16]
Insponges, sperm cells are released into the water to fertilize ova that are retained by the female. Some species of sponge participate in external fertilization where the ova is released.[17]
Internal fertilization involves different processes thanexternal fertilization. Some of these unique processes include the following: spermcapacitation,[citation needed] building reservoirs of sperm/ sperm pockets within theoviduct,[18] sperm migration within the oviduct,[19]acrosomal reactions,[20] and sperm competition.[21]
Spermcapacitation has been studied primarily in mammals such as humans, rodents, and bovines.[22] This is an especially important process for internal fertilization because it ensures that sperm are activated at the right time and place to promote the greatest success with fertilization
The prevention ofpolyspermy is also an important process of internal fertilization. Internal fertilization utilizes a slow block, orcortical reaction, that uses different mechanisms and components than the mechanisms and components used during external fertilization.[23] While external fertilization also utilizes a fast block system, little is known about a fast block response associated with species that fertilize internally.[24]
At some point, the growingegg oroffspring must be expelled. There are several possiblemodes of reproduction. These are traditionally classified as follows:
Oviparity, as in mostinvertebrates and reptiles,monotremes, dinosaurs and all birds which lay eggs that continue to develop after being laid, and hatch later.[25]
Viviparity, as in almost all mammals (such aswhales,kangaroos andhumans) which bear their young live. The developing young spend proportionately more time within the female's reproductive tract. The young are later released to survive on their own, with varying amounts of help from theparent(s) of thespecies.[26]
Femalemate choice, which gives the female the ability to choose her partner before and after mating. The female cannot do this with external fertilization because she may have limited control of who is fertilizing her eggs, and when they are being fertilized.[1]
Making a decision for the conditions of reproduction, like location and time.[28] In external fertilization a female can only choose the time in which she releases her eggs, but not when they are fertilized. This is similar, in ways, tocryptic female choice.
Egg protection on dry land.[29] While oviparous animals either have a jelly like ovum or a hard shell enclosing their egg, internally fertilizing animals grow their eggs and offspring inside themselves. This offers protection from predators and from dehydration on land.[30] This allows for a higher chance of survival when there is a regulated temperature and protected area within the mother.
Gestation can and will add additional risks for the mother.[31] The additional risks from gestation come from extra energy demands.
Along with internal fertilization comessexual reproduction, in most cases. Sexual reproduction comes with some risks as well. The risks with sexual reproduction are with intercourse, it is infrequent and only works well during peakfertility. While animals which externally fertilize are able to release egg and sperm, usually into the water, not needing a specific partner to reproduce.[31]
Fewer offspring are produced through internal fertilization in comparison to external fertilization. This is both because the mother cannot hold and grow as many offspring as eggs, and the mother cannot provide and obtain enough resources for a larger amount of offspring.[32]
Some species of fish, such as guppies, have the ability to internally fertilize. This process involves the male guppy inserting a tubular fin into the female's reproductive opening, and then it will deposit sperm into the female guppy's reproductive tract. Internal fertilization in cartilaginous fishes contains the same evolutionary origin as reptiles, birds, and mammals that internally fertilize. Additionally, there is no noticeable difference in tonality for species of fish that fertilize internally.[33]
Most amphibians utilize external fertilization, however, there are some exceptions, such as the salamander. Salamanders mainly utilize internal fertilization. Salamanders do not copulate because the male salamander does not have an external penis. Rather, the male salamander produces an encased capsule of sperm and nutrients called aspermatophore. The male deposits a spermatophore on the ground, and the female will pick it up with her cloaca (a combined urinary and genital opening) and fertilize her eggs with it.[34] Because the female is not expelling the eggs to be fertilized, this is a form of internal fertilization.
Over time, an increasing number of amphibians have been discovered transitioning to a more internalist mode of fertilization.[citation needed] This transition is likely an effect of the transition from water to land during vertebrate evolution. There is an advantage for the amphibians who utilize internal fertilization because it allows for a greater selection of a time and place for reproduction.[28]
Most birds do not have penises but achieve internal fertilization via cloacal contact (or "cloaca kiss"). In these birds, males and females contact their cloacas together, typically briefly, and transfer sperm to the female. However, water fowls such as ducks and geese have penises and are able to use them for internal fertilization.[34] While birds have internal fertilization, most species no longer have phallus structures. This makes them the only vertebrate taxon to fall into both categories of lacking the phallus but participating in internal fertilization.[35]
Mammals are ideal model organisms for studying internal fertilization because all species within the mammalian class reproduce via internal fertilization processes. Mammals copulate as their method of reproduction. Internal fertilization for all mammals involves recognition events of the sperm and oocyte, acrosome reactions and associations, piercings of the oocytezona pellucida by sperm, and reactions such as thecortical and zona reactions. Sperm capacitation is a process more common in mammalian species than any other internally fertilizing species, due to the complex female reproductive system, requiring the sperm to travel farther and have a more significant signal recognition with the egg.[citation needed]
^abBrennan, Patricia L.R.; Orbach, Dara N. (2020).Copulatory behavior and its relationship to genital morphology. Advances in the Study of Behavior. Vol. 52. pp. 65–122.doi:10.1016/bs.asb.2020.01.001.ISBN978-0-12-820725-3.
^Hirohashi, Noritaka; Yanagimachi, Ryuzo (July 2018). "Sperm acrosome reaction: its site and role in fertilization".Biology of Reproduction.99 (1):127–133.doi:10.1093/biolre/ioy045.PMID29462288.
^Evans, Janice P. (March 2020). "Preventing polyspermy in mammalian eggs—Contributions of the membrane block and other mechanisms".Molecular Reproduction and Development.87 (3):341–349.doi:10.1002/mrd.23331.PMID32219915.
^Lodé T (2001).Les stratégies de reproduction des animaux [Reproduction Strategies in the Animal Kingdom] (in French). Paris: Dunod Sciences.
^Blackburn, Daniel G. (2000). "Classification of the Reproductive Patterns of Amniotes".Herpetological Monographs.14:371–377.doi:10.2307/1467051.JSTOR1467051.
^Carrier JC, Musick JA, Heithaus MR, eds. (2012).Biology of Sharks and Their Relatives. CRC Press. pp. 296–301.ISBN978-1-4398-3924-9.
^Altig R, McDiarmid RW (December 2007). "Morphological diversity and evolution of egg and clutch structure in amphibians".Herpetological Monographs.21 (1):1–32.doi:10.1655/06-005.1.S2CID55728625.
^Parker, G. A. (November 1970). "Sperm Competition and ITS Evolutionary Consequences in the Insects".Biological Reviews.45 (4):525–567.doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1970.tb01176.x.
