| Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theIndo-Pakistani wars,Kashmir conflict, and thePartition of India | |||||||||
 Indian troops landing on Srinagar airfield | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
 India |  Pakistan | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
 Louis MountbattenJawaharlal Nehru Roy Bucher[3] K. M. Cariappa[3] Subayya Thimayya[4].svg) Hari SinghMehr Chand MahajanSheikh Abdullah |  Muhammad Ali Jinnah Liaquat Ali Khan Frank Messervy[3]Douglas Gracey[3] Akbar Khan[5] Khurshid Anwar[6]Zaman Kiani[6]William Brown[7] | ||||||||
| Units involved | |||||||||
 Indian Armed Forces |  Pakistan Armed Forces
| ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
[22][24][19][25][26] Total military casualties:
| [22][24][25][26][27] Total military casualties: | ||||||||
| Conflict began whenPashtun tribesmen and Tanoli from Pakistan invaded theprincely state ofJammu and Kashmir, prompting the armies of India and Pakistan to get involved shortly afterwards. | |||||||||
TheIndo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948, also known as thefirst Kashmir war,[28] was a war fought betweenIndia andPakistan over theprincely state ofJammu and Kashmir from 1947 to 1948. It was the first of fourIndo-Pakistani wars between the twonewly independent nations. Pakistan precipitated the war a few weeks after its independence by launching triballashkar (militias) fromWaziristan,[29] in an effort to captureKashmir and to preempt the possibility of its ruler joining India.[30]
Hari Singh, theMaharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, was facing anuprising by his Muslim subjects inPoonch, and lost control in portions of the western districts. On 22 October 1947, Pakistan'sPashtun tribal militias crossed the border of the state. These local tribal militias and irregular Pakistani forces moved to take the capital city ofSrinagar, but upon reachingBaramulla, they took to plunder and stalled. Maharaja Hari Singh made a plea to India for assistance, and help was offered, but it was subject to his signing of anInstrument of Accession to India.
The war was initially fought by theJammu and Kashmir State Forces[31][32] and by militias from thefrontier tribal areas adjoining theNorth-West Frontier Province.[33] Following theaccession of the state to India on 26 October 1947, Indian troops were airlifted toSrinagar, the state capital. British commanding officers initially refused the entry of Pakistani troops into the conflict, citing the accession of the state to India. However, later in 1948, they relented and Pakistan's armies entered the war shortly afterwards.[33] The fronts solidified gradually along what later came to be known as theLine of Control. A formal ceasefire was declared effective 1 January 1949.[34] Numerous analysts state that the war ended in a stalemate, with neither side obtaining a clear victory. Others, however, state that India emerged victorious as it successfully gained the majority of the contested territory.
Prior to 1815, the area now known as "Jammu and Kashmir" comprised 22 small independent states (16 Hindu and six Muslim) carved out of territories controlled by the Amir (King) ofAfghanistan, combined with those of local small rulers. These were collectively referred to as the "Punjab Hill States". These small states, ruled byRajput kings, were variously independent, vassals of theMughal Empire since the time ofEmperor Akbar or sometimes controlled fromKangra state in the Himachal area. Following the decline of the Mughals, turbulence in Kangra and invasions of Gorkhas, the hill states fell successively under the control of the Sikhs underRanjit Singh.[35]: 536
TheFirst Anglo-Sikh war (1845–46) was fought between theSikh Empire, which asserted sovereignty overKashmir, and theEast India Company. In theTreaty of Lahore of 1846, the Sikhs were made to surrender the valuable region (the Jullundur Doab) between theBeas River and theSutlej River and required to pay an indemnity of 1.2 million rupees. Because they could not readily raise this sum, the East India Company allowed theDogra rulerGulab Singh to acquire Kashmir from the Sikh kingdom in exchange for making a payment of 750,000 rupees to the company. Gulab Singh became the firstMaharaja of the newly formedprincely state ofJammu and Kashmir, founding adynasty that was to rule the state, the second-largest principality during theBritish Raj, until India gained its independence in 1947.[citation needed]
From February 1944 to January 1947, Afghanistanfaced a series of tribal revolts. These revolts influenced Afghanistan to take a pro-Pakistan stance during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948. A pro-India stance in this case would necessitate stopping Pashtuns from joining Pakistan's war against India, which was expected to cause a resurgence in rebel activity when the government was hoping to focus on national reform.[36]
The years 1946–1947 saw the rise ofAll-India Muslim League andMuslim nationalism, demanding a separate state for India's Muslims. The demand took a violent turn on theDirect Action Day (16 August 1946) and inter-communal violence between Hindus and Muslims became endemic. Consequently, a decision was taken on 3 June 1947 to divideBritish India into two separate states, theDominion of Pakistan comprising the Muslim majority areas and theDominion of India comprising the rest. The two provincesPunjab andBengal with large Muslim-majority areas were to be divided between the two dominions. An estimated 11 million people eventually migrated between the two parts of Punjab, and possibly 1 million perished in the inter-communal violence.[citation needed] Jammu and Kashmir, being adjacent to the Punjab province, was directly affected by the happenings in Punjab.[citation needed]
The original target date for the transfer of power to the new dominions was June 1948. However, fearing the rise of inter-communal violence, the British ViceroyLord Mountbatten advanced the date to 15 August 1947. This gave only six weeks to complete all the arrangements for partition.[37] Mountbatten's original plan was to stay on as the jointGovernor General for both of the newdominions till June 1948. However, this was not accepted by the Pakistani leaderMohammad Ali Jinnah. In the event, Mountbatten stayed on as the Governor General of India, whereas Pakistan chose Jinnah as its Governor General.[38] It was envisaged that the nationalisation ofthe armed forces could not be completed by 15 August[a] and hence British officers stayed on after the transfer of power. The service chiefs were appointed by the Dominion governments and were responsible to them. The overall administrative control, but not operational control, was vested with Field MarshalClaude Auchinleck,[b] who was titled the 'Supreme Commander', answerable to a newly formed Joint Defence Council of the two dominions. India appointed GeneralRob Lockhart as its Army chief and Pakistan appointed GeneralFrank Messervy.[43]
The presence of the British commanding officers on both sides made the Indo-Pakistani war of 1947 a strange war. The two commanding officers were in daily telephone contact and adopted mutually defensive positions. The attitude was that "you can hit them so hard but not too hard, otherwise there will be all kinds of repercussions."[44] Both Lockhart and Messervy were replaced in the course of war, and their successorsRoy Bucher andDouglas Gracey tried to exercise restraint on their respective governments. Bucher was apparently successful in doing so in India, but Gracey yielded and let British officers be used in operational roles on the side of Pakistan. One British officer died in action.[45]
With the independence of the Dominions, theBritish Paramountcy over the princely states came to an end. The rulers of the states were advised to join one of the two dominions by executing anInstrument of Accession.Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir, along with his prime ministerRam Chandra Kak, decided not to accede to either dominion. The reasons cited were that the Muslim majority population of the state would not be comfortable with joining India, and that the Hindu and Sikh minorities would become vulnerable if the state joined Pakistan.[46]
In 1947, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir had a wide range of ethnic and religious communities. TheKashmir province consisting of theKashmir Valley and theMuzaffarabad district had a majority Muslim population (over 90%). TheJammu province, consisting of five districts, had roughly equal numbers of Hindus and Muslims in the eastern districts (Udhampur,Jammu andReasi), and a Muslim majority in the western districts (Mirpur andPoonch). The mountainousLadakh district (wazarat) in the east had a significant Buddhist presence with a Muslim majority inBaltistan. TheGilgit Agency in the north was overwhelmingly Muslim and was directly governed by the British under an agreement with the Maharaja. Shortly before the transfer of power, the British returned the Gilgit Agency to the Maharaja, who appointed aDogra governor for the district and a British commander for the local forces.[citation needed]
The predominant political movement in the Kashmir Valley, theNational Conference led bySheikh Abdullah, believed in secular politics. It was allied with theIndian National Congress and was believed to favour joining India. On the other hand, the Muslims of the Jammu province supported theMuslim Conference, which was allied to theAll-India Muslim League and favoured joining Pakistan. The Hindus of the Jammu province favoured an outright merger with India.[47] In the midst of all the diverging views, the Maharaja's decision to remain independent was apparently a judicious one.[48]
According to Indian military sources, the Pakistani Army prepared a plan called Operation Gulmarg and put it into action as early as 20 August, a few days after Pakistan's independence. The plan was accidentally revealed to an Indian officer,Major O. S. Kalkat serving with theBannu Brigade.[c] According to the plan, 20lashkars (tribal militias), each consisting of 1,000Pashtun tribesmen, were to be recruited from among various Pashtun tribes, and armed at the brigade headquarters atBannu,Wanna,Peshawar,Kohat,Thall andNowshera by the first week of September. They were expected to reach the launching point ofAbbottabad on 18 October, and cross into Jammu and Kashmir on 22 October. Tenlashkars were expected to attack theKashmir Valley throughMuzaffarabad and another tenlashkars were expected to join the rebels inPoonch,Bhimber andRawalakot with a view to advance toJammu. Detailed arrangements for the military leadership and armaments were described in the plan.[50][51]
The regimental records show that, by the last week of August, the11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force) (PAVO Cavalry) regiment was briefed about the invasion plan. Colonel Sher Khan, the Director of Military Intelligence, was in charge of the briefing, along with Colonels Akbar Khan and Khanzadah. The Cavalry regiment was tasked with procuring arms and ammunition for the 'freedom fighters' and establishing three wings of the insurgent forces: the South Wing commanded by Major GeneralZaman Kiani, a Central Wing based at Rawalpindi and a North Wing based at Abbottabad. By 1 October, the Cavalry regiment completed the task of arming the insurgent forces. "Throughout the war there was no shortage of small arms, ammunitions, or explosives at any time." The regiment was also told to be on stand by for induction into fighting at an appropriate time.[52][53][54]
Scholars have noted considerable movement of Pashtun tribes during September–October. By 13 September, armed Pashtuns drifted into Lahore and Rawalpindi. The Deputy Commissioner ofDera Ismail Khan noted a scheme to send tribesmen fromMalakand toSialkot, in lorries provided by the Pakistan government. Preparations for attacking Kashmir were also noted in the princely states ofSwat,Dir, andChitral. Scholar Robin James Moore states there is "little doubt" that Pashtuns were involved in border raids all along the Punjab border from theIndus to theRavi.[55]
Pakistani sources deny the existence of any plan called Operation Gulmarg. However, Shuja Nawaz does list 22 Pashtun tribes involved in the invasion of Kashmir on 22 October.[56]
Sometime in August 1947, the first signs of trouble broke out inPoonch, about which diverging views have been received. Poonch was originally an internaljagir (autonomous principality), governed by an alternative family line of Maharaja Hari Singh. The taxation is said to have been heavy. The Muslims of Poonch had long campaigned for the principality to be absorbed into the Punjab province of British India. In 1938, a notable disturbance occurred for religious reasons, but a settlement was reached.[57] During theSecond World War, over 60,000 men from Poonch and Mirpur districts enrolled in the British Indian Army. After the war, they were discharged with arms, which is said to have alarmed the Maharaja.[58] In June, Poonchis launched a 'No Tax' campaign.[59] In July, the Maharaja ordered that all the soldiers in the region be disarmed.[d] The absence of employment prospects coupled with high taxation drove the Poonchis to rebellion.[58] The "gathering head of steam", states scholar Srinath Raghavan, was utilised by the local Muslim Conference led bySardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan (Sardar Ibrahim) to further their campaign for accession to Pakistan.[61]
According to state government sources, the rebellious militias gathered in the Naoshera-Islamabad area, attacking the state troops and their supply trucks. A battalion of state troops was dispatched, which cleared the roads and dispersed the militias. By September, order was reestablished.[62] The Muslim Conference sources, on the other hand, narrate that hundreds of people were killed inBagh during flag hoisting around 15 August and that the Maharaja unleashed a 'reign of terror' on 24 August. Local Muslims also told Richard Symonds, a British Quaker social worker, that the army fired on crowds, and burnt houses and villages indiscriminately.[63] According to the Assistant British High Commissioner in Pakistan, H. S. Stephenson, "the Poonch affair... was greatly exaggerated".[62]
Operation Datta Khel was a military operation and coup planned byMajor William Brown along with theGilgit Scouts, aimed at overthrowing the rule of theDogra dynasty ofKashmir. The operation was launched shortly after the independence of Pakistan. By 1 November,Gilgit-Baltistan had been annexed from the Dogra dynasty, and was made part of Pakistan after a brief provisional government.[64]
ScholarPrem Shankar Jha states that the Maharaja had decided, as early as April 1947, that he would accede to India if it was not possible to stay independent.[65]: 115 The rebellion in Poonch possibly unnerved the Maharaja. Accordingly, on 11 August, he dismissed his pro-Pakistan Prime Minister, Ram Chandra Kak, and appointed retired MajorJanak Singh in his place.[66] On 25 August, he sent an invitation to JusticeMehr Chand Mahajan of the Punjab High Court to come as the Prime Minister.[67] On the same day, the Muslim Conference wrote to the Pakistani Prime MinisterLiaquat Ali Khan warning him that "if, God forbid, the Pakistan Government or the Muslim League do not act, Kashmir might be lost to them".[68] This set the ball rolling in Pakistan.[citation needed]
Liaquat Ali Khan sent a Punjab politicianMian Iftikharuddin to explore the possibility of organising a revolt in Kashmir.[69] Meanwhile, Pakistan cut off essential supplies to the state, such as petrol, sugar and salt. It also stopped trade in timber and other products, and suspended train services to Jammu.[70][71] Iftikharuddin returned in mid-September to report that the National Conference held strong in the Kashmir Valley and ruled out the possibility of a revolt.[citation needed]
.jpg)
Meanwhile, Sardar Ibrahim had escaped to West Punjab, along with dozens of rebels, and established a base inMurree. From there, the rebels attempted to acquire arms and ammunition for the rebellion and smuggle them into Kashmir. ColonelAkbar Khan, one of a handful of high-ranking officers in the Pakistani Army,[e] with a keen interest in Kashmir, arrived in Murree, and got enmeshed in these efforts. He arranged 4,000 rifles for the rebellion by diverting them from the Army stores. He also wrote out a draft plan titledArmed Revolt inside Kashmir and gave it to Mian Iftikharuddin to be passed on to the Pakistan's Prime Minister.[73][74][6]
On 12 September, the Prime Minister held a meeting with Mian Iftikharuddin, Colonel Akbar Khan and another Punjab politician SardarShaukat Hayat Khan. Hayat Khan had a separate plan, involving theMuslim League National Guard and the militant Pashtun tribes from theFrontier regions. The Prime Minister approved both the plans, and despatchedKhurshid Anwar, the head of the Muslim League National Guard, to mobilise the Frontier tribes.[74][6]
The Maharaja was increasingly driven to the wall with the rebellion in the western districts and the Pakistani blockade. He managed to persuade Justice Mahajan to accept the post of Prime Minister (but not to arrive for another month, for procedural reasons). He sent word to the Indian leaders through Mahajan that he was willing to accede to India but needed more time to implement political reforms. However, it was India's position that it would not accept accession from the Maharaja unless it had the people's support. The Indian Prime MinisterJawaharlal Nehru demanded that Sheikh Abdullah should be released from prison and involved in the state's government. Accession could only be contemplated afterwards. Following further negotiations, Sheikh Abdullah was released on 29 September.[75][76]
Nehru, foreseeing a number of disputes over princely states, formulated a policy that states
"wherever there is a dispute in regard to any territory, the matter should be decided by a referendum or plebiscite of the people concerned. We shall accept the result of this referendum whatever it may be."[77][78]
The policy was communicated to Liaquat Ali Khan on 1 October at a meeting of the Joint Defence Council. Khan's eyes are said to have "sparkled" at the proposal. However, he made no response.[77][78]
Armed rebellion started in the Poonch district at the beginning of October 1947.[79][80]The fighting elements consisted of "bands of deserters from the State Army, serving soldiers of the Pakistan Army on leave, ex-servicemen, and other volunteers who had risen spontaneously."[81]The first clash is said to have occurred atThorar (nearRawalakot) on 3–4 October 1947.[82]The rebels quickly gained control of almost the entire Poonch district. The State Forces garrison at thePoonch city came under heavy siege.[83][84]
In theKotli tehsil of the Mirpur district, border posts at Saligram andOwen Pattan on the Jhelum river were captured by rebels around 8 October.Sehnsa andThrochi were lost after some fighting.[85][86] State Force records reveal that Muslim officers sent with reinforcements sided with the rebels and murdered the fellow state troops.[87]
Radio communications between the fighting units were operated by the Pakistan Army.[88] Even though the Indian Navy intercepted the communications, lacking intelligence in Jammu and Kashmir, it was unable to determine immediately where the fighting was taking place.[89]
Following the rebellions in the Poonch and Mirpur area[90] and the Pakistan-backed[91] Pashtun tribal invasion from theNorth-West Frontier Province,[92][93] the Maharaja asked for Indian military assistance. India set the condition that Kashmir must accede to India for it to receive assistance. The Maharaja complied, and theGovernment of India recognised the accession of the princely state to India. Indian troops were sent to the state to defend it.[f] TheJammu & Kashmir National Conference volunteers aided theIndian Army in its campaign to drive out the Pathan invaders.[97]
Pakistan refused to recognise the accession of Kashmir to India, claiming that it was obtained by "fraud and violence."[98] Governor GeneralMohammad Ali Jinnah ordered his Army Chief General Douglas Gracey to move Pakistani troops to Kashmir at once. However, the Indian and Pakistani forces were still under a joint command, and Field Marshal Auchinleck prevailed upon him to withdraw the order. With its accession to India, Kashmir became legally Indian territory, and the British officers could not a play any role in an inter-Dominion war.[99][100] The Pakistan Army made available arms, ammunition, and supplies to the rebel forces who were dubbed the "Azad Army". Pakistan Army officers "conveniently" on leave and the former officers of theIndian National Army were recruited to command the forces.
In May 1948, the Pakistan Army officially entered the conflict, in theory to defend the Pakistan borders, but it made plans to push towards Jammu and cut the lines of communications of the Indian forces in the Mehndar Valley.[101] InGilgit, the force ofGilgit Scouts under the command of a British officer Major William Brown mutinied and overthrew the governor Ghansara Singh. Brown prevailed on the forces to declare accession to Pakistan.[102][103] They are also believed to have received assistance from theChitral Scouts and theBodyguard of the state ofChitral, one of theprincely states of Pakistan, which had acceded to Pakistan on 6 October 1947.[104][105]
On 22 October 1947,Khurshid Anwar entered Kashmir nearMuzaffarabad heading a lashkar of 4,000 tribesmen.[106] The Pashtun tribal attack was launched in the Muzaffarabad sector. The state forces stationed in the border regions aroundMuzaffarabad and Domel were quickly defeated by tribal forces (Muslim state forces mutinied and joined them) and the way to the capital was open. Among the raiders, there were many active Pakistani Army soldiers disguised as tribals. They were also provided logistical help by the Pakistan Army. Rather than advancing toward Srinagar before state forces could regroup or be reinforced, the invading forces remained in the captured cities in the border region engaging in looting and other crimes against their inhabitants.[107] In thePoonch valley, the state forces retreated into towns where they were besieged.[108]
Records indicate that the Pakistani tribals beheaded many Hindu and Sikh civilians in Jammu and Kashmir.[109]
After the accession, India airlifted troops and equipment to Srinagar under the command of Lt. Col.Dewan Ranjit Rai, where they reinforced the princely state forces, established a defence perimeter and defeated the tribal forces on the outskirts of the city. After Khurshid Anwar and some of the tribesmen advanced again, about 1,000 of them reachedBudgam by 3 November, which was within striking distance of the Srinagar airfield. Here they wereconfronted by Indian troops.[110]
The Indians managed on holding both the capital and airfield overnight against extreme odds. The successful defence included an outflanking manoeuvre by Indianarmoured cars[111] during theBattle of Shalateng. The defeated tribal forces were pursued as far asBaramulla andUri and these towns, too, were recaptured.[citation needed]
In the Poonch valley, tribal forces continued to besiege state forces.[citation needed]
InGilgit, the state paramilitary forces, theGilgit Scouts, under the command ofMajorWilliam Brown, joined the invading tribal forces, who thereby obtained control of this northern region of the state. The tribal forces were also joined by troops fromChitral, whose ruler,Muzaffar ul-Mulk the Mehtar of Chitral, had acceded to Pakistan.[112][113][114]
Indian forces ceased pursuit of tribal forces after recapturing Uri and Baramula, and sent arelief column southwards, in an attempt to relieve Poonch. Although the relief column eventually reached Poonch, the siege could not be lifted. A second relief column reachedKotli, and evacuated the garrisons of that town and others but were forced to abandon it being too weak to defend it. Meanwhile, Mirpur was captured by the tribal forces on 25 November 1947 with the help of Pakistan'sPAVO Cavalry.[115] This led to the1947 Mirpur massacre where Hindu women were reportedly abducted by tribal forces and taken into Pakistan. They were sold in the brothels of Rawalpindi. Around 400 women jumped into wells in Mirpur committing suicide to escape from being abducted.[116]
The tribal forces attacked and capturedJhanger. They then attackedNaoshera unsuccessfully, and made a series of unsuccessful attacks onUri. In the south a minor Indian attack securedChamb. By this stage of the war the front line began to stabilise as more Indian troops became available.[citation needed]
The Indian forces launched a counterattack in the south recapturing Jhanger and Rajauri. In the Kashmir Valley the tribal forces continued attacking the Urigarrison. In the north,Skardu was brought under siege by the Gilgit Scouts.[117]
The Indians held onto Jhanger against numerous counterattacks, who were increasingly supported by regular Pakistani Forces. In the Kashmir Valley the Indians attacked, recapturing Tithwail. The Gilgit scouts made good progress in the High Himalayas sector, infiltrating troops to bringLeh under siege, capturingKargil and defeating a relief column heading for Skardu.[citation needed]
The Indians continued to attack in the Kashmir Valley sector driving north to capture Keran and Gurais (Operation Eraze).[118]: 308–324 They also repelled a counterattack aimed atTeetwal. In the Jammu region, the forces besieged in Poonch broke out and temporarily linked up with the outside world again. The Kashmir State army was able to defend Skardu from the Gilgit Scouts impeding their advance down the Indus valley towards Leh. In August theChitral Scouts andChitral Bodyguard under Mata ul-Mulk besieged Skardu and with the help of artillery were able to take Skardu. This freed the Gilgit Scouts to push further intoLadakh.[119][120]
During this time the front began to settle down. The siege of Poonch continued. An unsuccessful attack was launched by77 Parachute Brigade (Brig Atal) to captureZoji La pass. Operation Duck, the earlier epithet for this assault, was renamed as Operation Bison byCariappa.M5 Stuart light tanks of7 Cavalry were moved in dismantled conditions through Srinagar and winched across bridges while two field companies of theMadras Sappers converted the mule track across Zoji La into a jeep track. The surprise attack on 1 November by the brigade with armour supported by two regiments of25-pounder gun-howitzers and a regiment of3.7-inch mountain guns, forced the pass and pushed the tribal and Pakistani forces back toMatayan and laterDras. The brigade linked up on 24 November atKargil with Indian troops advancing fromLeh while their opponents eventually withdrew northwards towardSkardu.[121]: 103–127 The Pakistani attacked the Skardu on 10 February 1948 which was repulsed by the Indian soldiers.[122] Thereafter, the Skardu Garrison was subjected to continuous attacks by thePakistan Army for the next three months and each time, their attack was repulsed by the ColonelSher Jung Thapa and his men.[122] Thapa held the Skardu with hardly 250 men for whole six long months without any reinforcement and replenishment.[123] On 14 August, Thapa had to surrender Skardu to the Pakistani Army[124] and raiders after a year long siege.[125]
The Indians now started to get the upper hand in all sectors.Poonch was finally relieved after a siege of over a year. The Gilgit forces in the High Himalayas, who had previously made good progress, were finally defeated. The Indians pursued as far as Kargil before being forced to halt due to supply problems. TheZoji La pass was forced by using tanks (which had not been thought possible at that altitude) and Dras was recaptured.[citation needed]
At 23.59 hrs on 1 January 1949, a United Nations-mediated ceasefire came into effect, bring the war to an end.[34]
The terms of the ceasefire, laid out in aUN Commission resolution on 13 August 1948,[126] were adopted by the commission on 5 January 1949.This required Pakistan to withdraw its forces, both regular and irregular, while allowing India to maintain minimal forces within the state to preserve law and order. Upon compliance with these conditions, aplebiscite was to be held to determine the future of the territory. Owing to disagreements over the demilitarisation steps, a plebiscite was never held and the cease-fire line essentially became permanent. Some sources may refer to 5 January as the beginning of the ceasefire.[127]
Indian losses in the war totalled 1,104 killed and 3,154 wounded;[19] Pakistani, about 6,000 killed and 14,000 wounded.[25]
Numerous analysts state that the war ended in a stalemate, with neither side obtaining a clear victory.[128] Others, however, state thatIndia emerged victorious as it successfully gained the majority of the contested territory.[129]
India gained control of about two-thirds of the Jammu and Kashmir princely state, including theKashmir Valley, theJammu province andLadakh. Pakistan had control of one-third of the state: three western districts later namedAzad Jammu and Kashmir, and the northern areas including the Gilgit district, the Gilgit Agency and theBaltistan tehsil of the Ladakh district (later renamed Gilgit-Baltistan).[130][131][132][133]
India and Pakistan signed theKarachi Agreement in July 1949 and established a ceasefire line to be supervised by observers. After the termination of theUNCIP, the Security Council passedResolution 91 (1951) and established aUnited Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) to observe and report violations ofceasefire.[134][135]
The resentment over Pakistani defeat in the war resulted in afailed coup led by GeneralAkbar Khan in 1951 against the government of Prime MinisterLiaquat Ali Khan. Army officers thought the government's acceptance of UN mediation and ceasefire was weak and squandered an opportunity to capture the entirety of Kashmir.[136][137][138][139]
After two further wars in1965 and1971, only minor changes in the ground situation had been effected. After the last war, the two countries reached the 1972Simla Agreement, converting the cease-fire line into aLine of Control and disavowing the use of force across it. In 1984, India gainedSiachen after launching ashort military action.[140]
After the war, a total of number of 11battle honours and onetheatre honour were awarded to units of the Indian Army, the notable amongst which are:[141]
For bravery, a number of soldiers and officers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries. Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian awardParam Vir Chakra, and the Pakistani awardNishan-E-Haider:
During the long campaign, the Indian Army lost 76 officers, 31 JCOs and 996 Other Ranks killed, making a total of 1103. The wounded totalled 3152, including 81 officers and 107 JCOs. Apart from these casualties, it appears that the J & K State Forces lost no less than 1990 officers and men killed, died of wounds, or missing presumed killed. The small RIAF lost a total of 32 officers and men who laid down their lives for the nation during these operations. In this roll of honour, there were no less than 9 officers.
Nehru therefore suggested to Patel that the maharaja should 'make friends with the National Conference, 'so that there might be this popular support against Pakistan'. Nehru had hoped that the maharaja could be persuaded to accede to India before any invasion took place and he realised that accession would only be more easily accepted if Abdullah, as a popular leader, were brought into the picture.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Following their open intervention, of course, the Indian strength on this sector, once established, increased rapidly; but never to such an extent as to threaten to overwhelm the Azad Kashmiri defenders. During the course of 1948a stalemate was reached which has persisted more or less to the present day. A front line was stabilised which ran south from the Indian controlled Poonch salient, passed just west of Naoshera (which remained in Indian hands), and reached the old Punjab border (now that of Pakistan) a few miles to the west of the Chenab River. The Jammu & Kashmir State town garrisons to the west of this line were unable to hold out against Azad Kashmiri siege, many falling during the course of November 1947. The extreme south of this sector was really an extension of the Punjab plains; and here fighting could take place on a surprisingly large scale, so that in successive Indo-Pakistani Wars this was to be the scene of great clashes of armour and the use of tactical air power, at times of a magnitude which would have aroused notice in World War II
As 1947 drew to a close, it was already possible to detect a pattern in the Kashmir conflict. The combination of the Azad Kashmiris and the Gilgit Scouts, with varying degrees of assistance both moral and material from Pakistan, had produced the beginnings of astalemate, and this the cleverer soldiers on both sides appreciated. India now had over 90,000 regular troops in Jammu & Kashmir andyet no quick military solution was in sight. There would, of course, be much fighting in the future. 1948 saw both the epic struggle for Poonch and, later in the year, the Indian victories at the Zoji La and Kargil which achieved control over the Leh-Srinagar road and not only gave India Possession of the Ladakhi capital but also access to the desolate Tibetan borderlands without which the Sino-Indian conflict of the late 1950s would certainly have assumed a rather different form. By the beginning of 1948, however, astute observers could well have concluded that some kind of partition.
Despite itsinconclusive ending, the first Kashmir war had two major results. First, it demonstrated that nonstate actors could enable Pakistan to challenge India in a manner that limited the prospect of direct military confrontation ... Second, the war enhanced Kashmir's importance to Pakistan, extending the dispute well past the time of partition and transforming it into a contest of national resolve with India.
Meanwhile, in typical tribal fashion, the Pathans delayed their attack on Srinagar and its airfield in order to devote themselves to looting and pillage. This delay allowed India time to mount an air bridge to Srinagar. The Indians used their entire inventory of thirty Dakota military transports to airlift a battalion of Sikhs, blood enemies of the Pathans, to Srinagar's airfield. A three-thousand-man army brigade was rushed up the terrible roads from the plains to Kashmir. After a month of chaotic fighting, the Pathans and Muslim irregular forces were pushed westward by arriving Indian Army troops.Further inconclusive fighting, which was joined in 1948 by regular Pakistani army units, sputtered on until the United Nations imposed a ceasefire in January 1949 between India and Pakistan.
Kargil was a pivotal battleground during the First Kashmir War. In October 1947, Gilgit Scouts, assisted by Muslim soldiers in the Kashmir state army, mounted a successful coup d'etat in the Northern Areas. The so-called Azad (Free) Forces set up headquarters in the valley town of Astore. The rebels then recruited additional volunteers in the Gilgit and Baltistan regions and moved along the valleys and Indus River while pushing back the Kashmir state army. In February 1948, the "Azad Forces" besieged the garrison in Skardu where non-Muslim civilian and military personnel had taken refuge. In response Pakistan's motivations and calculations for the Kargil In the end, the fighting provedinconclusive, and Pakistani and Indian forces reached a military stalemate in Kashmir. The negotiated Cease-Fire Line was codified in the Karachi Agreement of 1949
The war escalated toward the end of 1948, when Pakistan moved troops up from Lahore to fight in Jammu province, exposing itself to possible attack in the Punjab. However, before the war spread beyond the Kashmir territory, andbefore a conclusive military outcome was reached on the battlefield, a cease-fire was arranged by the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP), a five-member body send by the UN to help resolve the conflict.
The first fifteen years of the India-Pakistan conflict witnessed violence of different intensities. Even before institutionalizing their independence, India and Pakistan were locked in a crisis which led to their first war from 1947 to 1949. Pakistan showed no hesitation in starting the war and India reciprocated in kind. Thoughinconclusive, the war has left a permanent mark on the India-Pakistan conflict.
Later, when the outcome of the First Kashmir War did not favor either side, the resulting stalemate led to a puzzling division of Kashmir between the two adversaries.
Although certain minor operations were possible, India was essentially confronted with a stalemate.
Although the war ended in a stalemate with international intervention, Pakistan may have rightly concluded that the strategy of using irregular fighters succeeded.
In the stalemate that followed the first Indo-Pakistani War...
That effort failed, and the ensuing war in 1947 – 48 ended in a military stalemate.
In January 1948, with a military stalemate at hand, India referred the Kashmir dispute to the UN.
With British officers present in both armies and the international community urging restraint, the conflict ended in a tactical and strategic stalemate.
A stalemate developed, with neither side able to win an overwhelming victory.
In the south of J&K, the war situation was essentially a stalemate by 1949.
The first Kashmir War between India and Pakistan lasted from October 1947 to January 1949 and ended in a stalemate...
The outcome was a stalemate in which India's democratic desires and Pakistan's security aims were stymied on the altar of greater concerns
The 1947 war ended in a military stalemate
With the onset of winter and the consequent problems of maintaining the supply lines, the military situation reached a stalemate.
Since India's independence from British colonial rule and the subsequent partition in 1947, India and Pakistan, both of which claim sovereign control over the region, have foundfour inconclusive wars over Kashmir.
In the first Kashmir war, India occupied two-thirds of the disputed territory and Pakistan was clearly defeated during its first war with India.
The war for states had not only ended in Indian military victory but had given its leaders enormous self-confidence and satisfaction over a job well done.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)India won, and gained two-thirds of Kashmir, which it successfully held against another Pakistani invasion in 1965.
the 1947 First Kashmir (won by India, according to MIDS classification)
Victor: India, Defeated: Pakistan
Pakistan lost all three wars, which is a major source of humiliation for Pakistanis. The first war (1947-1948) was fought over Kashmir, a predominately Muslim region that remained in India when India was portioned into two states. The war failed to secure Pakistan's sovereignty over the region as it left the majority of it under India.
Pakistan has fought and lost four wars with India (1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999)
India won, and gained two-thirds of Kashmir, which it successfully held against another Pakistani invasion in 1965.
Indo Pakistani war of 1947: India gained two third Kashmir.
Links to related articles | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
