The following is a table of many of the most fundamentalProto-Indo-European language (PIE) words and roots, with their cognates in all of the major families of descendants.
The following conventions are used:
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *méh₂tēr "mother"[a][1][2] | mother (<OEmōdor) | mōdar "mother" | māter "mother" ⇒ [note 1] | mḗtēr "mother" ⇒ [note 2] | mā́tṛ, mātar, mātā "mother" | Avmātar- "mother";NPersmādar "mother"; "mamān"; "Nane"Kurdmak "mother" | OCSmati, mater- "mother" | Lithmóteris "woman",motina "mother";OPrusmuti "mother" | Gaul.mātīr "mother", | mayr "mother" | motër "sister" | Amācar, Bmācer "mother" | |
| *ph₂tḗr "father" [3][4][5] | father (<OEfæder) | fadar "father" | pater "father" ⇒ | patḗr "father" (>patriarch) | pitṛ, pitar, pitā "father";Pitrs "spirits of the ancestors" (litt. "the fathers") | Avpitar- (nom. alsopta, ta),OPerspita "father",NPerspedar; "Bābā" | OIrathair "father";Welshedrydd "paternal domain" | hayr "father" | Apācar, Bpācer "father" | ||||
| *ǵénh₁tōr "parent" | genitor "parent" ⇒ | genétōr "ancestor" | janitṛ "progenitor" | Avząθar "progenitor,the Creator" | |||||||||
| *bʰréh₂tēr "brother"[6][7][8] | brother (<OEbrōþor) | brōþar "brother" | frāter "brother" ⇒ [note 5] | pʰrā́tēr "member of a phratry (brotherhood)" (>phratry) | bʰrā́tṛ , bhrātar, bhrātā "brother";Romphral "brother" (>pal)[9][10][c] | Avbrātar-,OPersbrātar-,NPersbrādar-,Ossetianärvád "brother, relative",NPersbarādar,Kurdbira/birader | OCSbratrŭ "brother" | Lithbrõlis,OPrusbrati "brother" | GaulBratronos (pers. name);[11]OIrbráthair,Wbrawd (pl.brodyr) "brother" | ełbayr (gen.ełbawr) "brother" | Apracar, Bprocer "brother" | Lydbrafr(-sis) "brother"[12] | |
| *swésōr "sister"[13][14][8] | sister (<OEsweostor, influenced byONsystir) | swistar "sister" | soror "sister" ⇒ [note 6] | éor "cousin's daughter" | svásṛ, svasar, swasā "sister" | Avx̌vaŋhar- "sister";NPersḫwāhar, " Abji"; "Ham-Shire" "sister"; | OCSsestra "sister" | Lithsesuo, seser-,OPrussestra "sister" | Gaulsuiorebe "with two sisters" (dual)[15] | kʿuyr (kʿiṙ), nom.plkʿur-kʿ "sister"[e] | vashë,vajzë "girl" (<*varjë <*vëharë <PAlb*swesarā) | Aṣar', Bṣer "sister" | |
| *somo-ph₂tōr "sibling, lit. same-father(ed)" [3][4][5] | ONsamfeðra | homopátōr | OPhamapitar- | Aṣomapacar | |||||||||
| *dʰugh₂tḗr "daughter"[16][17][18][19] | daughter (<OEdohtor) | daúhtar "daughter" | Oscanfutír "daughter" | θugátēr "daughter";Myctu-ka-te "daughter"[20][f] | dúhitṛ, duhitar, duhitā "daughter" | Avdugədar-, duɣδar-,NPersdoḫtar "daughter"Kurddot "daughter" | OCSdŭšti, dŭšter- "daughter" | Lithduktė, dukter-,OPrusdukti "daughter" | Gaulishduxtir "daughter";CeltibTuaTer (duater) "daughter"[22][23][24] | dustr "daughter" | Ackācar, Btkācer "daughter" | HLuwtúwatara "daughter";[25] ?Lyddatro "daughter";CLuw/Hittduttarii̯ata-;[g]Lyckbatra "daughter"[h] | |
| *suHnús "son" [30][31][32][33] (See also*sewh₁-) | son (<OEsunu) | sunus "son" | huiós "son" | sūnú- "son" | Avhunuš "son" | OCSsynŭ "son" | Lithsūnùs,OPrussuns "son" | ?CeltibEBURSUNOS "son of Eburos (?)"[i][j] ?Celt/LusEQUEUNUBO (<*ekwei-sūnu-bʰos) "to the sons on the horse"[k] | ustr "son" | çun "boy/son" | Ase, Bsoyä "son"[37] | ||
| *putló- "son" [32][38][39] | Oscpuklo- "son" | paîs "son" | putrá- "son" | Avpuθra "son" Kurdpis, put | |||||||||
| *(h₂)népōts "nephew, grandson" [40][41] | nephew; obsoleteneve "nephew, male cousin, grandson" (<OEnefa) | OHGnevo "nephew" | nepōs (nepōtis) "grandson, nephew" ⇒ [note 7] | népodes "descendants" | nápāt- "grandson, descendant" | Avnapāt-, naptar-,OPersnapāt-,NPersnaveh-, "grandson, descendant";Kurdnevî "grandchild" | OCSnetii "nephew" | OLithnepotis,OPrusneputs "grandson" | OIrnïa "sister's son",Wnai "nephew" | nip "grandson, nephew" | |||
| *(h₂)néptih₂ "granddaughter, niece" | niece; obsoletenift "niece" (<OEnift) | OHGnift "niece" | neptis "granddaughter" | naptī́ "granddaughter" | OIrnecht "niece",Wnith "niece" | ||||||||
| *dayh₂wḗr "husband's brother, brother-in-law" | OEtācor "husband's brother" | OHGzeihhor "husband's brother" | levir "husband's brother" | dāēr "husband's brother" | devṛ́, devará "husband's brother" | Pastlewar "brother-in-law" | OCSděverĭ "brother-in-law" | Lithdieveris "husband's brother" | Wdaw(f) "brother-in-law" | taygr,tekʿr "husband's brother" | |||
| *snusós "daughter-in-law" | OEsnoru "daughter-in-law" | OHGsnur "daughter-in-law" | nurus "daughter-in-law" | nuós "daughter-in-law" | snuṣā- "daughter-in-law" | Old Ir.*(s)nušáhBactrianασνωυο (asnōuo)NPers.sunoh /sunhār "daughter-in-law" | OCSsnŭxa "daughter-in-law" | nu "daughter-in-law" | nuse "bride" | Bsantse "daughter-in-law"[l] | |||
| *wedʰ- "pledge, bind, secure, lead"[43] | wed (<OEweddian "to pledge, wed") | vadhū́ "bride" | OCSvoditi "to lead" | Wgwedd "yoke" | |||||||||
| *swéḱuros "father-in-law" | OEswēor "father-in-law" | swaihra "father-in-law" | socer "father-in-law" | hekurós "father-in-law" | śváśura "father-in-law" | Avxᵛasura "father-in-law"; Kurdishxwesûr | OCSsvekrŭ "father-in-law" | Lithšešuras "father-in-law" | skesrayr "father-in-law" | vjehërr "father-in-law" | |||
| *sweḱrúh₂ "mother-in-law" | OEsweger "mother-in-law" | swaihro "mother-in-law" | socrus "mother-in-law" | hekurá "mother-in-law" | śvaśrū́- "mother-in-law" | Pastxwāše "mother-in-law" Kurdishxwesû | OCSsvekry "mother-in-law" | OPrusswasri "mother-in-law" | Wchwegr "mother-in-law" | skesur "mother-in-law" | vjehrrë "mother-in-law" | ||
| *h₂éwh₂os "maternal grandfather, maternal uncle" | awō "grandmother" | avus "grandfather";avunculus "maternal uncle" ⇒ [note 8] | Rusuj,vuj "uncle" (obsolete);Ukrvuyko "maternal uncle"[44] | Lithavynas "maternal uncle",OPrusawis "uncle" | Wewythr,MBreeontr,MCoeviter "maternal uncle" (<PCeltawon-tīr "uncle");OIraue "descendant, grandchild"[45] | OArmhaw "grandfather" | Bāwe "grandfather" | ḫuḫḫa-,Lycχuga- "grandfather"; | |||||
| *yemH- "twin; to hold"[47][48] | ONYmir | geminus "twin"; Remus "twin, Remus" | yáma- "twin; first man to die" | AvYema | OIremon,GaulIemurioi "twin?"[49] | ||||||||
| *h₁widʰéwh₂ "widow" <*h₁weydʰh₁- "to separate"[m][50] | widow (<OEwidwe) | widuwō "widow" | vidua "widow" | ēḯtheos "widow" | vidhávā "widow" | viδauua "widow" | OCSvŭdova "widow" | OPwiddewū "widow" | OIfedb "widow";Wgweddw "widow, widower" | vejë "widow" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *mon- "human beings" | man (< OE "Mann") | manna "human beings" | Amazon <*n̥-mn̥-g(w)-iōn 'man-less, without husband' (debatable) | manuṣya "human being" | Avmanuš "human" NPersmaneš "human habitude" | OES/OCSmǫžĭ "man" | mard "man" | ||||||
| *dʰǵʰmṓ "person, human (litt. of the earth)" (See also*dʰeǵʰom-) | Scotsgome "person, man",OE brȳdguma "bridegroom"[n]< *dʰǵʰm̥mṓ | guma "man" < *dʰǵʰm̥mṓ | homō "person" ⇒ [note 9]< *dʰǵʰm̥mṓ | OLithžmuõ "person";Lithžmoná "wife";OPruszmunents "human" | |||||||||
| *h₂ner- "man, hero" | ONNjǫrðr (name of a God) | Ner-ō (personal name),neriōsus "strong" | anḗr (andros) "man" (>Andreas, Andrew) | nár- (nom.nā) "man, person" | Avnar- (nom.nā) "man, person",Pastnar "male, brave"NPersnar-,Kurdnêr "male animal, masculine" | OCSnaravŭ "character, custom"; | possiblyLithnóras "wish, want",narsa;narsùs "brave;"OPrusnàrs "courage" | Wnêr "lord, prince, leader; hero";Celtnarto "strength" | ayr (aṙn) "man, person" | njer "man, person" | |||
| *wiHrós "man" | werewolf (<OEwer "man") | waír "man" | vir "man" ⇒ [note 10] | hiérāx "a type of hawk" | vīrá- "man, hero" | Avvīra- "man, hero",Kurdmêr | OCSvira "wergeld" | Lithvýras "man";OPruswirs "man, husband" | OIrfer,Wgŵr "man" | heros "hero" | burrë "man" | Awir "young" | |
| *gʷḗn "woman, wife" | queen (<OEcwēn "queen, woman, wife") | qēns (qēnáis), qinō "woman, wife" | gunḗ[p](gunaikos)[q] "woman, wife" <*gʷun-eh₂ (>gynecology);Boetbaná "woman"; Mycku-na-ja (gunaia) | gnā (gnā́s-) "wife of a god",jánis, jánī "woman, wife" | Avgǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-,Pastjinə́i,njlə́i "girl";NPerszan "woman, wife";Kurdjin "woman, wife" | OCSžena "woman, wife" | OPrusgena "woman, wife" | Gaulbnanom "of the women" (g. pl.);[53] OIrben (mná) "woman, wife" <*gʷén-eH₂ (*gʷn-eH₂-s),bé (neut.) "wife <*gʷén;Wbenyw "woman" | kin (knoǰ) "woman" | zonjë "lady, wife, woman" <*gʷen-yeH₂;Gheggrue,Toskgrua "wife" <*gʷn-ōn | Aśäṁ (pl.śnu), Bśana "woman, wife" | Hittku(w)an(a) "woman";[54]Luwwanatti "woman, wife";Lydkãna- "wife",[55] "woman"[56] | |
| *pótis "master, ruler, husband"[50] | -faþs "lord, leader" | potis "able, capable, possible" | pósis "husband" | páti "master, husband, ruler" | Avpaiti,Parthianpet,OPerspāti "master, lord, husband, commander" | OCSgospodĭ "lord, master" | Lithpats "husband, one oneself" | hay "husband, chief of family" | pata "in possession of something" | ||||
| *déms pótis "master of the house" | despótēs "lord, master, owner" (>despot);despoina (<*dés-pot-ni̯a) "lady" (fem. ofdespotes) | dámpati "lord of the house; (dual) husband and wife";patír dán[57] | də̃ṇg paitiś "lord"[58] | ||||||||||
| *gʰóstis "guest, host, stranger"[59] | guest (<OEgiest); host < Lat. hostis; hospital, hostel, hotel < Lat.hospes | gasts "guest" | hostis "stranger, guest";hostīlis "hostile";hospes, hospit- "host, guest, visitor" < hostipotis < PIE*gʰóstipotis (*gʰóstis +*pótis) | OCSgostĭ "guest";gospodĭ "lord, master" < PIE*gʰóstipotis | |||||||||
| *weyḱ- "settlement, to enter, settle"[43] | -wick, -wich < Lat.vīcus | weihs "village, countryside" | vīcus "village, settlement" | oîkos "house, dwelling place";oiko·nomía "management of household administration" (>economy) | viś "settlement, dwelling space" | OCSvĭsĭ "hamlet, village" | OLithviešė "settlement"; Lithviešas "public" | vis "land, country, place" | Bīke "place, location" | ||||
| *wiḱpótis "master of the household; lord, clan chief" [60][61] | viśpáti | Lithviẽšpats "lord" | |||||||||||
| *h₃rḗǵs "king, ruler"[62] | bishopric,rich (< OErīċe "king, dominion") | reiks,-ric (in personal names) "king" | rēx, rēg- "king" ⇒ [note 11] | rāj-, rājan "king" (>maharaja, Raj (as inBritish Raj)) | Gaul*rīx "king" (In personal names. E.g.,Vercingetorix, etc.),Welshrhi "king" | ||||||||
| *tewtéh₂ "community, people"[r][s][66][67] | OEþeod "people, nation" | Gothþiuda "folk";ModGermDeutsch < Proto-Germ*þeudō | Osctouto "community";Umbrtotam "tribe" | [t] | SansTati तति (mass , crowd) | Lithtautà "a people";OPrutauto "country" | OIrtuath "tribe, people" (e.g.,Tuatha Dé Danann "tribe of goddess Danu");CeltToutatis (Teutates) "name of a god" | ?Hitttuzzi- "army"; ?Luwtuta "army" | |||||
| *h₁lewdʰ- "people" | OEleode,lēod "a people, a group, nation" | OHGliut "people, population" | Proto-Italic*louðeros >Latinlīber "free; name of adeity",Faliscanloiferto;Paelloufir "free man";Venlouderos "child"; | eleútheros "free",Eleutherios "the liberator (epithet of Dionysus)";Myce-re-u-te-ro/a "a free allowance",e-re-u-te-ro-se "to make free, remit"[69] | OCSljudinŭ "free man";Pollud "people, folk" | Lithliaudis "folk" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *éǵh₂ "I" | I (<OEiċ) | ik "I" | egō "I" <*egoH₂ | egṓ, egṓn "I" | ahám "I" <*egH₂-om | Avazǝm,OPersadam, Parth.az "I" <*egH₂-om;Kurdez "I (direct case)" | OCSazŭAs "I" "Ia" | Lithàš,OLitheš,OPrusas,Latves "I" | es "I" | es "I" | u,unë "I" (-në possibly originally a suffix) | ñuk "I" | ūk "I" influenced byammuk "me" |
| *h₁me "me (acc.)" | me (<OEmē,mec <*H₁me-ge) | mik "me (acc.)" | mē(d) "me (acc.)" | emé, me "me (acc.)" | mām "me (acc.)" <*H₁mē-m,mā "me (acc. encl.)" | Avmąm "me" Kurdmi "me" Pastmā "I [oblique case]" | OCSmę "me (acc.)" <*H₁mē-m | OPrusmen "me" < h₁me-m | OIrme-sse, mé,Wmi "I" | is "me (acc.)" <?*H₁me-ge | mua, mue "me (acc.)" <*H₁mē-m | ammuk "me (acc., dat.)" <*H₁me-ge,-mu "me (acc. encl.)" | |
| *h₁meǵʰye "me (dat.)",*(h₁)moy "me (dat. encl.)" | me (<OEmē) | mis "me (dat.)" | mihi "me (dat.)" | moi "me (dat., gen. encl.)" | máhya(m) "me (dat.)",mḗ, me "me (dat. encl.)" | Avmaibya "me (dat.)" (? not in Pokorny),me (Old Avestanmoi) "me (dat. encl.)" | OCSmi (dat enc.) <*(H₁)moi | OPrusmaiy "me (dat. encl.)" | OIr infix-m- "me";W-'m infixed accusative first person singular pronoun "me" | inj "me (dat.)" | meje | ammuk "me (acc., dat.)" <*h₁me-ge,-mi "me (dat. encl.)" | |
| *h₁meme-, *h₁mene- "of me, mine";*h₁mo-yo-, * h₁me-yo- "my" | my, mine (<OEmīn <*H₁mei-no-) | meins "my";meina "of me" | meī "of me";meus "my" <*H₁me-yo- | emeĩo "of me";emós "my" | máma "of me";ma/má "my" <*H₁mo- | Avmana,OPersmanā "of me";Avma (m/n),mā (f) "my",NPersaz āne man-;Kurda/ê min | OCSmene "to me",moj/a/e (m/f/n) "mine" | Lithmane "me (acc.)",OPrusmais/maia "my" | Wfyn "of me, my";Bretonma "of me, my" | im "my" | im "my" (articlei +em) | ABñi "my" <Proto-Tocharian*mäñi | miš "my" <*H₁me-yo- |
| *túh₂ "you" (nom. sg.) | thou (<OEþū "you") | þu "you" | tū "you" | Dorictú (standardsú) | t(u)vám "you"; | Avtū "you" Pasttə "you" | OCSty "you" | Lithtù,OPrtu "you" | OIrtū, tu-ssu, tu-sso,Wti | du "you" | ti "you" | Atu, Bt(u)we "you" | zik, zikka "you" <*tega <*te +*egō |
| *wéy "we";*n̥smé,encl.*nos "us" | we (<OEwē),us (<OEūs <PGerm*uns <*n̥s) | weis "we",uns "us" | nōs "we, us" | hēm- "we, us";[u]Aeolámme "us" <*asme <*n̥sme | vay-ám "we" <*wei-óm,asmān "us" <*n̥sme + acc.-ān, encl.nas "us" <*nos | Avvaēm "we",ahma "us", encl.nǝ̄, nā̊, nō "us" | Bulgnìe "we",OCS gen.nasŭ "ours" <*nōs-oHom | OPr gen.nōuson "ours" <*nōs-oHom | OIrni "we, us" <?*s-nēs, gen.ar n- <*n̥s-rō-m;Wni "we" <*nēs | na "we" <*nŏs,ne "us" <*nōs | Awas, Bwes "we" | wēs "we" <*wei-es,anzāš "us", encl.naš "us" | |
| *yū́ "you (nom. pl.)";*uswé, *usmé,[70]encl.*wos "you (acc./dat. pl.)" | ye (<OEgē "you (nom. pl.)"),you (<OEēow[v] "you (acc./dat. pl.)") | jūs "you (nom. pl.)",izwis[v] "you (acc./dat. pl.)" | vōs "you (nom./acc. pl.)" | hum- "you (pl.)";Aeolúmme "you (acc. pl.)" <*usme | yūyám "you (nom. pl.)",yuṣmā́n "you (acc. pl.)" <y- +*usme + acc.-ān, encl.vas "you (obl. pl.)" | Avyūžǝm, yūš "you (nom. pl.)",yūšmat̃ "you (abl. pl.)", encl.vā̊ "you (obl. pl.)"; KurWin | OCSvy "you (nom./acc. pl.)",vasŭ "yours (pl.)" | Lithjū̃s "you (nom. pl.)",jū̃sų "yours (pl.)";OPriouson "yours (pl.)" | OIrsī, sissi "you (nom. pl.)" <*sw-,uai-b "of you (pl.)" <*ō-swī,NIrfar n- "your (pl.)";Wchwi "you (nom. pl.)" <*sw- | du,tu "you" | ju "you (nom. pl.)" <*u <*vos | Ayas, Byes "you (nom. pl.)" | sumes <*usme |
| *só "that" (demonstrative pronoun) | the (<OEse),that (<OEþæt),there (<OEþēr, þǣr, þār) | sa,þata "the", "that" | sī "if",tum "then",iste "that" (near you),sum "him" | ho,to "the" | sáh,sā,tàt "that, the" | Avestanha "this" | OCStŭ "this, that" | Lithtàs "that" | OIrso "this",sí "she";Whi "she" | ayd "that near you",da "that one near you"(ay- < PIE *éy) | tërë "whole" | ||
| *ḱe,*ḱís,*ḱos "this"(at first adeictic particle, later became ademonstrative pronoun) | he, she, it (<OEhē, hēo, hit),here (<OEhēr) | his "this" | cis "on this side, before" | ekeînos "that" (< PIE*h₁e-ḱey-h₁enos) | OCSsĭ "this",se "behold" | Lithšis "this",še "behold" | Primitive Irishkoi "here" | ays "this",sa "this one"(ay- < PIE *éy) | kāš "this" Palaickii̯at "here" | ||||
| *h₁énos "that, yon" (demonstrative pronoun in late PIE) | yon (<OEġeon< PIE*Hyo-h₁enos) | jains "that, yon" (< PIE*Hyo-h₁enos) | enim "truly" | OCSonŭ "that, yon"(if not from PIE *h₂en-os) | Lithanas "he, that"(if not from PIE *h₂en-os) | ayn "that, yon",na "that one, yon one"(ay- < PIE *éy) | Aäntsaṃ, Bintsu "which, what kind of" | anniš "that" | |||||
| *ís,*éy,*h₁é (anaphoric pronoun) | OEī- "the same" | is "he" | is (anaphoric pronoun) | ía "one" (f.) | ayám, iyám, idám "this" | Avaiiə̄m "this" | OCSi "he"(merged with PIE*Hyós) | Lithjis "he"(if not from PIE *Hyós) | OIré "he",ed "it";Wef,e, fe, o, fo "he" | ai "he",ajo "she" | |||
| *s(w)e- "oneself"; (reflexive pronoun) | self (<OEself,seolf) | swes (ref.gn. pn.),OHGsih (ref. pn.) | sē (ref. pn.) | hé (ref. pn.) | sva- (ref. pn.) | Avestanhva- (ref. pn.) | Bulgsèbe "oneself",OCSsvoji (ref.gn. pn.) | Lithsavè "oneself",OPrusswajs "my own, myself" | OIrfein (self, himself);Whun(an) "self, myself, himself/herself etc" | iwr self, himself/herself | vetë | Aṣn-i, Bṣañ "(one's) own" | Lydians'fa- (ref. pn.),Cariansfes (ref. pn.) |
| *kʷíd, kʷód "what" | what (<OEhwæt) | ƕa "what" | quid "what?",quod "what..., that..." | tí "what?",tì "what..." | kím "what" | NPersči, če "what" | Bulgkakvò "what",OCSčь-to "what?" | OIrcid "what?" | *i (ēr) (< *hi),inčʿ (< *hi-nč) "what?" | çfarë "what?" | kuit (?) "what",kuit-ki "whatever";Luviankuit "what?" | ||
| *kʷís, kʷós, kʷéy/kʷóy "who?" (interrogative pronoun) | who (<OEhwā <*kʷoi) | ƕas "who?" | quis "who?",quī "who..." | tís,Thesskís,CyprArcsís "who?",tìs "who..." | kah, kā "who?" | Avkō (ka-hyā, ča-hyā) "who?, which?",čiš "who"NPerske, ki "who?" kas "who, another person" | Bulgkòj "who",OCSkъ-to (česo) "who?" | Lithkàs "who, what";OPruskas "who" | OIrcia,Wpwy "who" | о (oyr) "who?" "who?" | "A"kë "B"kush acc. "who?" | Akus, Bkuse "who, which" | kuiš "who, which" |
| *Hyós "who..." (relative pronoun) | yon (<OEġeon< PIE*Hyo-h₁enos) | jains "that, yon" (< PIE*Hyo-h₁enos) | iam "already" | hós "who..., this" | yáḥ, yā́, yát "who..." | NPers-i, -e (ezafe) | OCSi "he" (merged with PIE*ís),iže "who..."(-že < PIE *gʰe) | Lithjis "he"(if not from PIE *ís) | OIr-a (relative pronoun forming suffix) | ||||
| *-kʷe "and; any" | though (<OEþeah <*to-we-kʷe) | -(u)h "and",ƕaz-uh "whoever" | -que "and",quis-que "each one, whoever";Venetic-ke "and";South Picenian-p "and" | -te "and",tís te, hós-te "whoever" | -ca,káś-ca, kás-cit"whoever" | Avča,OPersčā "and";Avčiš-ca,OPersčiš-čiy "whoever" | Bulgče "but, and, because";Old Czecha-če,ač "if" | OIrna-ch,MWnac "not" < "*and not";[w]Lepontic-pe "and" | o-kʿ "whoever" | dhe "and" | Lydian-k "and";Hittkuis-ki,Lycianti-ke "whoever" | ||
| *-we,*-wē "or" | (possibly)-u (question marker) | -ve "or" | ḗ, ēé "or" | vā "or" | Avva "or" | OIrnó,Wneu "or" < PIE*né-we | Apat, Bwat "or" | ||||||
| *n̥- "not, un-" | un- (<OEun-) | un- "un-" | in- (archaicen-) "un-" | a-, an- "un-" | a-, an- "un-" | Av,OPersa-, an- "un-", | OIrin-, ē-, an-,Wan- "un-" | an- "un-" | ABa(n)-, am-, e(n)-, em-, on- "un-" | ||||
| *né "not" | ne "not" (<OE ne) | ni "not" | nē "not, don't, lest" | ná "not" | NPersnā- "un-";Kurdni/ne/nek | OCSne, ne- "not" | Lithne- "not",ne "no";OPrusni- "not" | OIrná "not" | nuk "not" < PIE*ne h₁óy-kos | ||||
| *méh₁ "don't" | mē "don't", "shouldn't", etc. | mā́ "don't" | NPersma- "don't"(archaic) | mi "don't" | mo "don't" | ABmā "not, un-" | |||||||
| *(ne) h₂óyu kʷid "definitely not, never, not on your life" | oukí, ou "not" | očʻ "no, not" | as "neither, nor" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *sem- "one, together" | same (<ONsamr);OEsam- "together"; [alsoGermanzusammen] | sama "same" | sem-el "once",sem-per "always",sim-plex "single, simple",sin-gulī "one each, single" | heĩs, hén, mía "one" <*sems, *sem, *smiH₂ | sam- "together",samá "same, equal, any" | Avhama-,OPershama- "any, all" Pastsam "even, fine" | OCSsamŭ "self, alone, one" | Lithsan-, są- "with";OPrussa-, sen- "with, dividing" | OIrsamlith "at the same time";Whafal "equal" | mi "one" | gjithë "all" < PAlb*semdza | Asas, Bṣe "one" <*sems | |
| *(h₁)óynos, (h₁)óywos "one" | one (<OEān) | ains "one" | ūnus (archaicoinos) | oĩnos "one (on a die)",oĩ(w)os "alone" | (ēka- <*oi-ko-;Mitanni-Aryanaika-vartana "one turn (around a track)")[71] | Avaēva-,OPersaiva-, (NPersyek- "one, only, alone") | OCSinŭ "one, another" | Lithvíenas,OPrusains "one" | OIrōen,Wun "one" | andr-ēn "right there",ast-ēn "right here" | ?Ghegtânë,Tosktërë "all" < PIE*tod-oino-; ???një "one" <*ňân < PIE*eni-oino-[x] | B-aiwenta "group" < "*unit" | ās "one" |
| *dwóh₁, neut.*dwóy(H₁) "two" | two (<OEtwā) | twái (fem.twōs, neut.twa) "two" | duo "two" | dúō "two" | dvā́(u) "two" | Avdva, fem. neut.baē "two";NPersdo "two";Kurddiwa "two (fem.)" | OCSdŭva "two" | Lithdù,OPrusdwai "two" | OIrda,Wdau (fem.dwy) "two" | erku "two" | dy "two" | Awu, Bwi "two"(<PTC *tuwó) | dā-,ta-;HLuwtuwa/i- "two";Lyckbi- "two";Miltba "two"[y][73] |
| *tréyes (fem.*tisres,[74] neut.*tríH₂) "three" | three (<OEþrīe) | þreis "three" | trēs "three" | treĩs "three" | tráyas (fem.tisrás) "three" | Avθrayō, θrayas (fem.tisrō, neut.θri),OPersçi-,Parthhrē "three" | OCStrĭje "three" | Lithtrỹs,OPrustris,Latgtreis "three" | OIrtrí (fem.téoir),Wtri (fem.tair, teir) "three" | erekʿ "three" | tre masc.,tri fem. "three" | Atre, Btrai "three" | tri- "three";teriyas- (gen. pl.) |
| *kʷetwóres (fem.*kʷétesres, neut.*kʷetwṓr) "four" | four (<OEfēower) | fidwor "four" (In Germanic influenced by pénkʷe "five") | quattuor "four"[z] | téssares "four" | masc.catvā́ras (acc.catúras), neut.catvā́ri, fem.cátasras "four" | Av masc.čaθwārō (acc.čaturąm), fem.čataŋrō "four";NPersčahār "four";Kurdçwar | OCSčetyre "four" | Lithketurì,OPrusketturei "four"[aa] | Gaulpetuar[ios] "four"[53] OIrceth(a)ir (fem.cethēoir, influenced by fem.tēoir "three") "four";Wpedwar (fem.pedair) "four" | čʿorkʿ,kʿaṙ(rare) "four | katër "four" | Aśtwar, Bśtwer "four" | (remodelled in Hittite and Luwian) Lycteteri |
| *pénkʷe "five" | five (<OEfīf) | fimf "five" | quīnque "five"[ab] | pénte "five" | páñca "five";Mitanni-Aryanpanza- "five"[71] | Avpanča "five";Kurdpênc/pênz | OCSpętĭ "five" | Lithpenkì,OPruspenkei "five"[ac] | Gaulpinpe-,pompe "five"[53] | hing "five" | pesë "five" | Apäñ, Bpiś "five" | Luwpaⁿta "five" |
| *swéḱs "six" | six (<OEsiex) | sáihs "six" | sex "six" | héx, dial.wéx "six" | ṣáṣ "six" | Avxšvaš "six" | OCSšestĭ "six" | Lithšešì,OPrusuššai "six" | Celtibsues "six";[53] | vecʿ "six" | gjashtë "six" | Aṣäk, Bṣkas "six" | |
| *septḿ̥ "seven" | seven (<OEseofon) | sibun "seven" | septem "seven" | heptá "seven" | saptá "seven";Mitanni-Aryanšatta- "seven"[71] | Avhapta,NPershaft-, "seven" | OCSsedmĭ "seven" | Lithseptynì,OPrusseptinnei "seven" | OIrsecht,Wsaith "seven" | eawtʿn "seven" | shtatë "seven" | Aṣpät, Bṣukt "seven" | sipta- "seven" |
| *h₁oḱtṓ(w) "eight" | eight (<OEeahta) | ahtáu "eight" | octō "eight" | oktṓ "eight" | aṣṭā́(u) "eight" | Avašta "eight" | OCSosmĭ "eight"[ad] | Lithaštuonì,OPrusastonei,Latgostoni "eight" | Gauloxtu- "eight"[53] | utʿ "eight" | tetë "eight" <*H₁ok̂tō-t- | Aokät, Bokt "eight" | Lycaitãta "eight"[77] |
| *(h₁)néwn̥ "nine" | nine (<OEnigon) | niun "nine" | novem "nine" | ennéa "nine" | náva "nine" | Avnava,NPersnoh- "nine" | OCSdevętĭ "nine" <*newn̥-ti- (Influenced by*dékm̥t "ten") | Lithdevynì (influenced by*dékm̥t "ten"),OPrusnewinei "nine" | OIrnoí n-,Wnaw "nine" | inn "nine" | nëntë "nine" <*newn̥-ti- | ABñu | Lycnuñtãta "nine"[78] |
| *déḱm̥t "ten" | ten (<OEtien) | taíhun "ten" | decem "ten" | déka "ten" | dáśa "ten" | Avdasa,NPersdah- "ten" | OCSdesętĭ "ten" | Lithdẽšimt,OPrusdesimtan "ten" | Gauldecam- "ten";[53] | tasn "ten" | dhjetë "ten" <*dék̂m̥t-i- | Aśäk, Bśak "ten" | [af] |
| *wídḱm̥ti(h₁) "twenty" <*dwi-dḱm̥t-i(h₁) "two tens" | (remodelled) | (remodelled) | vīgintī "twenty" | eíkosi "twenty" | viṁśatí "twenty",dviṁśatí "twenty" | Avvīsaiti,Ossetianinsäi "twenty" | (remodelled) | (remodelled) | OIrfiche (fichet),OWuceint "twenty" | kʿsan "twenty" | zet "twenty" | Awiki, Bikäṃ "twenty" | |
| *ḱm̥tóm "hundred" <*dḱm̥tóm | hundred (<OEhund, hund-red) | hunda (pl.) "hundred" | centum "hundred" | he-katón "hundred" | śatám "hundred" | Avsatǝm "hundred" | OCSsŭto "hundred" | Lithšim̃tas,OPrussimtan "hundred" | OIrcét,Wcan(t) "hundred" | qind "hundred" (possibly borrowed fromLatincentum) | Akänt, Bkante "hundred" | ||
| *ǵʰéslom "thousand" | mīlle "thousand"< PIE *sm-ih₂-ǵʰésl-ih₂ | kʰī́lioi "thousand"< PIE *ǵʰesl-i-yoy | sahásra "thousand"< PIE *sm̥-ǵʰéslom | Avhazaŋra "thousand"< PIE *sm̥-ǵʰéslom | |||||||||
| *tuHsont- "thousand" | thousand (<OEþūsend) | þūsundi "thousand" | OCStysǫšti "thousand" | Lithtūkstantis;OPrustusimtons "thousand" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *krep- "body"[81][82] | (mid)riff (<OEhrif) | corpus, corporis "body" ⇒ [note 12] | kṛ́p "beautiful appearance, beauty" | Avkéhrp "corpse, body" | HBSkrěpati "to die, become a corpse" | kurm "torso" andkrep | |||||||
| *káput ~ *kapwéts "head"[83][84] | head (<OEhēafod); OEhafela, hafola "head" | haubiþ "head" | caput, capitis "head" ⇒ [note 13] | [ag] | kapā́la "skull, cranium; bowl" | kapelë "hat"; Latin caput | |||||||
| *dáḱru,*h₂éḱru "tear" | tear (<OEtēar, tæhher) | tagr "tear" | lacrima (archaiclacruma /dacrima) "tear" (>lachrymose) | dákru "tear" | áśru "tear" | Avasrū- "tear";Kurdhêsir "tear" | OPrusassara "tear",Lithašara "tear | OIrdēr,Wdeigr "tear";Cornishdagr "tear" | artawsr "tear" <*drak̂ur | Aākär "tear", B pl.akrūna "tears" | isḫaḫru "tear" | ||
| *dn̥ǵʰuh₂-, *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂ "tongue" | tongue (<OEtunge) | tuggō "tongue" | lingua "tongue" (archaicdingua) ⇒ [note 14] | jihvā́ "tongue" <*ĝiĝʰwā,juhū́ | Avhizvā <*ĝiĝʰwā,OPershizān,Parthezβān "tongue",NPerszabān;Kurdizman "tongue"[85] | OCSjęzy-kŭ "tongue" <*n̥ĝʰū-k- | OPrusinzuws "tongue",Lithliežuvis "tongue" | teng "tongue";Wtafod "tongue, language" | lezu "tongue" (influenced by lizem, "I lick") | gjuhë "tongue" | Akäntu, Bkantwo "tongue" (*kantwa <*tankwa) | ||
| *h₁ésh₂r̥, *h₁esh₂nés "blood" | archaicaser,sanguis "blood" (< possiblyh₁sh₂-én- obl. stem +guen) (>sanguine, etc.) | éar "blood" | ásṛj, asnás "blood" | OPahr̥ "blood" | Latasins,Ltgasnis (gen. ašņa) "blood" | īsarnom "blood-colored, iron" | ariwn "blood" | Aysār "blood" | ēsḫar (esḫanas) "blood" | ||||
| *ǵ(o)nH₂dʰos "jaw, cheek, chin" | chin (<OEc̣inn) | kinnus "cheek" | gena "cheek" | génus (génuos) "chin, jaw";gnátʰos, gnatʰmós "jaw" <*ĝnH₂dʰ- | hánu-ṣ "jaw" <*ǵʰenu-s,gaṇḍa "cheek" | Avzānu- "jaw-" <*ǵʰenu-s,OPersdanūg <*danu-ka-,Parthzanax "chin, jaw";NPersgune "cheek",chune "jaw"; Kurdgup "cheek" Pastžā́ma "jaw" | OPrusżauna "jaw",Lithžándas "cheek",žiáuna "gill" | OIrgi(u)n "mouth";Wgên, pl.geneu "cheek, chin";Old Cornish pl.genau <*genewes "cheeks, chins" | cn-awt "jaw, cheek" | Aśanwe-m "jaw" | |||
| *ǵónu, ǵnéws "knee" | knee (<OEcnēo) | kniu "knee" | genū "knee" (>genuflect) | gónu (Hom gen.gounós <*gonwós) "knee",pró-kʰnu "with outstretched knee" <*pró-gʰnu | jā́nu- "knee",pra-jñus "bow-legged" | Avzānu- acc.žnūm, dat./abl. pl.žnubyō "knee",fra-šnu- "holding the knee forward";Parthzānūk,NPerszānū "knee" | Ruszvenó "knee" | OIglún "knee" | cunr, nom pl.cungkʿ "knee" | gjuni "knee" < Post-PIE*ĝnu-n(o)- | Akanweṃ, Bkeni "two knees" | genu "knee" | |
| *ǵómbʰos "tooth, row of teeth" | comb (<OEcamb) | OHGkamb "comb" | gómphos "bolt, nail";gómphíos "molar tooth" | jámbha- "tooth, tusk; set of teeth (pl.)";jámbhya- "molar teeth" | Pashžâma "jawbone";Khotysīmä "tooth"[86] | OCSzǫbŭ,Ukrzub,Polząb "tooth" | Latvzùobs "tooth";Lithžam̃bas "sharp edge" | dhëmb "tooth, tusk" | Akam, Bkeme "tooth" | ||||
| *h₃dónts, *h₃dn̥t- "tooth" | tooth (<OEtōþ <*H₁dont-) | tunþus "tooth" <*H₁dn̥t- | dēns (dentis) "tooth" <*H₁dn̥t- (>dental) | odṓn (odóntos) "tooth" <Proto-Greek*edónt-, cf. Aeol.édontes "teeth" (>orthodontist, etc.) | dán, dántas "tooth" | Avdantan-, dātā "tooth";NPersdandân "tooth";Kurddiran, didan, dan "tooth" | Russdesná "gum" <*H₁dent-sn- | OPrusdants "tooth",Lithdantis "tooth" | OIrdēt "tooth",Wdant "tooth" | atamn "tooth" | |||
| *h₃ésth₁,*h₂óst- "bone" | os (ossis) "bone" | ostéon "bone" (osteoporosis, etc.) | ásthi (asthnás) "bone" | Avast-, asti- (gen. pl.astąm, instr. pl.azdbīš) "bone"NPersostoxan "bone";Kurdhestî, hestû "bone" | OCSkostĭ "bone" | OIrasil "limb",MIrasna "rib" <?*astonyo-;MWass-en, asseu "rib",Wasgwrn "bone" <*ost-ko- | os-kr "bone" | asht, ahstë "bone" | Bāy, pl.āsta "bone" | ḫastāi- "bone" | |||
| *H₂ous- "ear" | ear (<OEēare) | áusō "ear" | auris "ear" | oũs "ear" | ūṣa "cavity of the ear" | Avuši "both ears";NPersguš "ear" | OCSuxo (ušese) "ear" | OPrusauss "ear",Lithausis "ear" | OIrāu, ō "ear" | unkn, nom pl.akanǰkʿ "ear" | vesh "ear" <*ōus, *ōs- | ||
| *h₃ókʷs "eye" | eye (<OEēage) | áugō "eye" | oculus "eye" <*ōkʷelo-s ⇒ [note 15] | ósse "both eyes";ómma "eye" <*óp-mn̥;ókkon[87] "eye" | ákṣi (akṣṇás) "eye" | Avaši "both eyes" | OCSoko "eye" | OPrusaks "eye",Lithakis "eye" | OIrenech "face",Wwyneb "face",Cornishenep "face" | akn, nom pl.ačʿkʿ "eye" | sy "eye" | Aak, Bek "eye" | |
| *h₁óh₃(e)s "mouth" | Scoture (<OEōr, ōra) | Noróss "river mouth" | ōs,ōris "mouth" (>oral) | Vedā́s "mouth, face" | Avāh "mouth" | OCSusta "mouth" | Lithúostas "mouth of a river, harbor" | OIrá "mouth" | aiš,gen.iššāš "mouth" | ||||
| *ḱerd- "heart";*ḱred-dʰē- "to believe" (See alsoḱréd·dʰh₁eti) | heart (<OEheorte) | haírtō "heart" | cor (cordis) "heart";crēdō "I believe" <*krezdō- <*ḱred-dʰē- ⇒ [note 16] | kardíā,Homerickradíē,Cypriotkorízdā "heart" <*ḱr̥d(y)ā; poetickẽr (kẽros) "heart" <*ḱḗr (>cardiac,cardiology. etc.) | hṛd "heart" < post-PIE*ǵʰr̥d;hṛdaya, hārdi "heart"; | Avzǝrǝd "heart",Pashtozṛə "heart" < post-PIE*ǵʰr̥d; | OCSsŭrdĭce "heart",serda "medium, core" | OPrussiran "heart" (acc.),seyr "heart",serds "core",Lithširdis "heart",šerdis "core" | OIrcride "heart";Wcraidd "center"; Gaulcrid "heart"[88] | sirt "heart" | Akri "will", B pl.käryāñ "hearts" | Hittkarz (kardias) "heart";Luwzarza "heart"[89] | |
| *h₃nebʰ- "navel, hub"; *h₃nóbʰōl "navel"[90][91] | navel (<OEnafola); nave (<OEnafu) | OHGnabalo "navel"; ONnafli "navel" | umbilīcus "navel"; umbō "elbow" | omphalós "navel; umbilical cord" | nā́bhi "navel, belly button; center"; nábhya "nave, center part of a wheel" | NPersnāf "navel",nāv- "deep" Pastnom, naw "navel" | OIrimbliu "navel" | ||||||
| *kréwh₂- "gore, blood (blood outside the body)"[92] | raw "uncooked food" (<OEhræw "corpse, carrion") | ONhrár "raw" | cruor "thick blood, gore";crūdus "raw, bloody",crūdēlis "cruel, rude" ⇒ [note 17] | kréas "flesh, meat";kréa "raw flesh" | krávis- "raw flesh";kravyá "raw flesh, carrion",krūrá "bloody, raw" | Avxrūra,xrūma "bloody";vi-xrūmant- "bloodless";xrvi.dru "of the bloody mace [ofAeshma]"YAvxrvišyant "grim, bloodthirsty"[93] | OCSkry "blood";Ruskrov' "blood" | OPruscrauyo,krawian;Lithkraũjas "blood",krùvinas "bloody";Latvkreve "coagulated blood,[94] bloody scab"[95][96] | OIrcrúaid,MIrcrū "blood",Wcrau "blood, gore" | ||||
| *néh₂s "nose" | nose (<OEnosu) | ONnǫs "nose" | nāsus, nāris "nose" (>nasal) | nas- "nose" | Avnāh-, nā̊ŋhan-,OPers acc. sg.nāham "nose" | OCSnosŭ "nose" | OPrusnasi "nose",Lithnosis "nose" | ||||||
| *pṓds, *ped- "foot" (See also*ped-) | foot (<OEfōt) | fōtus "foot" | pēs (pedis) "foot" (>pedal, etc.) | poús (podós) "foot" ⇒ [note 18] | pā́d- (padás) "foot" | Avpad-,OPerspād,Parthpāδ "foot"NPerspa "foot";Kurdpê Pastpx̌a "foot | OCSpěšǐ "on foot",pęta "heel" | OPruspida "foot",Lithpėda "foot" | OIrīs "below" < PIE loc. pl.*pēd-su;Wis(od) "below, under; lower (than)" | otn "foot",otkʿ "feet" | poshtë "below" | Ape "foot", Bpaiyye "foot" | pata-,CLuwpāta-,Lycpedi- "foot" |
| *tpḗrsneh₂ "heel, upper thigh" [97][98][99] | OEfiersn "heel, calx" | fairzna "heel" | perna "gammon"; Spapierna "leg" | ptérnē "heel, hoof; footstep" | pā́rṣṇi "heel; rear of the army; kick" | paršna- "loins" | |||||||
arm | arms | armus | harmós | īrmá- | OCSramo "shoulder" | ||||||||
| *h₃nṓgʰs "nail (finger or toe)" [104][105][106] | nail (<OEnæġel) | nagls "nail" | unguis "fingernail, toenail; claw; hoof"; ungula "hoof, claw; an aromatic spice" | ónux "claw, nail, hoof; a kind of aromatic substance; onyx (the gem)" | nakhá "nail"; áṅghri "foot; foot of a seat; tree root" | Npersnâxon "nail" | OCSnoga "foot, leg"; nogŭtĭ "nail" | Lithnãgas "fingernail, talon" | Irshionga "nail",Wewin "nail" | ełung "nail" | nyell "nail" | Amaku, Bmekwa "nail" | ša-an-ku-wa- "nail" |
| *yḗkʷr̥, yekʷnés "liver" | jecur (jecinoris) "liver" | hẽpar (hḗpatos) "liver" | yákr̥t (yaknás) "liver" | Avyākarǝ,NPersǰigar,Pashtoiná "liver" | Serbianjetra "liver",Serbian andMacedonianikra "fish roe" | OPrusjakna,Lataknas "liver",Lithjeknos[107] | W(i)afu "liver";MIri(u)chair (i(u)chrach) "fish roe" | leard "liver" | Aykär, Byakär* "liver"[108] | Luwianikkwar/n- "liver"[ah] | |||
| *ǵʰésr̥ ~ *ǵʰsrés "hand" | hir "hand" (rare, anatomical) | kheír "hand" (>chiropractor,surgery (chirurgy),enchiridion, etc.) | hás-ta "hand" | Avzas-ta "hand",NPersdast "hand" | jeṙ "hand, arm" | dorë "hand" | Atsar, Bṣar "hand" | keššar "hand",[110] Luwianīssaris "hand" | |||||
| *méh₂r̥ ~ *mh₂én- ~ *mh₂ntéh₂ "hand, the pointing one" [111][112][113] | mound (<OEmund "hand, hand of protection, protector) | Ger vormund "legal guardian" | manus, manūs "hand" ⇒ [note 19] | márē "hand" (dubious) | manii̯aḫḫ-i, "to distribute, entrust" | ||||||||
| *bʰeh₂ǵʰús "arm, trunk"[114] | bough (<OEbōg) | GerBug "shoulder joint",ONbógr "shoulder" | fagus "beech tree" | pêkhus "forearm" | bāhú "arm" | NPersbāzū "arm" | |||||||
| *h₃bʰrúHs "eyebrow"[115] | brow,Scotbroo (<OEbrū) | ONbrún "sharp edge; eyebrow"[note 20] | ophrū́s "eyebrow" | bhrū́ "eyebrow" | NPersabrū "eyebrow" | OCSbry "eyebrow" | |||||||
| *péth₂r̥ "wing, feather" [116][117][113][118] (See also*peth₂-) | feather (<OEfeþer) | OHGfedara "feather" ONfjǫðr "feather" | penna <*petna "wing; feather; quill pen" (>pen) | pterón "feather, wing; winged creature" | pát·tra- "wing, pinion, feather; leaf, petal (as the plumage of a tree)" | AvKaršiptar (Karšift) "black-winged" NPerspar "feather" | OCSperije "feather" | Wadar "birds",Wadain "wing" | trnum "to fly" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *éḱwos,*h₁éḱwos "horse, fast animal" | OEeoh "horse" | aíƕa- "horse"[ai] | equus "horse" (<equos) | híppos "horse";Myci-qo "horse" ( <*ïkkʷos)[119] | áśva- "horse";Mitanni-Aryanaššu- "horse" | Avaspa-,OPersasa- "horse";Ossetianyäfs "horse" <*yéḱwos;NPersasp "horse";Kurdhesp "horse" | OCSjastrębъ "hawk" (literally "a fast bird") | OPrusaswīnan "mare's milk",Lithašva "mare | OIrech;Webol "foal, colt" (<MWebawl <PBryth*ebọl, <PC*ep-ālos). | ēš "donkey" | Ayuk, Byakwe "horse" | Luwianásùwa "horse";Lycianesbe "horse" | |
| *gʷṓws "cattle"[i][120] | cow (<OEcū) | Old Saxonkō,OHGchuo "cow" | bōs (bovis) "cattle";[aj]Umbrian acc.bum "cow" | boũs,Dorbõs (bo(w)ós) "cattle, cow" | gáus (gṓs)[i] "cow" | Avgāuš (gāuš)[i] "cow";NPersgāv "cow";Kurdga "cow" Pastğwā "cow" | Croatiangòvedo "cattle" <PSlav*govędo;OCSgu-mǐno "threshing floor" | Latviangùovs "cow" | OIrbó (bóu/báu)[ak] "cow"; Boand[al] <Proto-Celtic*bowo-windā "white cow (or) cow-finder"[am] Boyne[an][121] OWbuch "cow" <*boukkā,bu-gail "cowherd" <*gʷou-kʷolyos | kov "cow" | ka "ox" | Ako "cow", Bkeu "cow" | HierLuvwawa-,Lycianwawa-, uwa- "cow";[122] |
| *péḱu "livestock"[124][125] | fee;fief;feud (<OEfeoh "livestock, property, money"); | faihu "property, possessions, wealth, riches, money" | pecū "cattle, domestic animals";pecūnia "money" ⇒ [note 21] | páśu,paśú "livestock" | Avpasu "livestock",Pastpsə "sheep,cattle" | OCS pasti "to herd, pasture" | OLithpekus "cattle" | asr "wool" | |||||
| *h₂éwis "bird" [126][127][128][129] (See also*h₂ōwyó·m) | avis "bird" (>aviary, aviation, etc.); auceps "bird-catcher; fowler; eavesdropper"; LLavicellus, aucellus "little bird" >Freoiseau; avispex, later,auspex "augur (from watching the flight of birds)" ⇒ [note 22] | āetós "eagle; omen"; oiōnós "large bird, bird of prey; omen; bird used in augury"; oiōnoskópos "augur (from the flight of birds)"; oiōnistḗrion "place for watching bird flight; omen" | ví "bird" | Avvīš "bird" | Whwyad "ducks" | hav "chicken" | |||||||
| *h₂ówis "sheep" | ewe (<OEēow "sheep",ēowu "ewe") | awistr "sheepfold";OHGouwi, ou "sheep" | ovis "sheep" | ó(w)is "sheep" | ávi- "sheep" | Wakhiyobc "ewe" <PIran*āvi-či- | Bulgovèn "ram",OCSovĭ-ca "ewe" | OPrusawwins "ram",Lithavis "female sheep"avinas "ram" | OIrōi "sheep";Wewig "deer" | hov-iw "shepherd" | Beye "sheep",ā(u)w "ewe" | Luvianhāwa/i-,Lycianχawa- "sheep" | |
| *h₂ŕ̥tḱos "bear"[130] | ursus "bear" | árktos "bear" | ŕ̥kṣa- "bear" | YAvarša,Ossetianars "bear";NPersxers "bear";Kurdhirç "bear" | Lithirštva "bear den" < h₂r̥tḱ-wéh₂ | MIrart,Warth "bear" | arǰ "bear" | arí "bear" | ḫartaqqas (name of a beast of prey) | ||||
| *ḱwṓ "hound, dog"[131] | hound (<OEhund "dog") | hunds "dog" | canis "dog" | kúōn (kunós) "dog";Mycku-na-ke-ta-i,Att/Ionkunegétes "huntsman" (litt. "those who guide dogs")[132] | śvan(śunas) "dog" | Avspā (acc.spānǝm, pl. gen.sū̆nam);MPerssak;Kurdkuçik, se, sey;Wakhišač "dog" Pastspay "dog" | Bulgkùt͡ʃe "dog",OCSsuka "bitch (female dog)" | OPrussunnis "dog",Lithšuo "dog",Latvsuns "dog",Ltgsuņs "dog" | OIrcú (con),Wci "dog" Cú Chulainn litt. "hound of Chulainn" Cunobeline <Com. Britt.*Cunobelinos "strong (?) as a dog" | šun "dog" | possiblyqen (disputed, possible Latin loan) | ABku "dog" (acc. Akoṃ, Bkweṃ) | Hittitekuwaš (nom.),kunaš (gen.);HierLuvsuwanni "dog";[133]Palkuwan- "dog";[134]Lydkan- "dog" |
| *múh₂s "mouse" | mouse,Scotmoose (<OEmūs) | ONmús "mouse" | mūs "mouse" | mũs "mouse" | mū́ṣ- "mouse" | OPersmuš "mouse" (? not in Pokorny; Pokorny hasNPersmūš "mouse");Kurdmişk "mouse" | OCSmyšĭ "mouse" | mukn "mouse" | mi "mouse" | ||||
| *uksḗn "ox, bull"[135][136] | ox (<OEoxa) | auhsa "ox" | ukṣán "bull, ox" | Avuxšan "bull" | MWych;MidIross "stag, cow";MBretouhen | Bokso "draft-ox" | |||||||
| *(s)táwros "bull" | steer (<OEstēor) | ONþjórr | taurus,Osctaurom (acc.) | taûros | stawra- "bull" | OSlturŭ | Lithtaũras;OPrtauris "bison" | Gaultarvos (taruos) "bull";OIrtarb,Wtarw "bull" | tuar "cattle" | tarok | |||
| *suHs- "pig" | sow (<OEsū); swine (<OEswīn) | ONsýr "sow" | sūs "pig" | hũs, sũs "pig" | sū-kara- "pig";Hindisūvar "pig" | Avhū (gen. sg.) "pig",NPersxuk "pig" | Bulgsvinjà "swine, sow" | Latviansuvẽns, sivẽns "piglet" | OIrsocc sáil "sea pig";Whwch "sow, swine" | khos "pig" | thi "pig" | Bsuwo "pig" | še-hu-u "pig" |
| *wl̥kʷos "wolf" | wolf (<OEwulf) | wulfs (wulfis) "wolf" | lupus "wolf" | lúkos "wolf" | vŕ̥ka- "wolf" | Avvǝhrka- "wolf";NPersgorg "wolf";Kurdgur "wolf" | Bulgvɤ̞lk "wolf",OCSvlĭkŭ "wolf" | OPruswilks "wolf",Lithvilkas "wolf" | OIrolc (uilc) "evil" | aghves "fox" | ujk <OAlbulk "wolf" | Bwalkwe "wolf" | ulippana "wolf" |
| *wl(o)p- "fox" | vulpes "fox" | alṓpēx "fox" | lopāśá "fox, jackal" | Avurupis "dog",raopi- "fox, jackal";Kurdrovî, rûvî "fox" | OCSlisa "fox" | Lithlãpė "fox";Latvlapsa "fox" | Brelouarn "fox" (<PCel*loɸernos) | ałuēs "fox" | Toskdhelpër,Ghegdhelpen "fox" (<*dzelpina <*welpina)[137] | ulipzas (ú-li-ip-za-aš) "wolf";[138]Luwianú-li-ip-ni-eš (nom. sg.),wa-li-ip-ni (dat.-loc. sg.) "fox"[138] | |||
| *ǵʰh₂éns "goose" | goose (<OEgōs),gander (<OEganra) | OHGgans "goose" | (h)ānser "goose" | kʰḗn,Dorickhā́n "goose";Mycka-no,ka-si (dat. pl.) "goose"[139] | haṁsá- "goose" (cf.Hamsa) | Avzāō "goose" (? not in Pokorny);Sogdianz'γ "kind of bird",NPersɣaz "goose",NPersɣu "swan" | Bulggɤ̞ska "goose",OCSgǫsǐ "goose" | OPruszansi "goose",Lithžąsis "goose" | OIrgēiss "swan"Wgwydd "goose" | gatë "heron" | Bkents- "bird (goose?)"[140][141] | ||
| *h₂énh₂t(i)s "duck" | Scotennet "duck" (<OEened) | OHGenita "duck" | ānas (gen.anatis) "duck" | nessa, netta "duck" | ātí- "waterfowl" | Osseticacc "wild duck" NPersordak "duck" | Russ.utka "duck" | OPrusants "duck",Lithantis "duck" | rosë "duck" | ||||
| *h₁élh₁ēn "deer" | élaphos "deer";Homellós "young of the deer" | Pastosə́i "deer" | OSljeleni "deer";Russoleni "red deer" | Lithélnias "red deer";Lithélnė "hind" <*H₁elH₁ēniHx "hind, cow-elk" | NWelelain "hind" <*H₁elH₁ēniHx "hind, cow-elk" | ełn "hind" | Byal,ylem "gazelle"[143] Bylaṃśke "young gazelle"[144] | aliya(n)- "red deer"[145] | |||||
| *h₁eǵʰis "hedgehog" | OEigil "hedgehog" (<Proto-Germanic*igilaz) | ONígull "sea-urchin" | MycGre-ki-no;[146]ekhînos "hedgehog" | Osswyzyn "hedgehog" | OSljezĭ "hedgehog";Rusež "hedgehog" | Lithežȳs "hedgehog"[ap] | ozni "hedgehog" | esh,eshk "porcupine, hedgehog" | |||||
*bʰébʰrus "beaver" | beaver (<OEbeofer) | OHGbibar "beaver";OIcbiorr "beaver" | fīber "beaver" | babʰrú "mongoose" | Avbaβra- "beaver" | Polbóbr "beaver" | Lithbebrùs "beaver";Prussbebrus "beaver" | Gaulbebru-;OIrBibar | |||||
| *h₃érō "eagle"[147] | erne "a sea eagle" <OEearn "eagle" | ara "eagle";OHGarn "eagle" | (Avernus "entrance to the underworld" (<AncGrkáornos "birdless"))[aq] | órnis "bird";Myco-ni-ti-ja-pi "decorated with birds(?)" | OSlorǐlŭ "eagle";Rusorël "eagle" | Lithăras,ĕras,erẽlis "eagle";Latvērglis,OPrusarelie "eagle" | MBreterer,MWeryr,MIrirar "eagle" (<*eriro) | OArmoror "gull",MArmurur "kite" | orr "eagle, falcon" (rare) | Hittḫaran- "eagle";CLuwḫarrani(a/i) "a type of (oracular) bird";Pala[ḫa-]a-ra-na-aš "eagle"[46] | |||
| *h₂éngʷʰis; *h₁ógʷʰis "snake", "serpent", "eel" | OHGunc "snake";engiring "maggot" (diminutive ofangar "large larva") | anguis "snake, serpent, dragon";Anguilla "eel" | ópʰis "serpent, snake";énkhelus "eel"[ar] | áhi "snake, serpent; name ofVrtra" | Avaži "snake",Persianyağnij "grass snake" (archaic);Azhi Dahāka[as] | OEstSlužĭ "snake",Rusuž "grass snake";Polwęgorz "eel" | OPrusangis "snake",angurgis "eel";Lithangis "viper, adder",ungurys "eel";Latvodze,odzs (dialectal) "viper, adder"; | OArmawj "snake",iž,iwž "viper" | Bauk "snake" | Illuyanka "mythical snake foe" | |||
| *h₂eyǵ- "goat"[152] | aíx "goat" | eḍa "a kind of sheep" | (possibly) Lithožỹs "goat" | ayts "goat" | dhi, "goat" | ||||||||
| *h₂ōwyóm (avṛddhi-derivative of*h₂éwis) "egg" [153][154][128][155] | ey (obsolete) "egg" (<OEǣġ) (>Cockney "cock-egg"); egg (<ONegg) | ōvum "egg" (>ovum, ovary, oval, ovoid, ovulate, etc.) | ōión "egg, seed" | Pasthagə́i "egg" | Wwy "egg" | ||||||||
| *h₂egʷnós "lamb"[156] | yean "to give birth to" (<OEēanian) | agnus "lamb" | amnós "lamb" | OCSagnę "lamb" | Woen "lamb" | enjë (dairy goat) | |||||||
lax | OHGlahs "salmon" | Russlosos "salmon" | Blaks "fish, salmon" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ǵr̥h₂-nó- "grain"[160][161][162] (See also*gʰreh₁-) | corn (<OEcorn "grain") | kaúrn "corn" | grānum "grain" ⇒ [note 23] | jīrṇá-, jūrṇá- "old, worn out, decayed" | OCSzrŭno "grain" | OPruszirni "grain",Lithžirnis "pea" | OIrgrān,Wgrawn "grain" | cʿorean "wheat, grain, corn" | grurëToskgrun, gruniGheg "grain" | ||||
| *gʰreh₁- "to grow" [163][164][160][165] (See also*ǵr̥h₂-nó-) | grow (<OEgrōwan); green (<OEgrēne); grey, gray (<OEgrǣġ); grass (<OEgræs); groom (young boy, servant) (<MEgrome) | grōdjan "to green, grow; plant" | grāmen "grass, turf; herb"; rāvus "gray, tawny"; herba "grass; weed; herb" | Kurdgewre, gir "big",gewre bûn "to grow, to get big",giran "heavy",girîng "important, major, essential" Pastgrān "expensive, hard" | OCSgrěnŭ "green" | ||||||||
| *h₂éǵros "field" | acre (<OEæcer "field") | akrs "field" | ager (agrī) "field" ⇒ [note 24] | agrós "field" | ájra-"meadow" | art "soil" | arë "field" | ||||||
| *h₂erh₃- "to plow" | OEerian "to plow" | arjan "to plow" | arō (arāre) "to plow",arātrum "plow" | aróō "I plow" <*H₂erH₃-oH₂,árotron "plow",aroura "arable land" | OCSorjǫ (orati) "to plow",ralo <*ar(ə)dhlom "plow" | OPrusartun "to plow",Litharti "to plow";arklys "horse" | MIrairim "I plow",Warddu "to plow" <*arj-;MIrarathar,Waradr "plow" <*arətrom <*H₂erH₃-trom | ara-wr "plow" | arë "arable land"*H₂r̥H₃-uer- | ABāre "plow" | |||
| *h₂melǵ- "to milk" | milk (<OEmeolc, mioluc) | miluks (miluks) "milk" | mulgeō (mulgēre) "to milk" ⇒ [note 25] | amélgō "I milk" | mā́ršti, mā́rjati, mr̥játi "(he) wipes, cleans" | Avmarǝzaiti, mǝrǝzaiti "(he) grazes (barely touches)" | OCSmlěko "milk",Russ. CSmŭlzu (mlěsti) "to milk" | OPrusmilztun "to milk",Lithmelžti "to milk" | Wblith "milk, dairy produce; full of milk",MIrbligim "I milk" <*mligim,melg "milk" | miel, mil "I milk" | Amalke Bmalk-wer "milk" | ||
| *melh₂- "to grind"[166][167] | meal (<OEmelu); malm (<OEmealm) | malan "to grind" | molō (molere) "I grind"; mola "millstone; mill; ground meal, flour" ⇒ [note 26]; immolō "I immolate, sacrifice (lit. sprinkling flour on animals to be sacrificed)" ⇒ [note 27]; malleus "hammer, mallet" ⇒ [note 28]; milium "millet" | múllō "I grind"; malthakós, malakós "soft, tender; gentle; mild"; melínē "millet" | mr̥ṇāti, mr̥nati "(he) grinds" | Avmrāta- "tanned soft" | OCSmeljǫ (mlětĭ) "to grind"; mlatŭ "hammer"; molĭ "moth"; mělŭ "chalk; fine ground substance" | OPrusmaltun "to grind",Lithmalti "to grind",malnos "millet" | OIrmelim "I grind";Wmalu "grind" | mał "sieve"mał-em "I grind, crush" | mjell "flour" | Amalywët "you press"; Bmelye "they trample" | mallai "grinds" |
| *kwh₂et- "to ferment, become sour" [168][169] [170][171] | OE hwaþerian "to roar, foam, surge" | ƕaÞō "froth, foam, scum" | cāseus "cheese" (>cheese) | kváthate "it boils" | OCSkvasŭ "leaven; sour drink" >Kvass | ||||||||
| ONostr "cheese"; ysta "to curdle" | iūs | ?zōmós | yūṣa- | Russ uxá "Ukha" | Wuwd "porridge" | ||||||||
| *bʰrewh₁- "to boil; to brew" [176][177] | brew | ferveō | OCSburja "storm" | Borvo "Gaulish deity of healing springs",Wberwi "to boil" | |||||||||
| *gʷréh₂wō "quern, millstone"[178][125] | quern (<OEcwerne) | *qairnus | grā́van "stone, rock, stone for pressing out the Soma juice" | OCSžrĭny "millstone" | Bretbreo,breou,Wbreuan "quern"[179] | ||||||||
| *mélit, *melnés "honey" | mildew (<OEmele-dēaw "honeydew") | miliþ "honey" | mel (mellis) "honey" (> mellifluous) | méli (mélit-) "honey";Attmélitta "bee";Mycme-ri,me-ri-to "honey"[180] | milinda "honey-bee" | OIrmil,Wmêl "honey" | mełr "honey" | mjal, mjaltë "honey" | milit "honey";CLuwma-al-li "honey";[181]Palamalit- "honey" | ||||
| *médʰu "honey", "mead" | mead (<OEmedu) | midus "mead" | mēdus "a type of mead"[182] | métʰu "wine" | mádʰu "sweet drink, honey" | Proto-Iranianmádu "honey, wine" | OCSmedŭ "honey";Bulgmed "honey" | OPrusmeddu "honey",Lithmedus "honey",midus "mead"(viaGothic);[183]Ltgmads "honey" | OIrmid "mead";Wmedd "mead" | Bmit "honey"[184] | CLuwmaddu- "wine" (originally "sweet drink") | ||
| *tuh₂rós "cheese"[156] | butter (< Gk.boútūros "cow cheese") | tūrós "cheese" | |||||||||||
| *séh₂ls "salt"[185][186] | salt (<OEsealt) | salt "salt" | sāl (salis) "salt" ⇒ [note 31] | háls (halós) "salt" | sal-ilá- "salty" | OCSsolǐ "salt"; OCSsladŭkŭ "sweet"; Russsólod "malt" | OPrussals "salt",Lithsaldus "sweet | OIrsalann,Whalen "salt" | ał "salt" | ngjel-bëtë, ngjel-mëtë "salty",njel-m "to be salty" | Asāle, Bsalyiye "salt" | ||
| *seh₁- "to sow (seed)",*séh₁mn̥ "seed" | sow (<OEsāwan),seed (<OEsēd "that which is sown") | saian "to sow";OHGsāmo "seed" | serō (serere) "to sow" <*si-sH₁-oH₂,sēmen "seed" ⇒ [note 32] | sasá- "corn, herb, grass",sasyá- "corn, grain, fruit, crop of corn",sī́ra- "Saatpflug" (seed plow?) | OCSsějǫ (sějati) "to sow",sěmę "seeds" | OPrussitun "to sow",simen "seed",Lithsėti "to sow",sėkla "seed",sėmuo "linseed" | OIrsīl,Whil "seed" <*seH₁-lo- | sermn "seed" | isḫūwāi "(he) sows" | ||||
| *yugóm "yoke" (See also*yewg-) | yoke (<OEġeoc) | juk "yoke" | iugum "yoke" | zugón "yoke" | yugá·m "yoke" | Avyaoj-, yuj- "to harness" Pastyə́wa "plough" | OCSigo "yoke" | OPrusjugtun "yoke",Lithjungas "yoke" | Wiau "yoke" | luc "yoke" | Ayokäm "door" | yugan "yoke" | |
| *yéwos "cereal, grain; spelt, barley"[187][188] | Epiczeiā́ "einkorn wheat";Cretandeaí "barley" | yáva "grain, cereal; barley" | Av yauua- "cereal";Persjow "barley, grain";Ossjäv "corn, grain" | Rusovín "barn, granary";[at]Poljewnia,jownia (dialectal) "granary" | Lithjãvas "a type of cereal";javaĩ (pl.) "cereals";Latvjavs,java "infused (with fermentation)" | Ireorna "barley" | Byap "dressed barley" | e(u)wa(n) "cereal (a kind of barley)" | |||||
| *mḗms "meat"[190][125] | mimz "flesh" | membrum "limb, member" < mēms-rom "flesh" ⇒ [note 33] | mā́ṃs,māmsá- "meat" | OCSmęso "meat" | mis "meat" | mish"meat" | |||||||
| *h₂ébōl "apple"[124][125] | apple (<OEappel) | apel | (OscAbella "town name") | OCSablŭko "apple" | Lithobuolys "apple",OPrwobalne "apple";Latvābols "apple (fruit)",ābele "apple tree" | GaulAballo "place name";OIraball,Wafall,OBraball(en) "apple tree" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *h₂enh₁- "to breathe" | OEōþian "breathe hard" <PGerm*anþōjanã | *uz-anan "to expire"; ONanda "to breathe"; DEatmen "to breathe" | anima "breath" | ánemos "wind";Anemoi "(deified) winds" | ániti "(he) breathes";ātmán "breath, soul, life" | Avā̊ntya, parā̊ntya (gen.) "breathing in and out";Kurdhenase "breath";henas dan "to breath" | OCSvonja "smell" <*h₂en-yeh₂[191] | OIranāl "breath" <*h₂enh₁-tlo-;Wanadl "breath" | hołm "wind",anjn "person" | GhegâjToskēnj "I swell" | ABāñm- "spirit", Bañiye "breath", Banāsk- "breathe in" | ||
| *swep- "to sleep",*swépnos "dream (n.)" | archaicsweven "dream, vision" (<OEswefn);NoEngsweb "to swoon" (<OEswebban "to put to sleep, lull") | ONsofa "sleep (v.)";Svafnir[192] "Sleep-Bringer (a name of Odin)" | somnus "sleep (n.)";sōpiō[193] (v.) "make asleep" | húpnos "sleep (n.)";Hypnos "god of sleep" | svápna- "sleep, dream (n.)" | Avxᵛafna- "sleep (n.)"NPersxwãb- "sleep";Kurdxew "sleep" Pastxob "dream, sleeping" | OCSsŭpati[193] "sleep (v.)",sŭnŭ "sleep (n.), dream (n.)" | OPrussupnas "dream",Lithsapnas "dream" | OIrsūan,Whun "sleep (n.)" | kʿnem "I sleep",kʿun "sleep (n.)" | gjumë "sleep (n.)" | TAṣpäṃ, TBṣpane "sleep (n.), dream (n.)" | sup-, suppariya- "to sleep" |
dormiō | darthánō | drā́yati | OCS drěmati "to doze, drowse, slumber" | ||||||||||
| *bʰewdʰ- "to be awake, be aware"[198] | bid (<OEbēodan); bede (<OEbēden); bead (<OEbedu); bode (<OEbodian) | anabiudan; DEbitte "please" (<bitten, "to beg") | punthánomai "I learn" | bódhati "(s/he) is awake"; bodháyati "(s/he) awakens, arouses";buddhá- "awake" | Avbaoδaiti "to be aware",Pastpóha "understand" NPersbikdar "awake" | OCSbljusti "to watch"; buditi "to wake (someone) up"; bŭždrĭ "alert, cheerful"; | Lithbudėti "to stay awake, to guard";busti "to wake up" | ||||||
| *sweyd- "sweat" | sweat (<OEswǣtan "to sweat") | ONsveiti | sūdor "sweat (n.)" | (e)ĩdos "sweat (n.)" | svḗda- "sweat (n.)" | Avxᵛaēda- "sweat (n.)";Kurdxwê, xoy "sweat" Pastxoẓ̌ "sweet" | Latviansviêdri (pl.) "sweat (n.)" | Wchwys "sweat (n.)" <*swidso- | kʿirtn "sweat (n.)" | dirsë, djersë "sweat (n.)" <*swí-drōxty- | Bsyā-lñe "sweating" <*swid-yé- | ||
| *h₁ed- "to eat" | eat (<OEetan) | itan "to eat" | edō (ēsse) "to eat",ēst "(he) eats" | édō "I eat", Homeric athematic infinitiveédmenai "to eat" | ádmi "I eat",átti "(he) eats" | Av subj.aδāiti "(he) should eat" | OCSjamĭ "I eat" <*H₁ēd-mi,jastŭ "(he) eats" | OPrusistun "to eat",Lithėsti "to eat (as or like an animal) | OIrci-ni estar "although he doesn't eat";Wys "eats" <*H₁ed-ti | utem "I eat" <*ōd- | ha "to eat" | ēdmi "I eat" | |
| *peh₃- "to drink" | potable (<OFpotable) imbibe (<Lat.bibere "to drink" viaOFimbiber) potion, poison (<Lat.potio, potionis "a drink" viaOFpocion, poison) | bibō (bibere) "to drink",pōtus "drink (n.)";pō·culo- <pō·clo- <*pō·tlo- "beaker"[au] (Compare Sktpā·tra-) | pī́nō, pépomai "I drink" | pā́ti, píbati "(he) drinks";pā·tra- "cup, vessel"[au] | Avvispo-pitay- "alltränkend" giving water/drinks to all | OCSpijǫ (piti) "to drink",pivo "drink, beer, beverage" | OPrusputun "to drink",puja "a party",Lithpuota "party" | OIribid "drinks" <*pibeti;Wyfwn "we drink" | əmpem "I drink" | pī "I drink" | pāsi "he swallows" | ||
| *ǵews- "to test, to taste" | choose (<OEċēosan) | Gothkiusan "to prove, to test",kausjan "taste";OHGkiosan "choose" | gustus "taste" | geúomai "taste" | juşate,joşati "enjoys" | Avzaoś- "be pleased" | OCS(vŭ)kušati "to offer a meal, to give for tasting" | OIrdo-goa "choose" | zgjedh "choose" desha "I loved";dashje "liking, taste, preference" (<PAlb*dāusnja) | kukuš(-zi) "taste" | |||
| *ǵenh₁- "to beget, give birth, produce" [199][200][201][202][203] | kin (<OEcynn "kind, sort, family, generation") (>kindred); kind (<OE(ġe)cynd "generation, nature, race, kind"); king (<OEcyning); OEcennan "produce" | -kunds "born"; knoþs "race, people"; OHGkind "child"; Gerkönig,Dutkoning "king" (<PGmc*kuningaz =*kunją "kin" +*-ingaz "from, belonging to") (>OCSkŭnędzĭ "prince"; Lithkùnigas "priest"; Fin,Estkuningas "king" (esp. in chess)) | (g)nāscor "I am born, begotten; grow, spring forth"; gignō "I beget, bear, bring forth, engender" ⇒ [note 35]; (g)natus "born, arisen, made" ⇒ [note 36]; nāscēns "being born, arising; emerging" ⇒ [note 37]; nātīvus "created; imparted by birth" ⇒ [note 38]; nātīvitās "birth" ⇒ [note 39]; nātūra "nature, quality, essence" ⇒ [note 40]; nātiō "birth; race, class; nation, folk" ⇒ [note 41]; nātālis "relating to birth, natal" ⇒ [note 42]; genus (generis) "birth, origin; kind; species; (grammar) gender" ⇒ [note 43]; gēns (gentis) "tribe; folk, family; Roman clan" ⇒ [note 44]; ingēns "huge, vast; extraordinary"; genitus "begotten, engendered" ⇒ [note 45]; genius "inborn trait, innate character; talent, wits" (>genius); ingenuus "natural, indigenous; freeborn" ⇒ [note 46]; ingenium "innate quality, nature, disposition; natural capacity; talent" ⇒ [note 47]; indigenus = indu (inside) +genus "native, indigenous" (>indigenous); genimen "product, fruit; progeny"; germen (germinis) "shoot, sprout; germ, origin, seed; fetus" ⇒ [note 48]; genitor "begetter, father, sire"; genetrīx "begetter, mother"; naevus "birthmark, mole" (>LatGnaeus); genitālis "relation to birth, generation; productive" ⇒ [note 49] | geínomai "I am born; I beget"; gígnomai "I come into being; become"; gonḗ "offspring; seed" (>gonad); geneā́ "birth; race, descent; generation; offspring" (>genealogy, etc.); gnōtós "kinsman"; génos "offspring, descendant, family; nation, gender"; génna, génnā "descent, lineage; origin, offspring"; génesis "origin, source, manner of birth" ⇒ [note 50]; gónos "fruit, product; race, descent; begetting; seed"; genétēs, genétōr "begetter, ancestor; father" | jánati "(she) gives birth"; jáyate "is born; becomes"; já-, -ja- "born; born of, begotten from", e.g.,dvi·já- "twice-born"; jantú "child, offspring; creature"; jñāt́í "kinsman, relative"; jananī "mother, birth-giver"; jána- "people, person, race"; jánana- "begetting, birth"; jánas "race, class, genus"; jánman, janmá- "birth, life"; jániman "generation, birth, origin"; janitṛ́ "begetter, father, parent"; jánitrī "begetter, mother"; janátā "people, folk, generation"; jātí "birth, form of existence fixed at birth, position assigned by birth, rank, lineage, caste" | Avzīzǝnti, zīzanǝnti "they give birth";Kurdzayîn "to give birth" Pastzeẓ̌edə́l "to be born" | OCSzętĭ "son-in-law" | OIr-gainethar "who is born" <*ĝn̥-ye-tro;[191]Wgeni "to be born" | cnanim "I am born, bear" | dhëndër, dhândër "son-in-law, bridegroom" <*ĝenH̥₁-tr-[aw] | ABkän- "to come to pass (of a wish), be realized" | ||
| *sewh₁- or *sewh₃- "to bear, beget, give birth" [30][31][32][33][204] (See also*suHnú-) | sū́te "(she) begets"; sūtá- "born, brought forth"; sūtí "birth, production" | Avhunāhi "give birth, beget" | OIrsuth "produce, offspring; milk" | šunnai "fills" | |||||||||
| *h₂ewg-, h₂weg- "to grow, increase"[205] | eke (<OEēacian "to increase");wax (of the moon) (<OEweaxan "to grow") | aukan, auknan "to increase (intr.)",wahsjan "to grow" < orig.caus.*h₂wog-s-éy-onom | augeō (augēre) "to increase (tr.)" ⇒ [note 51]; auctor "grower - promoter, producer, author etc" ⇒ [note 52]; augmentum "growth, increase" ⇒ [note 53]; augur <augos "aggrandizement" ⇒ [note 54]; augustus "majestic, venerable" ⇒ [note 55]; auxilium "help, aid; remedy" ⇒ [note 56] | a(w)éksō "I increase (intr.)",aúksō, auksánō "I increase (tr.)" | úkṣati "(he) becomes stronger",vakṣáyati "(he) causes to grow";ójas, ōjmán "strength, vitality, power";[206]ugrá- "immense, strong, hard"; | Avuxšyeiti "(he) grows",vaxšaiti "(he) causes to grow" | OCSjugъ "south" (the direction to where the Sun rises) | OPrusaugtwei "to grow",Lithaugti " to grow" | OIrfēr,Wgwêr "fat" <*weg- | ačem "I grow, become big" | Aoksiṣ "(he) grows"; Aokṣu, Вaukṣu "grown" | ||
| *weǵ- "fresh, strong; lively, awake"[207] | wake (<OEwacian);watch (<OEwæċċan) | gawaknan "wake up, arouse" | vegeō (vegēre) "be alert, awake, smart";vigor "id";vigil "awake, watching" | vā́ja- "strength, energy, vigour, spirit";vájra- "hard; mace; thunderbolt; diamond";vājáyati "(s/he) impels" | |||||||||
| *gʷih₃wo- "alive",*gʷih₃woteh₂ "life" | quick (<OEcwicu "alive") | qius "alive" | vīvus "alive";vīta "life" | bíos, bíotos "life",zoo "animal" | jīvá-, jīvaka- "alive",jīvita·m, jīvā́tus, jīvathas "life" | Avgayō, acc.ǰyātum "life";Gayōmart "living mortal";-ǰyāiti- "life-";Avǰva-,OPersǰīva- "alive",NPersǰavān- "alive";Kurdjiyan, jîn "life" Pastžwənd "life" | OCSživŭ "alive",žitĭ, životŭ "life";Živa "alive, living (Polabian deity)" | OPrusgiws "alive",giwata "life",Lithgyvas "alive",gyvatė "snake" | Gaulbiuo-, bio-,[208][ax] OIrbiu, beo,Wbyw "alive";OIrbethu (bethad),Wbywyd "life" <Proto-Celtic*bivo-tūts | keam "I live" <*gʷi-yā-ye-mi[191] | Bśai- "to live" <*gweiH₃-ō | ḫuišu̯ant- "living; alive"[209][210][211][212] | |
| *ǵerh₂- "to grow old, mature" [213][162] [201][214][215] (See also*ǵr̥h₂-nó-,*gʰreh₁-) | churl (<OEċeorl, ċiorl "free man") | Karl (<PGmc "free man") (> Slavkorlǐ "king")[ay] | gérōn, gérontos "old; elder" (>geronto-); graûs "old woman"; geraiós "old"; géras "gift of honor"; gerarós "honorable, majestic, respectable"; Graîa Graia >Graikós >Graeco-, Greek | járati, jī́ryati "grows old; wears out; is consumed, digested"; jīrṇá- "old, worn out; digested"; járan(t)- "old, infirm; decayed"; jarā́, jarás, jariman "old age" | OCSzĭrěti "to ripen" | grua "woman, wife" <PAlb *grāwā | |||||||
| *mer- "to die" | murder (<OEmorþor <*mr̥-tro-m) | maúrþr "murder" | morior (morī) "to die" <*mr̥-yōr,mortalis "mortal" | brotós (<*mrotós),mortós "mortal" | marati, máratē, mriyátē "(he) dies",mṛtá- "dead",márta-, mortal | Avmerə- "to die",miryeite "dies";OPersmartiya- "man (someone who dies)",NPersmordan- "to die";Kurdmirin "to die" Pastmrəl "to die" | OCSmĭrǫ, mrěti "to die" | Lithmiŕštu (miŕti) "to die",merdėti "to die slowly" | OIrmarb,Wmarw "dead" <*mr̥-wós | meṙanim "I die",mard "human" | mert "died" | ||
| *kl̥H- "bald, naked" [216][217] [218][219] | calvus "bald, hairless" > calva "skull, scalp" | kulvá- "bald" | NPerskal, kačal "bald" kalle "head" | ||||||||||
| *kʷeh₂s- "to cough"[220][221] | whoost "cough" (<OEhwōstan) | GermanHust "cough" | Kurdkuxin "to cough",kuxik "cough" | OCSkašĭljati "to cough" | Lithkosėti "to cough" | Wpas "cough" | koll "cough" | kollë "cough" | |||||
| *perd- "fart"[222][223] | fart (<OEfeortan) | pérdomai | párdate "(s/he) farts" | Russianperdétь "to fart" | Lithpersti "to fart" | Wrhech "fart" | bert "fart" | pordhë "fart" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ḱlew(s)- "to hear" | listen (<OEhlystan),loud (<OEhlūd) | hliuma "hearing, ears (in pl.)" | clueō (cluēre) "to be named";inclitus/inclutus "famous" (heard of) | ékluon "I heard" | śṛṇóti "(he) hears" <*ḱl̥-ne-w-;śrúti "that which is heard" | Avsurunaoiti "(he) hears" <*k̂lu-n- | OCS slyšati "to hear"; slušati "to listen" | OPrusklausytun "to hear",Lithklausyti "to listen" | OIrro-clui-nethar "hears";Wclywed "to hear"; Gaulcluiou "I hear"[224] | lsem "I hear" | Old Toskkluaj (standardquaj) "to call, to name" <*ḱlu(H)-eh₁- | Aklyoṣ-, Bklyauṣ- "to hear" | |
*h₂ew- or*h₃ew- | OEēawis "obvious" | audiō | aḯō | āvís | OCS aviti "to show, appear" | Lithovytis | |||||||
| *weyd- "to see, find; to know" | wit (OEwit "intelligence",witan "to know" < PIE perfect tense) | witan "to know" | videō (vidēre) "to see" | é(w)ide "he saw"; perf.oĩda "I know (lit. I have seen)" | vindáti "(he) finds",ávidat "found"; vetti, vēdate, vidáti "(he) knows"; perf.véda "I know" | Avvī̆δaiti, vī̆nasti "(he) finds" | OCSviždǫ (viděti) "to see" | OPruswidatun "to see";Lithveidas "face",išvysti "to see" | Wgweld "to see",gwybod "to know" | gtanem "I find" | |||
| *woyd- "to know" | Av perf.vaēδa "I know",vīdarǝ "they know" | OCSvěmĭ (věděti) "to know" | OPruswaistun "to know",Lithvaistas "medicine",vaidila "pagan priest" | OIrfind,Wgwn "(I) know" | gitem "I know" | Būwe "learned" <PToch*wäwen- <*wid-wo- | |||||||
| *ǵénH₃-, *ǵnéH₃-sḱ-, *ǵn̥-né-h₃- "to recognize, know" | can (<OEcann "I know, he knows"),know (<OEcnāwan <*ǵnēH₃-yo-nom),Scotken "to know" (<OEcennan "to cause to know" <PGerm*kann-jan) | kunnan "to know" <*ǵn̥-n-h₃-onom,kann "I know" | (g)nōscō ((g)nōscere) "to learn about",nōvī "I know" (lit. "I have learnt") | gignṓskō (aoristégnōn) "I learn about, perceive" | jānā́mi "I know" <*janā́mi <*ǵn̥-nh₃-mi | Avzanā-ṯ, zanąn <*ǵn̥-ne-h₃-ti;OPersa-dānā (impf.) "he knew" <*ǵn̥-ne-h₃-mi,xšnāsātiy (subj.) "he should know";Kurdzanîn "to know" | OCSznajǫ (znati) "to know" <*ǵneh₃-yoh₂ | OPruszinatun "to recognize, know",Lithžinoti "to know"[228][229] | OIritar-gninim, asa-gninaim "I am wise";Wadnabod "(I) know" | čanačʿem, aoristcaneay "I recognize" | njoh "I know" <*ǵnēh₃-sḱoh₂ | Aknā-, e.g.knānmaṃ "knowing" <*ǵneH₃-,kñas-äṣt "you have become acquainted" <*ǵnēH₃-s- | |
| *n̥- + *ǵneh₃-tos "not" + "to know" | uncouth (<OEuncūþ "unknown, strange") | unkunþs "unknown" | ignōtus,ignōrāntem "unknown, ignorant" | agnṓs (agnõtos) "unknown" <*n̥- + *ǵnéH₃-ts | ajñāta- "unknown" | OPrusnezinatun "not to know",Lithnežinoti " not to know" | OIringnad "foreign" | an-can-awtʿ "ignorant, unknown" | Aā-knats, Ba-knātsa "ignorant" | ||||
| *lewbʰ- "to love; desire, covet, want; admire, praise"[230][231] | love (<OElufu); arch.lief "dear, beloved" (<OElēof); lofe "praise, exalt; offer" (<OElofian, lof) | lubō "love" | libet "it is pleasing, agreeable" | lúbhyati "(s/he) desires greatly; longs for, covets; is perplexed"; lobháyati "(s/he) causes to desire, attract, allure; confound, bewilder"; lobhá "perplexity, confusion; impatience, eager desire, longing; covetousness"; lobhin "greedy, desirous of, longing after; covetous" | OCSljubiti "to love"; ljubŭ "sweet, pleasant"; ljuby "love"; Russljubímyj "favorite" | lyp "beg" | |||||||
| *men- "to think"[232][233] | mind (<OE(ġe)mynd "memory" <*mn̥t-ís);OEmunan "to think"; minion | munan "to think";muns (pl.muneis) "thought" <*mn̥-is;gamunds (gamundáis) "remembrance" <*ko(m)-mn̥t-ís | meminī "I remember" ⇒ [note 59]; reminīscor "I recollect, remember" ⇒ [note 60] mēns (mentis) "mind" <*mn̥t-is; memor "mindful, remembering" ⇒ [note 61] commentus "devised, contrived; invented"; moneō "I remind, warn"; mōnstrum "a divine omen; portent" ⇒ [note 62]; Minerva | mémona "I think of";maínomai "I go mad"; mimnḗskō "I remind, recall"; mnáomai "I am mindful, remember; woo, court"; autómatos "self-willed, unbidden; self-moving, automatic"; ménos "mind; desire; anger"; Méntōr "mentor"; manthánō "I learn; know, understand; notices"; máthēma "something that is learned, lesson; learning, knowledge" ⇒ [note 63]; Promētheús] | mányate "(he) thinks";mántra- "thought, the instrument of thought";[234] mánas "mind"; máti "thought intention; opinion, notion; perception, judgement"; mantṛ́ "thinker, adviser"; medhā́ "wisdom, intelligence" (Seemazdā); mantrín "minister, councilor, counselor" >mandarin | Avmainyeite "(he) thinks"; mazdā "wisdom, intelligence"; OPersmainyāhay "I think",NPersDošman- "Someone who has a bad mind";Kurdmejî "brain, mind" | OCSmĭněti "to mean"; pamętĭ "memory"; myslĭ "thought" | OPrusmintun "to guess",minisna "memory",mints "riddle",mentitun "to lie",Lithmintis " thought",minti "to guess",minėti "to mention",manyti "to have an opinion" | OIrdo-moiniur "I believe, I mean" | mendoj "I think" | Amnu "thought"; Bmañu "demand (n.)" | memmāi "says" | |
*(s)mer- | mammer "to hesitate; to mumble, stammer from hesitation" | maurnan | memor | mérmeros | smárati | Serbo-Croatian andSlovenianmar "care" | |||||||
think | þagkjan | tongeō | Atuṅk, Btaṅkw "love" | ||||||||||
*mers- | mar | mṛ́ṣyate | Lithmiršti "to forget, lose, become oblivious" | mërzi "boredom" mërzit "bother, annoy" | |||||||||
| *sekʷ- "to see, to say" | see (<OEsēon);say (<OEsec̣gan <PGerm*sag(w)jan <*sokʷéyonom) | saíƕan "to see";OHGsagen "say" <*sokʷē- | īnseque "declare!" | énnepe "tell!" | śacate "(he) says" | OCSsočiti "to announce" | Lithsakyti "to say",sekti "to tell a story, to follow" | OIrinsce "I talk";OIrrosc "eye" <*pro-skʷo-;OWhepp "(he) said" | sheh "(he) sees" | Aṣotre, Bṣotri "sign" | sakuwāi- "to see" | ||
MEtorhte "bright, shining, radiant" | dérkomai | dṛś- | Oir : dearc~tha).Look, behold; regard, consider;Wedrych "look" | ndrri,ndrritje "bright, enlightened" | |||||||||
*(s)péḱ- | spy | -spex | skopéō | spáś | Lithspoksoti "to stare" | shpik "invent" shpikje "invention, creation" | |||||||
tékmar | kā́śate | Avcašman "eye" | OCSkazati "to show; say, testify" | Lithkušlas "having poor eyesight" | |||||||||
| *wekʷ- "to say" | OEwōma "noise" <*wōkʷ-mō(n) | OHGgiwahanen "mention" <PGerm*gawahnjan (denom. built on*wokʷ-no-) | vocō (vocāre) "to call",vōx (vōcis) "voice" | eĩpon (aor.) "spoke" <*e-we-ikʷ-om <*e-we-ukʷ-om,(w)épos "word" | vákti, vívakti "(he) says",vāk "voice",vácas- "word" | Avvač- "speak, say",vāxš "voice",vačah "word",NPersvāk- "voice";Kurdvaj "voice",bivaj- "to say" | OPrusenwackēmai "we call" | OIrfoccul "word",Wgwaethl "argument, verbal fight" <*wokʷ-tlo-m | gočem "I call" | Awak, Bwek "voice" | ḫuek-, ḫuk- to swear to" | ||
| *bʰeh₂- "to speak, say"[253] | ban (<PGmc*bannaną "to proclaim, order, summon") | fāma "fame";fās "divine law; will of god, destiny"; for (fārī) "I speak, talk, say"; fātus "word, saying; oracle, prophecy; fate"; fateor (fatērī, fassus sum) "I confess, admit, acknowledge"; fābula "discourse, narrative; tale, fable"; Sphablar,Ptfalar "to speak" | phōnḗ "voice";phḗmē "prophetic voice; rumor; reputation"; phēmí "I speak, say"; prophḗtēs "one who speaks for a god: proclaimer, prophet"; phásis "utterance, statement, expression" | bhā́ṣā "speech, language";bhā́ṣati "(s/he) speaks" | bajka "fable";[bb]OCSbalii (bali) "physician, (healer, enchanter)" | ||||||||
| *preḱ-, *pr̥-sḱ- < *pr̥ḱ-sḱ- "to ask" | pray "to ask, request"Scotfrain "to ask" (<OEfreġnan) | fraíhnan "to ask";OHGforscōn "to ask, to research" | precor (precārī) "to pray",poscō (poscere) "to demand, ask" | pṛccháti "(he) asks" | Avpǝrǝsaiti "(he) asks, desires" <*pr̥-sḱ-;OPers aor.?aparsam "(he) asked";Kurdpirs "question" Pastpox̌tə́l "to ask" | OCSprositi "to ask, to demand" | OPrusprasitun "to ask",Lithprašyti "to ask" | OIrimm-chom-arc "mutual questions, greetings";NIrarco,Warchaf "I ask" | harcʿanem "I ask" | pyet "ask" porosit "recommend, order" (an article or a meal) | Aprak-, Bprek- "to ask" | ||
| *kelh₁-, (s)kel-dʰ- "to call, cry, summon"[254][255] | haul (<OEhalian); scold (<ONskald) | calō "I call, announce solemnly; call out"; concilium "a council, meeting" ⇒ [note 75]; classis "the armed forces; fleet; group or class" >class; kalendae "the Calends" >calendar; clāmō "I cry out, clamor, shout, yell" ⇒ [note 76]; clārus "clear, bright; renouwned, famous; loud, distinct" ⇒ [note 77] | kaléō "I call, hail; summon, invite" | klándati, krándati "(s/he) laments weeps; cries; sounds"; uṣaḥkala-, uṣakala- "rooster, lit, dawn-call" | Kurdkalîn "to moan, to whine, to mourn",dikale "he/she mourns" | OCSklakolŭ "bell"; Russskulítʹ "to whine, whisper" | Lithkalbėti "to speak" | Ghegkaj "weep, cry" | |||||
| *bʰeyh₂- "to fear, be afraid"[256] | bive, bever "to shake, tremble" (<OEbifian) | foedus "foul, filthy, unseemly; vile" | bháyate "(s/he) is afraid"; bhī, bhīti, bhayá- "fear" | OCSbojati "to fear, be afraid" | Lithbaimė "fear",bijoti "to fear" | ||||||||
| *h₁néh₃mn̥ or *h₁nómn̥ "name" | name (<OEnama) | namō (acc. pl.namna) "name" | nōmen "name" | ónoma "name" | nā́ma(n)(instrumental sg.nā́mnā) "name" | Avnāma "name";NPersnām- "name";Kurdnav "name" Pastnum "name" | OCSimę "name" <Proto-Slavic*inmen <*n̥men | OPrusemnes, emmens "name" <*enmen- | OIrainmm n-,OWanu "name"; Gaulanuan <anman "name"[257] | anun "name" | Ghegemën,Toskemër "name" <*enmen- | Añem, Bñom "name" | lāman- "name" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *(s)teyg- "to be sharp; to sting" [258][259] [260][261] | stick (<OEsticca); stitch (<OEstiċe); thistle (<OEþistel) | stiks | īnstīgō "I stimulate, incite, rouse" >instigate; stilus (later spelledstylus[bc]) "pointed instrument, spike" ⇒ [note 78] | stizō "I tattoo; mark"; stíxis "marking; spot, mark"; stígma "mark, tattoo; spot, stain" | téjate "become sharp; energize"; téjas "sharp ede of a knife; light, brilliance, glow; splendor; fiery power"; tīkṣṇá "sharp; hot, fiery, pungent; acute, keen"; tigmá "sharp, pointed; pungent, scorching, acrid" | Pertez "sharp" | |||||||
tābēs | tîphos | tāmara | OCS tajati "melt" | Wtoddi to melt |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *h₂ster- "star" (See also:*h₂eHs-) | star (<OEsteorra) | staírnō "star" | stēlla "star" | astḗr "star"[bd] | rootstṛ (stá "star",stáras "stars"), contracted roottṛ (tārā "star") | Avacc.stā̆rǝm (ablauting)[be] "star";Kurdstêr "star" | MIrser,Wseren,Bretonsterenn "star";CelticSirona (<*Tsirona) "astral", "stellar" | astł "star";Astłik "deity of love, fertility and skylight" | pl. Aśreñ, Bściriñ "stars" | ḫasterza "star" | |||
| *dyḗws[ii] "day, daily sky → the sky god"; *déywos "heavenly → god" | Tues-day (<OETīwes-dæġ lit. "day of Tīw"[bf]) | tiws "god",ONTýr "Tīw" (the war god) | Iuppiter (Iovis),Old LatinDiū-piter (Diovis) "Jupiter";diēs "day",deus, dīvus "god"[bg] | Zdeús (Di(w)ós)[iii] "Zeus" | d(i)yāús (divás, dyōs)[iii] "heaven",dēvás "god",devī́ "goddess" | Avdaēva- "demon";Kurddêw "giant" | (OCSdĭnĭ (dĭne) "day" <*din-is),Ukr.dyvo andRuss.divo "miracle" | OPrusdeina "day",deiws "god",Lithdiena "day",dievas "god" | OIrdīe,Wdydd "day";OIrdia (dē),OWduiu- "God" | tiw (tuənǰean) "day" | din "dawn" <PAlb *deina "day" zot "god" <PIE *dyew + *átta | Šiuš "Hittite sky- or sun-god"[265][bh] | |
| *seh₂wol-, *sóh₂wl̥, *sh₂un- "sun" | sun (<OEsunne) | sauil, sunnō "sun" | sōl "sun" | Homerichēélios "sun" <*sāwélios;[bi]Helios "deity of the sun" | súvar (súra-) "sun, light, heavens",sūra-,sūrya "sun" | Avhvarǝ (hūrō) "sun, light, heavens",Hvare-khshaeta "deity of the radiant sun" | OCSslĭnŭce "sun" <*sulnika-,Russ.po-solon' "sunwise" | OPrussauli "sun",sawaiti "week",Lithsaulė "sun" | OIrsūil "eye";Whaul "sun" | ylli "star" <*sūlo- or*sūli- | Aswañceṃ; Bswañco,swañciye "sunbeam" (< Common Tocharian *su̯āntœ)[266] | DUTU-li-ya "Sun goddess" | |
| *meh₁ns- "moon, month" | moon (<OEmōna),month (<OEmōnaþ) | mēna "moon",mēnoþs "month" | mēnsis "month" | Attmḗn,Ionmeis,Dormḗs "month",mḗnē "moon" | mā́s "moon";mā́sa "month" | Avmā̊ (mā̊ŋhō) "moon";NPersmāh "moon, month";Kurdmeh "month",mang "moon" | OCSměsęcĭ "moon, month" <*mēs-n̥-ko- | OPrusminiks "moon",mins "month",Lithmėnulis "moon",mėnesis "month" | OIrmī (mīs) "month" <*mēns;;Wmis "month" | amis "month" | muai "month" | Amañ Bmeñe "month"; Amañ ñkät Bmeṃ "moon" | |
| *dʰeǵʰom- "earth" (See also*dʰǵʰmṓ) | humus "earth" ⇒ [note 79] | kʰtʰṓn (kʰtʰonós) "earth",kʰamaí "on the earth"[bj] | kṣā́s (acc.kṣā́m, gen.jmá-) "earth" | Avzā̊ (acc.ząm, gen.zǝmō) "earth";Kurdzevî "farmland";NPerszamin "ground, soil",zamindar "land owner" | OCSzemĭ, zemlja "earth";RussChernozem "black soil" | OPruszemê "earth",semmai "on the earth" (adverb);Lithžemė " earth" | OIrdū "place";Welshdyn "man" | dhe "earth" | Atkaṃ (tkanis), Bkeṃ "earth" | tēkan (tagnās) "earth" | |||
hammer | ákmōn | áśman | Asman "sky" | OCS kamy, gen. kamene "stone" | Lithakmuõ, gen. akmeñs "stone" | ||||||||
lapis | lépas | ||||||||||||
| *wódr̥ (udéns) pl.*wédōr (udnés) "water" | water (<OEwæter) | watō (watins) "water" | Umbrianutur "water", Latinunda "wave" | húdōr (húdatos) "water";Hydra (litt.) "water-animal" | udaká- (loc.udán(i), pl.udá),udra "water";samudra "ocean" (litt. "gathering of waters") | Avaoδa- "spring",vaiδi- "stream" | OCSvoda "water",Russ.vedro "bucket"; Russvódka "vodka" | OPrusundan "water",Lithvanduo gen.vandens "water" | OIru(i)sce "water" <*udeskyo-; Eng.Whisky <uisce beatha "water of life" | get "river" | ujë "water" | Awär, Bwar "water" | wātar (wetenas) "water" |
| *dóru, *drew- "wood, tree" | tree (<OEtrēo) | triu "tree, wood" | dóru, drûs "tree, wood" | dā́ru, drṓs, drú- "tree, wood" | Avdāru- "tree, wood";Kurddar "tree, wood" | OCSdrěvo "tree" | OPrusdrawê "hole in a tree, hollow tree",Lithdrevė "hole in a tree",derva "tar" | OIrdaur "oak",Wderwen "oak" | tram "firm" | dru "tree, wood" | ABor "wood" | taru "tree" | |
| *h₂weh₁n̥to- "wind",*h₂weh₁- "to blow" | wind (<OEwind);OEwāwan "to blow" | winds "wind";waian "to blow" | ventus "wind" | áenta (acc.) "wind",áēsi "(he) blows" | vā́ta- (vānt-)[274] "wind",vāti "(he) blows",Vāyu "lord of winds";nir·vāṇa- "blow-out, extinction"[275] | Avvātō "wind",vāiti "(he) blows",Vayu-Vata "a pair of deities: Vayu/Wind and Vata/Air";Kurdba,wa,va "wind",hewa "air, weather" | OCSvějǫ (vějetŭ) "to blow",větrŭ "wind" | OPruswitra "wind";Lithvėjas "wind",vėtra "heavy wind",Vėjopatis "god of winds" | Wgwynt "wind" | vetëtin"itthunders" | Awant, Byente "wind" | ḫūwanz[276] "wind" | |
| *sneygʷʰ- "to snow" | snow (<OEsnāw <*snóygʷʰos,snīwan "to snow" <*snéygʷʰonom) | snáiws "snow" | nix (nivis) "snow",ninguō (ninguere) "to snow" | nípʰa (acc.) "snow",neípʰei "it snows" | sneha- "snow" | Avsnaēža- "to snow";Shughnižǝnij "snow" <*snaiga- | OCSsněgŭ "snow" | OPrussnaigs "snow",Lithsniegas "snow",snigti "to snow" | OIrsnecht(a)e,Wnyf "snow" (<*snigʷo-);OIrsnigid "it rains" | Bśin̄catstse "snowy" (<*śin̄ce ("snow") <*snígʷi) | |||
| *h₁n̥gʷnís "fire"< *h₁engʷ- "to burn";[277] *h₁óngʷl̥ "charcoal" | ignis "fire" | agní "fire"; áṅgāra "charcoal" | OCSognĭ "fire"; ǫglĭ "coal" | Lithugnis "fire",anglis "coal"Lvuguns "fire" | eenjte "Thursday" <PAlb *agni "fire" | ||||||||
| *péh₂wr̥, ph₂unés "bonfire"[bk] | fire (<OEfȳr <*fuïr[bk]) | fōn (funins)[bk] "fire";OHGfuïr[bk] (two syllables) <*puwéri | Umbrianpir "fire" <*pūr, acc.purom-e "into the fire" <*pur- | pũr (purós) "fire" | pāru (pēru) "sun, fire" | NPersfer "oven, furnace" | Czechpýř "glowing ash",Polperzyna "embers",Slovakpyr,UpSbpyr "ashes"[278]Ukrpara "steam (n.)" | OPruspannu "fire" | hur "fire" | Apor, Bpuwar, puwār, pwār "fire" | paḫḫur "fire" | ||
| *dʰuh₂mós "smoke" <*dʰewh₂- "to smoke"[279] | dew (<OEdēaw) | fūmus "smoke" | thūmós "soul, life, breath; desire, temper" | dhūmá- "smoke; mist, fog" | Kurddu, dukêl | OCSdymŭ "smoke" | Lithdūmai "smoke" | tym "smoke" <PAlb ātuma | |||||
| *h₂eHs- "to become dry; burn, glow; hearth; ashes" | ash (<OEæsce); | azgō "ash; cinder" | āreō "I am dry; dried up, withered"; āridus "dry, parched, withered, arid" >arid; āra "altar; sanctuary, refuge"; assus "roasted, baked; dried";Oscaasa "altar" | ázō "I dry"; ásbolos "soot" | ā́sa- "ashes, dust" | A/Bās- "to dry out; to dry up" | ḫašš- "ash; dust";ḫašša- "hearth";Lycχaha-(di-) "altar" | ||||||
cinis, cineris | κόνις | kaṇa- | |||||||||||
| *gʷʰerm- "warm" | ?warm (<OEwearm);OEġierwan "to prepare, cook" <PGerm*garwjan | ?warmjan "to warm" | formus "warm" | tʰermós "warm" | gʰarmá- "heat" | Avgarǝma- "hot, heat";OPersGarma-pada-, name of the fourth month, corresponding to June/July, orig. (?) "entrance of the heat";Kurdgerm "hot, warm" | Russ.žar "heat",goret' "to burn" <*gʷʰer | OPrusgarmê "heat, glowing" | OIrgorn "fire" <*gʷʰor-nos,Wgwres heat, warmth | ǰerm "warm" | Ghegzjarm "fire, heat" ngroh " I warm"ziej "I boil, cook" <PAlb *džernja | Aśärme "heat (of summer)" | |
foveō | téphrā | dáhati | OCS žešti (žeg-) "to burn"; | Lithdė̃gis "burn scar",degti "to burn" | ndez "to light" djeg "burn" | ||||||||
| *h₁ews- "to burn";[287][288] | ember (<OEǣmyrġe) | ūrō "I burn, consume, inflame"; ustus "burnt, inflamed"; bustum < amb-bustum "a burial mound, tomb"; combūrō "I burn up, cremate, scald" >combust; ūrna "urn, water jar" (lit. a vessel of burnt clay) | heúō "I singe" | óṣati "(s/he) burns, burns down; punishes"; uṣṭá "burnt"; uṣṇá "warm, hot" | |||||||||
| *gel- "to be cold, to freeze" | cold (<OEceald) | kalds "cold (of the weather)" | gelus "ice",gelidus "icy" | śarada "autumn" | MBulggoloti "ice" | Lithgelmenis,gelumà "great cold" | |||||||
| *temH- "(to be) dark" *témHos "darkness" | OHGdemar "twilight" | tenebrae "darkness" (<*temebrai <*temasro) | támas "darkness, gloom",támisrā "dark night" | AvtaΘra "darkness",təmah- "darkness"[289] | OCStĭmĭnŭ "darkness",tĭma',Rustemnotá "darkness" | Lithtamsa "dark, darkness",tiḿsras "a darker shade of red";Latv tumšs,timšs "dark",tùmsa "darkness"[290] | OIrtemel "darkness" (<PCel*temeslos);OWtimuil "dark, darkness" | Btamãsse "dark" | |||||
| *nébʰos "cloud; mist"[181] | OEnifol "dark [misty]" | ONNiflheimr "home of mists" | nebula "fog, cloud" | népʰos "cloud";nepʰélē "mass of clouds; name of a nymph" | nábʰas "mist; sky, cloud";nábʰāsa "celestial, heavenly; appearing in the sky" | nabah- "heavens" (litt. "nimbuses, clouds")[291] | OCSnebo "heaven, sky";Polniebo "sky";Cznebesa "skies";RusНебеса "heaven" | Lithdebesis "cloud",Ltvdebesis skies, heavens | OIrnem "sky";OBretnem,MBretneff "sky" | avull "steam" <PAlb *abula | nēpiš- "sky, heaven";CLuwtappaš- "heaven";HierLuwtipas- "heaven" | ||
lutum "dirt, clay, mud";polluō | lûma | Lithliutýnas "loam pit" | OIrloth "mud" | lym "mud" | |||||||||
*sámh₂dʰos | sand | sabulō, sabulum | psámathos | ||||||||||
| *srew-,*srew-mo,*sru-to "to flow, stream" (inriver names)[bm] | stream (<OEstrēam) | ONstraumr "a stream" | rheûma "flow" | srutá- "flow",srava "a flow of, a waterfall" (<*srówos) | YAvθraotah- "stream" (<OIAsrótas-);OPerrautaʰ- "river" | OCSstruja "stream",o-strovŭ "island";[bn]Russtrumenı "brook";Polstrumień "brook, river" | Lithsrovė "current",sraumuõ "brook, stream",sraujà "current",sraũtas "flow, torrent";Latvstrāva "current",strauja "stream"[296] | OIrsruaimm,Irsruth "stream, river";MWffrwd "brook, stream";OBretfrut "stream" | OArmaṙu "brook; canal" (<srutis-) | rrymë "stream, current; flow (of water)" | |||
| *dʰenh₂- "to set in motion, to flow";[297] *déh₂nu "river goddess" | fōns <PItal*ðonts "spring, fountain; fresh water; source" | dhánvati "it runs, flows, causes to run or flow";[298] dhána- "competition, contest; prize"; dā́nu "fluid, drop, dew" | Dnieper <OOssdānu apara "the far river"[299] | Danube <PCelt*Dānowyos | |||||||||
dale | acc.dal "pit, valley" | thólos | OCS dolŭ "valley; depression" | ||||||||||
| *móri "lake?, sea?"[bo] | OEmere "lake" | marei "sea" | mare "sea" | maryā́dā "shore; bank of a water body" | OCSmorje "sea" | Lithmãrės "sea" | OIrmuir "sea";Wmôr "sea";GaulMorini "those from the sea (name of a tribe)" | OArmor <mawr "mud, marsh, swamp" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *per- "through, across, beyond" | far (<OEfeorr) | faírra "far";faír- "around; (intensifier)" | per "through" | perí, pér "around" | pári "forward" | Avpairi;OPerspariy "forward";Kurdber "in front of, before" | OCSprě- "forward" | OPruspro-, pra- "trough, across",Latvianpāri "across",Lithper "across",pra- "to start and finish doing something",pro- "through" | OIrir-,Wer "forward" | heṙu "far" | për, pej, pe "forward" | parā,Lycianpri "forth" | ||
| *upér(i) "over, above" | over (<OEofer) | ufar "over, above, beyond" | super "over" (influenced bysub "under") | hypér (<*supér) "over" | upári "over, above, beyond" | Av 'upairi,OPers "over, above, beyond" | OCSpo "upon, at" | OPrusuppin "cloud" | OIrfor,Wgor, gwar "over, on" | ver "up" | epër "over, above" | |||
| *h₂ents "forehead",*h₂entí, *h₂entá "in front of" | and (<OEand) | and "along, throughout, towards, in, on, among";OHGenti "previously" <PGerm*andiaz | ante "in front of" | antí "instead of" | anti "opposite to it" | Kurdenî "front, forehead" | Lithañt "on"antai "there" | OIrétan "forehead" <*antono- | ənd "instead of" | ende "yet, still" edhe "and" (<ênde) | Aānt, Bānte "surface, forehead" | ḫānz, ḫanti "in front" | ||
| *h₁én "in" | in (<OEin) | in "in, into, towards" | in "in" | en "in" | án-īka- "face" < ?*h₁eni-Hkʷ | Avainika "face" < ?*h₁eni-Hkʷ | OCSon-,vŭn-,vŭ "in" | OPrusen "in",Lithį "in" | OIrin- "in";Wyn "in" | i "in" | në "in" | ABy-,yn-, Bin- "in" | an-dan "inside" | |
| *h₂epó "away" | of, off (<OEof) | af "from, of, by" (ab-u "from ...?") | ab "away" | apó "from" | ápa "away" | Avapa,OPersapa "away" | OCSot, "from, apart of" | Lithapačià "bottom" <*apotyā | prapë "back" <*per-apë pa "without" | āpa "behind, back" (or ? <*epi) | ||||
| *deḱs- "the right (side)" | Gothictaihswa "right side" | dexter | dexiós;Mycde-ki-si-wo | dákṣina "right, south" | Avdašina "right, south";MPerdašn "right hand, right side" | OCSdesnŭ "right (side)" | Lithdẽšinas | GaulDexsiva (Dexsiua),Wde right, south | djathtë "right" <PAlb *detsa | |||||
| *marǵ-, *merǵ- "edge; boundary, border" [302][303][304] | mark (<OEmearc); march (<OFmarkōn) | marka "border, bound, region" | margō (marginis) "border, edge" >margin | maryā "limit, mark, boundary"; mārga- "way, road, path" | Wbro region, vale | |||||||||
| *bʰudʰmḗn "bottom"[305] | butt (<OEbytt); bottom, botham (<OEbodan, botm) | fundus "bottom, ground, foundation; farm, estate" | puthmḗn "bottom (cup, jar, sea)" | budhná "bottom, ground, base, depth" | Gaulbona "base, bottom, village" (found in several placenames:Bonna >Bonn; Windo-bona "white village" >Vienna; Bononia >Boulogne(-sur-Mer))[306] | buzë "lip, edge" <PAlb *budza bythë"bottom" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
*bʰerǵʰ- | borough, borough, Brough, bur-, burg, burgh, bury, -bury | baurgs "castle, city",OHGburg "fortress, citadel"; OHGBurgunt (a female personal name)[311] | fortis "strong, powerful; firm" ⇒ | bṛhát,bṛhánt- "tall, elevated";[311] | Avbarəzah‑ "height",HarāBərəzaitī "a mythical mountain" (litt. "High Watchpost") | OCS brěgŭ "hill, slope; bank, shore" | MIrbrí,MWbre,MBrebre,Gaul-briga "elevation, hill"; GaulBrigantes (ethnonym);CeltBrigantia (name of a goddess),[311]IrBrigid (goddess) <PCelt*Brigantī "The High One" | barjr "high" | Apärk- "to elevate"; Bpärkare "long" | parkuš "tall" | |||
| *weh₁-, *weh₁ros "true" [314][315][316] | OEwǣr "true" | *wers as inallawerei "simplicity" Gerwahr Dutwaar "true" | vērus "true" (>very,[bp]verify,verity, etc.) | OCSvěra "faith, belief" | OIr.fír "true",Wgwir "true" | urtë "quiet" <PAlb *wara | |||||||
| *medʰyo- "mid, middle" | mid, middle (<OEmid, middel) | midjis "middle" | medius "middle" | més(s)os "middle" | mádʰya- "middle" | Avmaiδya- "middle" | OCSmeždu "between",Russ.meža "boundary" | OPrusmeddin "forest" (between villages),Lithmedis,Latvmežs "tree" | OIrmid- "middle" <*medʰu-;MWmei- "middle" <*medʰyo- | mēǰ "middle" | mes, mjet "in between, middle" | ||
| *meǵ- "big" | much (<OEmyc̣el "big, many") | mikils "big" | magnus "big" | mégas "big" | máha-, mahā́nt- "big" | Avmazant- "big" | OPrusmazs "smaller",Lithmažas "small" | OIrmochtae,MIrmag-, maige "big",MWmael "prince",Wmaes "field" | mec "big" | madh "big" | Amak, Bmakā "much" | mekkis "big" | |
| *dlongʰos,*dl̥h₁gʰós "long";[317] | long (<OElong, lang); | langs "long" | longus "long" | dolikhós "long, protracted"; | dīrghá- "long" | Avdarəga "long" | OCSdlĭgŭ "long"; | Lithilgas "long" | gjatë "long" | talugai- "long" | |||
| *gʷerH₂- "heavy" | kaúrus "heavy" | grāvis "heavy" | barús "heavy" | gurú- "heavy" | Avgouru- "heavy-",NPersgirān "heavy" <*grāna- (influenced by*frāna "full") | OCSgromada "big size, huge",gruz "a load, something heavy", | OPrusgarrin "tree" | MIrbair "heavy (?)",Wbryw "strong" | zor "brute force; great effort" | Akra-marts "heavy (?)", Bkrā-mär "burden" <*gʷroH₂-mVr- | |||
| *h₁le(n)gʷʰ-, *h₁ln̥gʷʰ-ro-, *h₁ln̥gʷʰ-u-[bq] "light (in weight)" | light (<OElēoht) | leihts "light" <*h₁lengʷʰ-tos;OHGlungar "fast" <*h₁ln̥gʷʰ-ros | levis "light" <*h₁legʷʰ-us | elakʷʰús "small" <*h₁ln̥gʷʰ-us,elapʰrós "light, quick" <*h₁ln̥gʷʰ-ros | lagʰú-, ragʰú- "quick, light, small" | Avragu-, fem.rǝvī "fast", superl.rǝnjišta- "fastest" | OCSlŭgŭkŭ "light" | OPruslangus "light",langsta "window",lankewingis "flexible",linktwei "to bend",Lithlengvas "light",lankstus "flexible",langas "window",lenkti "to bend" | OIrlaigiu, laugu,MWllei "smaller" | lanǰ "breast" | lehtë "light-weight" | Blankutse "light" | |
| *h₂élyos, *h₂ényos "other";*h₂énteros "second" | else (<OEelles);other (<OEōþer) | aljis, anþar "other" | alius "other" | állos "other" | anyá-, ántara- "other";aryas, Aryan, "else" | Avanya-, ainya-,OPersaniya- "other";Avairiia, Aryan, "friend", "faithful",airiio "elsehow";Ossetianändär "other"; East Iranianhal-ci "whoever" | Old Sorbianwutory "other" <PSlav*ǫtorŭ | OPrusantars "second",Lithantras "second" | OIraile,Wail "other"; Gaulallos "other, second"[318] | ayl "other" | lloj "sort, type" | Aālya-kə, Balye-kə "another" | Lydianaλa- "other" |
| *néwo- "new" | new (<OEnīwe) | niujis "new" | novus "new" | né(w)os "new" | náva- "new" | Avnava- "new" | OCSnovŭ "new" | OPrusnawas "new",Lithnaujas "new" | OIrnūë,Wnewydd "new" | nor "new" <*nowero- | Añu, Bñune "new" | newa- "new" | |
| *h₂yuHn̥- "young" | young (<OEġeong <*h₂yuHn̥ḱós) | juggs "young" | juvenis "young",iuvencus "young"/"bullock" | yúvan- (yū́nas) "young" | Avyvan-, yavan- (yūnō) "youth, young man" | OCSjunŭ "young" | Lithjaunas "young" | OIrōac "young",Wieuanc "young" <*H₂yuHn̥k̂ós | |||||
| *sen- "old" | sineigs "old (person)" | senex "old" | hénos "former, from a former period" | sánas "old" | Avhana- "old" | OCSsedyi "grey-headed" | OPrussentwei "to get old",Lithsenas "old" | OIrsen "old",Old Welshhen "old" | hin "old" | ||||
| *nogʷ- "naked" | naked (<OEnacod "naked") | naqaþs "naked" | nudus "naked" | gumnós "naked" | nagnás "naked" | NPersloxt "naked" | OCSnagŭ "naked" | OPrusnags "naked",Lithnuogas "naked" | OIrnocht "naked";Wnoeth "naked, bare" | nekumant- "naked, bare" | |||
| *bʰosós "bare, barefoot"[319] | bare (<OEbær) | OCSbosŭ "barefooted, unshod" | Lithbasas "barefooted" | ||||||||||
| *n̥mr̥tós "immortal"[320] | ámbrotos "immortal, divine" | amṛ́ta- "immortal" | |||||||||||
| *h₂eḱ- "sharp"[321] | edge (<OEeċġ) | aceō (acēre) "I am sour"; acidus "sour"; acētum "vinegar"; acus "needle, pin"; astus "craft, guile",astūtus "shrewd, astute" | akmé "point, edge";oxús "sharp, pointed; quick; clever" | aśman "stone, rock; sharp one" | Persianāčār "pickle, marinade" | OCSostĭnŭ "sharp point" | Lithaštrus "sharp, spicy",ašmuo "blade",akstinas "pointy and sharp item" | Weithin gorse | teh "blade" fromeh "sharpen" | ||||
| *bel- "strong"[322] | dēbilis[br] "feeble, weak" | βελτίων "better" | bála- "force, strength, power" | Russbolʹšój "big, large, great" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *lewk- "light, brightness" | light (<OElēoht) | liuhaþ (liuhadis) "light" | lūceō (lūcēre) "to shine",lūx "light" | leukós "bright, shining, white";Leuce "white (poplar); name of a nymph";Leucothea "bright goddess" | rócate "(he) shines",roká- "light",loka- "world, place" | Avraočant- "shining",raočah "light";OPersraučah NPers rowshan"light";Kurdroj "sun, light, day",ron "light" | OCSluča "ray, flash" <*loukyā | OPruslauk "bright",lauksna "star",laukas "field",Lithlaukas "outside, field" | OIrluchair "shine";Wllachar "bright",llug "shimmer" | loys "light" | ABlyuk/luk- "to shine" | luk(k)- "to shine" | |
| *bʰel- "to shine"[323] | balefire (<OEbǣlfȳr) | ONbál "fire" | fulgeō "I flash, glitter"; flagrō "I burn, blaze"; flamma "flame, fire" | phlégō "I scorch, kindle";Phlegyas "fiery";Phlegethon "flaming"; phlégma "flame, inflammation";phalós "white" | bhrája- "fire, shining"; bhāla- "splendor" | OCSbělŭ "white" | Lithbaltas,Latvbalts "fair, white" | balë "white spot" | |||||
| *h₂erǵ- "shining, bright" *h₂r̥ǵn̥tóm "white metal (silver)"[324] | argentum "silver (metal)";Falarcentelom "a small silver coin" | Myca-ku-ro,[325]árguros "silver";argós "white, bright";[bs]Argiope "silver face" | Sktrajatá- "silver; silver-coloured";árjuna- "white, clear, silvery"[327] | Avərəzatəm "silver" | Ruyarkiy "the bright one";yarkostj "brightness" | Celtibarkato[bezom] "silver [mine]";IrAirget[lám] "silver[-hand] (title ofNuada)";OIrargat,OWargant "silver" | arcat' "silver" | Aārkyant "silver"; Aārki-, Bārkwi "white" | ḫarkiš "white, bright" | ||||
white | ƕeits | śvetá- | OCSsvětŭ "light, world"; | Lithšviesà "light"; | |||||||||
kṛṣṇa- | NPerskersne "dirt, dirty" | sorrë "crow" <PAlb *tšārnā | |||||||||||
| *h₁rewdʰ-,*h₁rowdʰ-os,*h₁rudʰ-rós[bq] "red" | red (<OErēad <*h₁rowdʰ-os) | rauþs (raudis) "red" <*h₁rowdʰ-os | ruber "red" <*h₁rudʰ-rós;Umbrufru "red" | Myce-ru-ta-ra,e-ru-to-ro;[335]erutʰrós "red" <*h₁rudʰ-rós;Erytheia "name of a nymph" (litt. "the red one"); | rudʰirá- "red" <*H₁rudʰ-rós mixed with*H₁rudʰ-i-;rṓhita- "red";lōhá- "reddish" <*H₁roudʰ-os | Avraoiδita- "red" | OCSrudŭ "red";Czechrudá "red";[bt]Polrudy "red-haired"[337] | Lithraũdonas "red",raũdas "reddish-brown",rudas "brown" | OIrrúad,Wrhudd "red",rhwd "rust";[338]GaulRoud- (in personal names)[339] | pruth "redhead" (<PAlb*apa-ruđa) | Artär, Bratre "red" <*h₁rudʰ-rós | ||
| *gʰel-, ǵʰelh₃- "green, yellow"[340] | gold;yellow (<OEgeolu);yolk (<OEġeoloca) | gulþ "gold" | helvus "honey-yellow";gilvus "pale yellow (of horses)"[341][bu] | kʰlōrós "pale green";[bv]Chloe "blooming; epithet of Demeter" | híraņya- "gold";hári- "yellow" | Avzaranyam "gold";zári "yellow";Zarinaia <Saka*Zarinayā "the golden one [name of a queen]" | OCSzelenĭ "green";Ruszóloto "gold"; Polzłoty "gold";żółty "yellow" | Latvzèlts "gold";Lithgeltonas "yellow",geltas "yellow";žel̃vas "golden";žalias "green" | MWelgell "yellow" | ? diell "sun" <PAlb *delwa | |||
hue | hiwi | śyāvá- | Avsiiāuua "dark" (cf.Siyâvash <Siiāuuaršan "the one with black stallions")[348] | Polsiwy "grey" | Lithšývas "light grey" | ||||||||
*bʰer-, bʰerH- | ONbjǫrn | phrū́nē | babhrú | Lithbė́ras "reddish brown" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *h₁wésus "good, excellent" [352][353] [354][355] | iusiza "better"; (Germanic names, e.g.,Wisigoth- "theVisigoths") | vásu "excellent, good; beneficient; goods, property" | Avvohū "good" | OCSveselŭ "merry, joyful, happy" | GaulVesu- (in personal names:Vesuavus,Segovesus,Bellovesus) | Luwwāsu- "good";Palwašu "well"[356] | |||||||
| *h₁su- "good" [357][358] [354][359] | eu- "good, well" (when used prefixally), e.g., eúphoros "well-bearing" (> "euphoria"); eukháristos "good grace"; euángelos "bringing good news" | su- "good" (used prefixally), e.g., suprabhātam "good morning" (See alsobhā́s); supraśna- "inquiry as to welfare, lit. good question" | Avhu "good" | OCSsŭ- "good" (used prefixally), e.g.,sŭ-čęstĭnŭ "happy, lit. good part";sŭdravĭje "health",Russzdoróv'je; sŭrěsti "to meet, encounter" | Why- "good, well" | ||||||||
| *h₁sónts "being, existing, real, true" [360][361] [354][362] (See also*H₁es-) | sooth (<OEsōþ "truth"); soothe (<OEsōþian "to prove the validity of, to confirm as true"); soothsayer (originally "truth-teller") (<PGmcsanþaz + sagjaną "truth + say"); sin (implying "truly guilty") (<OEsynn); OEsōþlīċe "truly, really", later "amen" | sunjis "true, truthful, correct" | sōns "guilty, criminal" (comparesin); insōns "innocent";[bw] sonticus "dangerous, serious, critical" | sát "being, essence, reality" (also used in compounds, e.g.,sad·guru); sattvá- "essence, existence, spirit; creature"; satyá- "true, real, genuine; sincere, honest, valid"; satī́ "good, virtuous, faithful wife" (>suttee) | senë/send"thing" gjë "thing" < all fromPAlb *sana | ||||||||
sweet | suāvis | hēdús | svādú |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *h₂éyos "copper, bronze"[136] | ore (<OEār) | aiz "copper" | aes "copper, bronze, brass; money, fee" | áyas "metal, iron" | |||||||||
| *dʰwer- "door, doorway, gate" | door (<OEdor, duru) | daúr, daúrō "door" | forēs (pl.) "door" | tʰurā "door" | dvā́r,dvā́ras (pl.) "door" | Avdvarǝm (acc.) "gate, court";OPersduvarayā "at the gate"NPersdar "door" | OCSdvĭri "door" | OPrusdwarris "gate, goal",dwars "estate",Lithdurys "door",dvaras "manor";Latgdurovys "door" | OIrdorus "door" <Proto-Celtic*dworestu-,Wdôr "door" <*dʰureH₂ | duṙn "door" | derë "door" | Btwere "doors" | an-durza "within" |
| h₂(e)nh₂t- "doorpost"[366] | antae "anteroom" | ā́tā "doorpost" | |||||||||||
| *dem- "to build (up), put together" [367][368][369] | timber (<OEtimber "building material"); teem (<OEtemian "to fit"); toft (<OEtoft) | timrjan "build, construct, strengthen" | démō "to build, construct, make" | ||||||||||
| *domo-, *domu- "house", "home" | domus (domūs) "house" | dómos "house" | dámas "house" | Avdąm, dąmi "in the house";dǝmā̆na-, nmāna- "house" <*dm-ā̆na- | OCSdomŭ "house" | OPrusdimstis "porch",Lithdimstis "entryway",namas "house" | MIrdom-liacc "house of stones" | tun "house" | dhomë "room" | ?Atem-, Btam- "be born" | |||
| *gʰerdʰ-, *gʰordʰ-os- "enclosure, fence" | yard (<OEġeard "enclosure");garden (<AngNorgardin <Frank*gardo) | gards "yard, court";ONgarðr "fence, enclosed space" | hortus "garden" | kʰórtos "feeding place for animals" | gṛhá "house" | Avgərəδa "daeva cave" | OCSgradŭ "fortification; city" | Latvgãrds;Lithgar̃das "fold, pen" | OIrgort "standing crop",Wgarth "cliff; enclosure" | OArmgerdastan "the body of servants and captives; estate" (either a borrowing from Iranian or inherited) | gardh "fence, enclosure, barricade" | ||
| *kʷekʷlo- "wheel" (See also*kʷel-) | wheel (<OEhwēol, hweogol <PGerm*hweg(w)ulaz <*kʷekʷlós) | ONhjōl, hvēl "wheel" <PGerm*hweh(w)ulaz <*kʷékʷlos | kúklos "circle", (pl.) "wheels" | cakrá- "wheel" | Avčaxra- "wheel" | OCSkolo "wheel" | OPruskellin "wheel",Lithkaklas "neck" | Akukäl, Bkokale "wagon" | kugullas "donut"[370] | ||||
| *Hreth₂- "wheel", "wagon" | OHGRad "wheel" | rota "wheel", "wagon" | rátha "chariot, car" | Avraθa "wagon", "chariot" | Lithrãtai "wagon" (pl.),rãtas "wheel" (sg.) | OIrroth "wheel", "circle",Wrhod wheel | rreth "ring, hoop, tyre (for carriages)" (<*Hróth₂ikos) | ||||||
| *néh₂us "vessel, boat" | OEnōwend "shipmaster, sailor" | ONnaust "boathouse";OIcnōr "ship" | nāvis "ship" | naûs "ship"; | naú,nāva "ship" | Persnâv "boat, ship" (archaic) | OIrnó,nau "boat" | OArmnaw "ship, boat" | |||||
| *h₂wĺ̥h₁neh₂ "wool" | wool (<OEwull) | wulla "wool" | lāna "wool" | lênos "wool, fleece (pl.)",Dorlânos | ū́rṇā "wool, woolen thread" | Avvarənā "wool" | OCSvlĭna "wool",OESlavvŭlna "wool" | Latvvil̃na,Lithvìlna "wool",OPruswilna "skirt (made of wool)" | OIrolann,MBretgloan, glan,OWgulan "wool" | OArmgełmn "fleece, wool" | ḫulanaš "wool" | ||
| *s(y)uH- "to sew" | sew (<OEsēowan) | siujan "to sew" | suō (suere) "to sew";sūtūra "thread, suture"[372] | humḗn "sinew" | sī́vyati "(he) sews",syūtá- "sewn";sū́tra- "thread, string"[373] | OCSšijǫ (šiti) "to sew" | OPrusšutun "to sew",Lithsiūti "to sew",Latgšyut "to sew" | sum(m)anza(n), šuel (?), šuil (?) "thread" | |||||
| *teks- "to fashion, construct" | OEþeox "spear" | OHGdehsa, dehsala "hatchet" | texō (texere) "to weave" | téktōn "carpenter",tíktō "I give birth" | takṣati, tā́ṣṭi "(he) fashions" | Avtašaiti "(he) cuts out, manufactures";OPersus-tašanā "stairway" < "*construction";MPerstāšīδan "to do carpentry" | OCStešǫ (tesati) "to hew", | OPrustesatun "to hew",Lithtašyti "to hew" | OIrtāl "axe" <*tōkslo- | teshë "cloth, robe" | takkeszi "puts together" | ||
| *webʰ- "to weave" | weave (<OEwefan),web (<P.Gmc.*wabjan) | OHGweban "to weave";ONvefa | hupʰaínō "I weave" | ubhnā́ti "ties together";ūṛna-vābhi- "spider" (litt. "wool-weaver") | Avubdaēna- "made of cloth";NPersbāfad "(he) weaves" | viti "weave" | Lithvyti "to twist" | Wgweu "knit, weave" | venj "I weave" <*webʰnyō | Awpantär (them. pres.),[374][375] Bwāp- "to weave" | wēpta- "wove"[376] | ||
| *werǵ- "to work" | work (<OEweorc, wyrc̣an) | waúrkjan "to work" | urgeō (urgēre) "to push, drive" | (w)érgon "work",érdō, hrézdō "I work" <*wérĝ-yoH₂, *wréĝ-yoH₂ | varcas "activity" (? not in Pokorny) | Avvarəza- "work, activity",vərəzyeiti "(he) works";NPersvarz, barz "field work, husbandry" | vrǔšiti "to act, to do" | OPruswargs "bad, evil, malicious, vicious",wargtwei "to torment oneself, to suffer",Lithvargas "misery",vargti "to suffer" | MWgwreith "deed" <*wreĝ-tu- | gorc "work " | rregj "to clean" | Awärk-, Bwārk- "to shear" | |
| *wes- "to clothe, wear clothes" | wear (<OEwerian) | wasjan "to clothe" | vestis "clothing" | héstai "gets dressed" | váste "(s/he) gets dressed";vástra- "clothing" | Avvaste, vaŋhaiti "(he) gets dressed" | OPruswesti "corset" | Wgwisg "clothing" | z-genum "I put on (clothes)" <*wes-nu- | vesh "dress" veshje "clothing" | Bwastsi, wästsi "clothing" | wassezzi "(he) clothes" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *h₁es- "to be",*h₁es-ti "is",*h₁és-mi "am" Cf.Indo-European copula (See also*h₁sónts) | is (<OEis),am | ist "is" | sum (esse) "I am (to be)";est "it is" | estí "is,";Dorian Greekentí "(they) are" <-*h₁s-enti | ásti "is";ásmi "am" | Avasti "is";Persianast "is" | OCSjestŭ "is" | OPrusast "is",ēst "almost",Lithesti "is" | OIris "is";OWhint "(they) are" <-*h₁s-enti;Wsydd "(which) is" | em "I am" | është "is" | Bste "is" | ēszi "is" |
| *bʰuh₂- "to become" Cf.Indo-European copula | be (<OEbēon);OEbūan "to dwell" | bauan "to dwell" | fuī "I was" | pʰúomai "I become",épʰū "became" | bʰávati "become, is",ábʰūt "became, was" | Avbavaiti,OPersbavatiy "(he) becomes" | OCSbyti "to become, be" | OPrusbutwei "to be",Lithbūti "to be" | Gaulbiiete "be! (imperative)";[377][bx] OIrbuith "being",Wbod "to be" | busanim "sprout up" | buj, bûj "I dwell, stay overnight" <*bunjō | ||
| *sed-, *si-sd- "to sit" | sit (<OEsittan <*sed-yo-nom) | sitan "to sit" | sedeō (sedēre) "to sit",sīdō "I sit down" <*si-sd-oH₂ | hézdomai "I sit" <*sed-yo-,hizdō "I set" <*si-sd-oH₂ | sátsi "(he) sits", aor.ásadat "sat";sī́dati "(he) sits" <*si-sd-eti;Upaniṣad lit. "sit-down-beside" <upa: 'by, beside',ni: 'down',sad: 'sit' | Avni-šaŋhasti "(he) sits down",opt.hazdyā-t "(he) should sit",hiδaiti "(he) sits" <*si-sd-eti;OPerscaus.niya-šād-ayam "I set" | OCSsěždǫ (sěděti) "to sit" | OPrussistwei "to sit down",Lithsedėti "to be sitting",sėsti "to sit" | OIrsa(i)did "sits";Brhezañ "to stop";Weistedd "to sit" | nstim "I sit" (<*ni-zdyō),hecanim (<*sed-s-an-yō) "I sit on, I ride" | shëtis "to walk" | ||
| *legʰ- "to lie down" | lie (<OElic̣gan) | ligan "to lie down" | lectus "bed" | lékʰomai "I lie down" | laṅghate "(he) leans, lies down" | NPersley "lie down" | OCSležǫ (ležati) "to lie down" | OPruslaztwei "to lie down" | OIrlaigid "lies down" | lagje "city quarter" | Aläk- "to lie", Blyśalyñe "(act of) lying down" | lagari "(he) lies down" | |
| *ḱey- "to lie down; settle, bed, cozy, familiar" [378][379] [380][381][382] | home (<OEhām "village, home" <*k̂oi-mos); hewe "domestic, servant" (<OEhīwa "family member") | háims (háimáis) "village, town" <*k̂oi-mis; heiwafrauja "marriage" | cīvis "city dweller, citizen" <*k̂ei-wis ⇒ [note 88]; cūnae "cradle; nest"; Cūnīna (Roman goddess who protects infants in the cradle) cieō; "I put in motion; act, move, stir; rouse" ⇒ [note 89] | keîmai "I lie (idle, sick, dead, etc.)"; kíō "I go" (Homeric); kīnéō "I move, set in motion, remove; inflect (grammar); meddle; stir on" (>kinetic,cinema, etc.); koítē "bed, place of rest; lair; lodging"; koitā́zō "I put to bed, cause to rest" | śētē (olderśáyē) "(he) lies",śērē "they lie"; śayú "orphan"; śéva- "dear, precious"; śivá- "favorable, happy, fortunate; auspicious" (later applied to the god Rudra, first asŚiva-rudra, then simplyŚiva; also spelledShiva) | Avsaēte "(he) lies",sōire "they lie" | OCSsěmija "family"; sěmĭ "household member" | OPrusseimi "family",kaims "village",Lithšeima "family",kaimas "village" (via Germanic);Latv sieva "wife" | OIrcóim, cóem,OWcum "dear" | sirem "I love" <*k̂eiro- | komb "nation, people" | kitta, kittari "lies";Luwianziyari "lies" | |
| *tḱey- "to settle, live; cultivate" [383][384] [385][386][387] | sinō "I let, permit, allow; set down"; situs "permitted, allowed; laid, set down; placed" ⇒ [note 90]; dēsinō "I leave off, cease, desist" (>desinence); pōnō < po + sinō "I place, put, lay; set up" ⇒ [note 91] | ktízō "I found, build, establish; populate; produce"; eüktímenos "well-built, nice place"; ktísis "a founding, settling; creature"; ktílos "tame, docile, obidient"; ktísma "colony, foundation" | kṣéti "(s/he) abides, stays, dwells; remains"; kṣití "abode, habitation, dwelling; the earth" | ||||||||||
| *steh₂- "to stand (i.e. be standing)" | stand (<OEstandan) | standan "to stand";OHGstān, stēn "to stand" | stō (stāre) "to stand",sistō (sistere) "to cause to stand" | Dorichístāmi "I stand" | sthā- / tíṣṭhati "(he) stands" | Avhištaiti "(he) stands";OPersimpf.a-ištata "(he) stood" | OCSstajǫ (stati) "to stand up" | OPrusstalitwei "to stand",Lithstoti "to stand, to stop" | OIrtair-(ṡ)issiur "I stand";Wsefyll "to stand" | stanam "I build; gain" | mbështet, pshtet "I support" | Bstäm- "to stand",ste "is", "stare" "(they) are" | istanta- "to stay, delay" |
| *h₁ey- "to go" | yede (<OEēode "went") | iddja "went" | eō (īre) "to go" | eĩmi "I (will) go" | éti "(he) goes",yánti "(they) go" | Avaēiti "(he) goes",yeinti "(they) go";OPersaitiy "goes" | OCSjiditi "to move away, to arrive",jidene "coming" | OPruseitwei "to go",Litheiti "to go by walking" | Wwyf "I am";OIrethaid "goes" <*it-āt- | iǰanem (aoristēǰ) "I climb down" <*i-gh- | iki "to leave; flee"*H₁(e)i-K- | Ayā "he went", Byatsi "to go" <*yā- | īt "go!" |
| *gʷem- "to come"[388] | come (<OEcuman) | qiman "to come";OSaxcuman [an liudi] "to come (to people) [to be born]" | veniō (venīre) "to come"[by] | baínō "I go" | gámati "(he) goes",aor.ágan, gan "(he) went" | Avǰamaiti "goes";OAvinj.uz-ǰǝ̄n "(he) goes", pl.gǝmǝn "they go" | OPrusgimtwei "to be born",Lithgimti "to be born",Latvdzimt "to bear (a son)" | ekn (<*h₁e-gʷem-t) "(he) came" | Akäm-, kum-, Bkäm-, kam-, śem "to come" | Luwzammantis "newborn child" (?) | |||
| *Hyewdʰ- "to move swiftly, to move upright, to rise (as if to fight)"[389][390] | iubeō "I authorize, legitimate; bid, command, order"; iussus "order, command, decree, ordinance" | euthús "straight, direct"; eîthar "at once, immediately, forthwith"; husmī́nē "battle, conflict, combat" | yúdhyate "to fight, battle; wage war"; yodháyati "to engage in battle; to overcome in war, to be a match for; to lead to war, to cause to fight"; yuddhá- "battle, fight, war"; yoddhṛ "fighter, warrior, soldier"; yudhmá- "hero, warrior" | OCSoiminŭ "warrior"; Poljudzić "to incite, instigate" | Lithjudėti "to move" | ||||||||
| *peth₂- "to spread out; fly (spread wings)" [116][117][391][392] (See also*péth₂r̥) | fathom (<OEfæþm) | petō "I ask, beg, request; aim; attack, thrust at"; pateō "I am open; accessible, attainable; increase, extend" (>patent); pandō "I spread, open out, extend; unfold, expand" (>expand); passus <*pat-s-tus "spread out; step, pace" (>pass); impetus "attack, assault; rapid motion"; petulāns "impudent, wanton; petulant" >petulant; patera "broad flat dish, saucer"; propitius "favorable, well-disposed" (>propitious) | pétomai "I fly; rush, dart; make haste"; pī́ptō "I fall, throw self down"; petánnūmi "I spread out, open"; ptôma "fall; misfortune, calamity; ruin" (> symptom); ptôsis "falling; (grammar) case, inflection"; ptōtikós "capable of inflexion"; pétalon "leaf (plant, flower or tree)" > petal | pátati "(s/he) flies; descends, falls"; pātáyati "(s/he) causes to fly, throws; causes to fall; pours, spills" | |||||||||
| *ped- "to walk, step; stumble, fall" [393][394][99][395] (See also*pōds) | fetter (<OEfeter); OEfæt "step; stride; pace, gait | impediō "I hinder, impede, obstruct" (> impede); expediō "I unfetter; remove impediments; prepare" (>expedite); pecco <*ped-co "I sin, transgress; offend" ⇒ [note 92]; pedica "fetter, shackle; snare"; pessum <*ped·tum "to the lowest part; to the bottom; in ruin"; pessimus "worst, lowest" (> pessimism); peior "worse" (> pejorative); oppidum "town" (step > ground > town) | pédon "ground, earth"; pedíon "open country, plain, field; female genitals"; pēdón "oar blade, oar"; pēdálion "steering paddle"; pezós <*peďďós "on foot, walking; on land, infantry"; pódion "base" ⇒ [note 93] | pádyate "(s/he) moves, goes; falls"; pādáyati "(s/he) causes to fall, drops"; pada- "step, stride, pace; footstep, vestige; plot of ground; a fourth" | padati, pasti "to fall"; pěšĭ "on foot, pedestrian"; padežĭ "fall; downfall, disaster"; pod "ground, floor" | Lithpėda "foot" | |||||||
| *sekʷ- "to follow" | OEsec̣g "follower, companion, man" | ONseggr "hero" | sequor (sequī) "to follow" ⇒ [note 94] | hépomai "I follow" | sácate "(he) follows" | Avhačaitē, hačaiti "(he) follows" | šagati "to walk, stride, step"; Russšag "step" | OPrussektwei "to shallow [To breathe lightly]",Lithsekti "to follow" | OIrsechithir "follows" | shoh " I see" | |||
| *steygʰ- "to go, climb, march" [396][397] [260][398] | stair (<OEstǣġer); sty (<OEstīgan); stile (<OEstiġel, stigol) | steigan "climb"Gersteigen "to ascend, climb, rise" | vestīgō "I follow a track, search" (> investigate); vestīgium "footprint, track; trace, mark; sole of foot" (> "vestige") | stíkhos "a row (of soldiers); a line of poetry" >Russstix "verse, a line of poetry; poem (plu)"; stoîkhos "row, course, file"; stoikheîon "one of a row, one of a series; element" >stoichio- (>stoichiometry, etc.); stókhos "pillar of brick; target" | stighnóti "(s/he) steps, steps up, mounts" | OCSstignǫti "to attain; reach"; stĭza "path" | ? Shteg "path" | ||||||
| *wert- "to turn, rotate" [399][400] [401][402] | -ward (<OE-weard "facing, turned toward"); worth (obsolete meaning "to become", compare Germanwerden) (<OEweorþ); weird (<OEwyrd, wurd "fate, destiny"); OEweorþung "an evaluation, appreciation" | wairþan "become, happen"Gerwerden "to become, to get; to turn; to be, happen"; Wurst "sausage, wurst" (<PGmc "something twisted") | vertō "I turn, revolve; turn around, reverse, retreat" ⇒ [note 95]; vertex, vortex "whirlpool"; vertīgō "giddiness"; prōsus, prorsus <proversus "forwards, towards" >prose;[bz] re- <PIE*wret-, metathesis of*wert- "re-" (>re- (again, repetition, etc.)) | vartate "(it) turns, rotates; moves, advances; occurs"; vartana- "a turning; conduct, behavior, intercourse"; vartayáti "(it) turns" (transitive, causative); vártman "track; way, course, path" | OCSvrĭtěti "to turn"; vrotiti "to return"; vrěteno "spindle"; vrota "gate, door"; vratŭ "turn, rotor, wheel"; vrěmę <*vertmen "hour; time" (Compare Sktvártman) | Lithversti "to turn",vartai "gate" | rris "to grow, to increase" | ||||||
| *bʰegʷ- "to run, flee"[403] | phobéō "I put to flight, terrify, alarm; threaten";phóbos "fear, terror; fright, panic; flight, retreat" | bhājáyati "(s/he) causes to flee" | Kurdbazdan "to run, to escape" | OCSběgati, běžati "to flee, run, escape"; | Lithbėgti "to run" | ||||||||
| *bʰewg- "to flee"[404] | fugiō "I flee";fuga "flight, escape" | pheúgō "I flee";phugḗ "flight, escape" | Lithbaugus "scary",baugštus "scared easily" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *bʰer- "to carry" | bear (<OEberan); burden, burthen (<OEbyrþen) | baíran "to carry" | ferō (ferre) "to carry";lucifer "light-bearing, light-bringing" | pʰerō "I carry";khristóphoros "Christ-bearing" | bʰarati "(he) carries" | Avbaraiti "(he) carries";OPersbarantiy "they carry";NPersbordan "to carry";Kurdbirin "to carry, to take" | OCSberǫ (bĭrati) "to carry" | Lithberti "to pour non liquid" | OIrbiru "I carry";Wberu "to flow" | berem "I carry" | bie "I carry";barrë "load, burden" | ||
| *weǵʰ- "to convey" | weigh (<OEwegan "carry");way (<OEweġ);wain "wagon" (<OEwæġn)[ca] | ga-wigan "to move, shake" | vehō (vehere) "to convey" | Pamphylianwekʰétō "he should bring";Cypriotéwekse "brought there" | váhati "(he) drives";vahana- (<vah) "divine mount or vehicle of Hindu deities" (lit. "a carrying") | Avvazaiti "(he) leads, carries" | OCSvezǫ (vesti) "to drive" | OPrusweztun "to ride",Lithvežti "to drive" | OIrfēn,Wgwain (type of wagon) <*weǵʰ-no-;Warwain "to lead" | vjedh "I steal" | Hier Luwwa-zi/a- "drive" | ||
| *yew-, *yewg- "to join, yoke, tie together" [405][406] (See alsoyugóm) | juk "yoke" ONeykr draft animal; ONeyki vehicle, cart | iungō "I yoke, join" ⇒ [note 96]; iūxtā "nearly; near, close to"; coniunx, coniux "spouse, partner (husband or wife)" | zeúgnūmi "I yoke, saddle; join, link together"; zeûgma "band, bond, that which is used for joining; bridge of boats"; zeûgos "pair, two things, persons or animals seen as a pair" | yunákti "(s/he) yokes, harnesses, joins"; yóga- "yoking, act of joining; yoke, team, vehicle; employment, use, performance; remedy, cure; means, device, way, manner, method; trick, fraud; undertaking; connection, relation; fitness, suitability; application, concentration, union, yoga";[407] yóktra- "fastening or tying instrument; rope, thong, halter"; yugmá- "pair, couple; Gemini (zodiac sign); junction, confluence"; yújya- "union, alliance"; yugya- "a vehicle, chariot; draft animal"; yuj (root noun) "a yoke-fellow, companion, associate; pair, couple; theAśvins" | Lithjungiu "I join" | ||||||||
| *h₂eǵ- "to lead, drive" | ONaka "to drive" | agō (agere) "to drive, do" | ágō "I lead" | ájati "(he) drives" | Avazaiti "(he) drives";Kurdajotin "to drive" | ehati "to drive" | OIrad-aig "compels";OWagit, hegit "goes" | acem "I lead" | Aak-, Bāk- "go, lead" | ||||
| *h₂eḱs- "axis, axle" <*h₂eǵ-[136][408] | OEeax | axis "axle" | ákṣa- "axle" | Russianosь "axis, axle" | Lithašis "axle, axis" | Wechel "axle, axis" | ashkë "wood splinter <PAlb a(k)škā "axis" | ||||||
| *dʰeh₁-, dʰh₁- "to place, put" | do (<OEdōn) | deds "deed" | faciō (facere) "to do" <*dʰh₁-k-yoh₂;con-ditus "built" (orig. "put together"),ab-ditus "removed" (orig. "put away") <Proto-Italic*-θatos <*dʰh₁-tos | títʰēmi "I put" <*dʰí-dʰeh₁-mi | dádʰāti "(he) puts" <*dʰé-dʰeh₁-ti | Avdaδāiti "(he) puts";OPersimpf.adadā "(he) established" | OCSděti "to lay" | OPrusditun "to put",Lithdėti "to put" | Gaulishdede "he put (pt.)";Wdodi "to place, to put";OIr-tarti "he gives" <Proto-Celtic*to-ro-ad-dīt <*-dʰeh₁-t | dnel "to put";ed "he put (past)" | dhatë "place, location" <*dʰh₁-teh₂ | Atā-, täs-, tas-, Btes- "to lay" <*dʰeh₁-s- | dāi "puts" |
| *stel- "to put, place, locate; be set, firm" [409][410][260][411] | stall (<OEsteall); stell (non-standard) "to place, set up" (<OEstellan) | Gerstellen "to put, place, position" | locus <*stlocus "place, spot, location" ⇒ [note 97]; stultus, stolidus "foolish, stupid"; stolō "shoot, branch" > stolon (botany); stolus <AGstólos "navigation; fleet equipment" | stéllō "I send; make ready, prepare; summon"; stólos "expedition; army, fleet"; apóstolos "one sent forth; messenger, envoy" > apostle; epistolḗ <epistéllō "message, letter; commission; will" ⇒ [note 98]; stḗlē "block of stone, buttress; boundary post" > stele, stela | sthala- "place, ground, location" | OCSstĭlati "to spread" | shtjell "loosen, I wind up" | ||||||
| *deH₃-, dʰH̥₃- "to give" | dō (dare) "to give"; dator "giver, donor"; dōnum "gift" | dídōmi "I give" | dádāti "(he) gives"; dātṛ "giver, donor"; dānam "gift, giving" | Avdadāiti "(he) gives";OPersimpv.dadātuv "let him give";NPers dãdan "to give" | OCSdamĭ "I will give" | OPrusdatun "to give",Lithduoti "to give" | OIrdān,Wdawn "gift" | tam "I give" | dhashë "I gave" <*dH̥₃-sm̥ | dāi "takes" | |||
| *kap- "to grab"[412][413] | have (<OEhabban),heave (<OEhebban); haven "hæfen" | haban "to have",hafjan "to lift" | capiō (capere) "to take" | káptō "I snatch, swallow"; kaûkos "cup" >Latcaucus | kapaṭī "two handfuls" | NPersčaspīdan, čapsīdan, cafsīdan "to grasp, seize" | Ukrainiankhapaty "to grab" | OPruskaps "grave",Lithkapas "grave",kapt "expression to indicate grabbing. | OIrcacht "female slave",Wcaeth "slave, captive" <*kap-tos "taken" | kap "I grasp, grab",kam "I have" | |||
| *gʰabʰ- "to seize, take" | give (<OEġiefan) | giban "to give" | habeō (habēre) "to have" | gábʰastis "forearm, hand" | OPersgrab "to seize";Kurdgirtin "to take, to seize" | Russ.xvatát "to snatch, suffice" | OPrusgabtun "to catch",Lithgebėti "to be able to" | OIrgaibid "takes";Wgafael "to take hold, to grip" | |||||
| *gʷʰen- "to strike, kill" | bane (<OEbana "murderer") | banja "blow, wound, ulcer" | dē-fendō (dēfendere) "to ward off, defend",of-fendō (offendere) "to bump, offend" | tʰeínō "I kill" <*gʷʰen-yoH₂,épepʰnon "I killed" <redup. +*gʷʰn-om | hánti "(he) strikes, kills" <*gʷʰen-ti,gʰnánti "they strike, kill";vṛtra·han "Vṛtra-killer, a name of Indra" | Avǰainti "(he) strikes, kills",ni-γne (mid.) "I strike down";OPersimpf.ajanam "I struck down" | OCSženǫ (gŭnati) "drive (animals to pasture)",žĭnjǫ (žęti) "reap" | OPrusgintun "to defend",Lithginti " to defend",ganyti "to drive animals to pasture" | OIrgonim "I wound, kill";Wgwanu "to stab" | ǰnem "I strike" <*gʷʰen-oH₂,ǰnǰem "I destroy" <*gʷʰen-yoH₂ | gjanj "I hunt" <*gʷʰen-yoH₂ | Bkäsk- "to scatter to destruction" <*gʷʰn̥-sk- | kuēnzi "kills" <*gʷʰen-ti |
| *bʰeyd- "to split, cleave"[414] | bit (<OEbite);bite (<OEbitan);bait (<ONbeita) | beitan "bite" | 'findō "I split"; fissus <fid·tus "split"; fissiō "splitting, fission" | bhid-, bhinátti "(s/he) splits, breaks"; bhedati "(s/he) splits";bhinná <bhid·ná "split, cloven" | |||||||||
| *der- "to tear, crack; split, separate"[415] | tear (<OEteran); turd (<OEtord) | *taurþs "destruction, a teardown" | dérō "to skin, flay"; dérma "skin, hide" | dṛṇā́ti "(s/he) tears, rends, rips; splits open, bursts" | OCSdĭrati "to tear, flay" | Lithdirti "to skin" | djerr "I destroy <PIE*dr̥-néH-ti | ||||||
| *bʰreg- "to break"[416] | break (<OEbrecan); breech, breeches (<OEbrēċ) | brikan "break, wreck, compete" | frango "I break, shatter"; frāctus "broken"; fragilis "breakable" | ||||||||||
| *sek- "to cut off, sever"[417][418][cb] | saw (tool) (<OEsagu); sax "slate hammer" (<OEseax); seax (directly borrowed fromOEseax); zax (<OEseax); Saxon (<Proto-Germanic *sahsą "rock, knife") | secō, sectum "I cut, cut off; cleave; castrate; wound; hurt" ⇒ [note 99]; segmen,segmentum "piece; a cutting, cut; slice; segment"; signum "sign, mark, signal; seal, signet; emblem, etc"; sexus "division; sex; gender"; saxum "stone, rock" | OCSsěšti "to cut, to mow" Polsiekać "to cut" | shat/shatë "mattock, hoe" <PIE*sēk-teh₂- | |||||||||
| *(s)ker- "to cut"[419][420] (See also:*sek-) | shear (<OEscieran); share (<OEsċearu); shard,sherd (<OEsċeard); shred (<OEsċrēad); scrap (<ONskrapa); scrape (<ONskrapa); short (<OEsċort); screen <PGmc*skirmiz "fur, hide" Yidshirem "umbrella"; Italianschermo "screen"; Russšírma "screen, shield"; shirt (<OEsċyrte); skirt (<ONskyrta); scar (<PGmc*skardaz "gap, cut"); score (<OEscoru) | curtus "short; broken"; corium "skin, hide, leather"; carō, carnis "flesh, meat, pulp" ⇒ [note 100]; cēna "dinner, supper ('portion')"; cortex "bark of a tree, cork" cork; scortum "a skin, hide; harlot"; scrotum; scrautum "a quiver made of hide"; scrūta "rubbish, broken trash" >Latscrūtor "I search, examine thoroughly" ⇒ [note 101]; scrūpus "a rough sharp stone; anxiety, uneasiness"; scrūpulus "a small sharp or pointed stone; anxiety, uneasiness, doubt" ⇒ [note 102] | keírō "I shear, shave, cut hair; ravage; destroy; cut short, lessen"; kormós "trunk of a tree; log of timber"; kérma "fragment; coin; cash" | kartati,kṛṇátti,kṛntáte "(s/he) cuts"; cárman "skin; hide, pelt"; kṛtí "knife, dagger" | OCSskora "bast, skin"; kora "bark"; OCSxrabrŭ "brave" | Lithskersti "to slaughter, to cut (especially animal's neck)",kirsti "to chop",kirpti "to cut",skirti "to separate",skirtingas "different",kirvis "axe" | Wysgaru "to separate, to divorce" | shqerr "to tear, scratch" <PAlb *skera | |||||
| *skey- *skeyd- "to split, dissect, divide"[421][422] (See also:*sek-,*(s)ker-) | shed (<OEsċēadan); sheath, sheathe (<OEsċēaþ); shide "a piece of wood, firewood" (<OEsċīd); shite, shit (<OEsċītan) | sciō "I can, know, understand, have knowledge" >science; scindō, scissus "I cut, tear, rend; tear off; destroy" | skhízō "I split, cleave" >schizophrenia; skhísma "split, divided; division" >schism; skhísis "cleaving, parting, division; vulva" | chítti "split, division"; √chid-, chinatti "(s/he) splits, cuts off, divides"[423] | OCScěditi "to strain, filter"; čistiti "to clean, purify"; štedrŭ "generous"; štitŭ "shield" | Lithskiesti "to dilute",skaidyti "to divide into pieces" | shqisë "sense" | ||||||
| *h₃er- "to move, to stir; to rise, spring; quarrel, fight"[424][425] | orior "I rise, get up"; oriēns "rising" >orient; origo "act, event or process of coming into existence; source" >origin | órnūmi "I set upon, awaken, raise, excite, stir up"; oûros "fair wind"; éris "strife, quarrel; rivalry" | ṛṇoti "to attack, rise"; ṛtí "quarrel, strife; attack" | OCSratĭ "war, battle" | |||||||||
| *h₃reyH- "to move, set in motion; flow, stream (of water); pour, rain; churn"[424][425] | ride (<OErīdan); raid (<OErād); run (<OEiernan); -rith "small stream (found in surnames and placenames)"(<OErīþ) | rīvus "stream" >rival (lit. "using the same stream as another"),derive; irrīto "to irritate" | riṇā́ti "to make flow, release"; rītí "motion, course; current; custom, rite"; rétas "flow, gush, current, stream; seed, sperm" | OCSrinǫti "to push, shove" | Gaurēda "chariot"; Gaurēnos "river, waterway" >LatRhēnus >Rhine | re "clouds" <PAlb *rina | |||||||
| *selǵ- "to let go, send, release" [426][427] [428][429] | sulk (<OEāsolcen <āseolcan "to be slow; weak, slothful") | sṛjáti "(it) lets go, discharges, emits"; sarjáyati "causes to let loose, creates"; sṛṣṭá- "let go, discharged, abandoned"; sṛ́ṣṭi "letting go, emission; production, procreation; creation, creation of the world"; sárga- "pouring, rush"; sṛká- "arrow, spear" | |||||||||||
| *kʷel-, kʷelh₁- "to turn" [430][431] [432][433][434] (See also*kʷekʷlo-) | halse "neck, throat" (<OEheals) | hals "neck" | colō "I till, cultivate (land); inhabit"; cultus "tilled, cultivated" ⇒ [note 103]; colōnus "farmer; colonist, inhabitant"; -cola "inhabitant; tiller, cultivator; worshipper"; colōnia "colony, settlement; possession" ⇒ [note 104]; collum "neck, throat (one that turns)" ⇒ [note 105]; inquilīnus "sojourner, tenant, lodger"[cc] | pélō "in motion, go; become"; pólos "pivot, hinge; axis, pole star" >pole; pálin "back, backwards; again, once more" ⇒ [note 106]; télos "completion, maturity; fulfilment; result, product" >teleology, etc.; Aristotélēs "excellent perfection"; teléō "bring about, complete, fulfill; perform, accomplish"; têle "far off, far away" ⇒ [note 107]; pálai "long ago"; palaiós "old, aged; ancient" >paleolithic, etc. | cárati "it moves, walks, stirs; travels"; caraṇa-, calana- "motion; action; behavior, conduct" | OCSkologŭ "Yule (lit. turn)"; kolovrotŭ "circulation, whirlpool; wheel and axle"; Bulkolovóz "rut, wheel track"; koláč "a type of (round) bread" | sjell "to turn, to bring" <PAlb *tšela | ||||||
| *welH-, *wel- "to turn, to wind, roll" [435][436] [401][437][438] | wallow (<OEwielwan); well (up) (gush) (<OEwellan, willan); well (water source, where the water 'wells up') (<OEwielle); wall (to boil, spring) (<OEweallan); walk (<OEwealcan); wale (<OEwalu "ridge, bank") | walwjan "to roll"; GerWalz (<walzen "to dance") "the waltz"; Welle "wave" | volvō "I roll, tumble" ⇒ [note 108] volūmen "roll, scroll, book; turn; fold" >volume; vallis "valley; hollow" ⇒ [note 109]; vallum "wall, rampart"; intervallum "space between walls" >interval; volūcra "a worm, caterpillar"; valgus "knock-kneed, unstraight"; valva "folding door" >valve; vulva "womb" | eilúō "I wrap, enfold; crawl"; hélix "anything twisted" ⇒ [note 110]; hólmos "round, smooth stone; cylindrical bow, dial" | valati, valate "(it) turns, turns to; moves to; covers"; úlba- "cover, envelope; womb, vulva"; valayá- "coil"; ūrmí "wave" | OCSvlĭna "wave"; vlŭnenije "undulation, swell; turmoil, agitation"; Russvalítʹ "to knock down, kill; cut, fell"; val "roller, billow; rampart; shaft" | Lithvilnìs "wave" | OldArmgeł "snake, dragon" | |||||
| *weyp- or *weyb- "to shake, tremble, agitate; sway, swing; turn, wind" [439][440] [401][441][442] | wipe (<OEwīpian); whip (<OEwippen); weave ("to wander") (<ONveifa "wave, flag"); OEwifer "arrow, missile; sword"; swivel (<OEswifan + el); waive <waif ("ownerless, homeless") (<ONveif);[cd] gimp (<OFwimpil "head scarf"); gimlet (<AFwimble "drill")> | biwaibjan "to wind around, wrap"; faurwaipjan "to bind, muzzle" | vibrō "I shake, agitate; tremble; glimmer" >veer,vibrate, etc. | vip-, vépate "it trembles, shakes, shivers, vibrates, quivers"; viprá- "excited, stirred; inspired" | Lithviẽpti "to make a face, gape"; vaipýtis "to grimace, bend"; výburti "to swing, turn around" | ||||||||
| *leykʷ-, *li-ne-kʷ- "to leave behind" | OElēon "to lend" | leiƕan "to lend" | linquō (linquere) "to leave behind" | leípō, limpánō "I leave behind" | riṇákti "(he) leaves behind", 3rd. pl.riñcanti "they leave behind" | Av-irinaxti "(he) frees";NPersrēxtan "to pour out" | OBulgotŭ-lěkŭ "something left over",lišiti "to rob" <*leikʷ-s-,Ukrlyshyty "to leave behind"[443] | Lithlikti "to stay" | OIrlēicid "(he) leaves behind, releases" | lkʿanem "I leave behind" | Alb Lej leave | ||
| *Hrewk- "to dig, till (soil)"; *HrewH- "to dig, to root"[444][445] (See also*Hrew-,*Hrewp-) | rock (as in 'to move, sway') (<OEroccian); rag (<ONrǫggr) | runcō "I weed, clear of weeds, weed out"; ruō "I dig out"; rutrum "shovel" | luñcati "(s/he) plucks, pulls out, tears off; peels" | OCSryti "to dig"; OCSrylo "spade, snouts" | |||||||||
| *Hrewp- "to break, tear up"[444][445] (See also*Hrew-,*Hrewk-) | reave, reeve, reve, bereave (<OE(be)rēofan) | rumpō "I break, burst, tear, rend; split" >rout,ruption,abrupt, etc. | rópa- "disturbing, confusing; fissure"; lopa- "breaking, injury, destruction" | ||||||||||
| *h₁reh₁- "to row"[136][446] | rudder (<OErōþor) | rēmus "oar" | erétēs "(in the plural) oars" | áritra- "propelling, driving" | Wrhwyf "spade, shovel" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
nu | num, nunc (num + -ce) | nûn, nun, nu | nú | Avestannū "now" | OCSnyně "now"; | Lith nū, nù "now"; | nu | nu "now, and" | |||||
| *dʰǵʰyés "yesterday" | yesterday (<OEġeostra) | gistra- "tomorrow (?)" | heri "yesterday" | kʰtʰés "yesterday" | hyás "yesterday" <*ǵʰyés | Avzyō,OPersdiya(ka) "yesterday" | OIrin-dē,Wddoe "yesterday" | dje "yesterday" | |||||
| *nokʷts (nekʷts) "night" | night (<OEneaht, niht <*nokʷtis) | nahts (nahts) "night" <*nokʷts | nox (noctis) "night" | núks (núktos) "night" | nák (instr. pl.náktīs) "night" | Avnaxtu "night",Kurdnixte "rainy, cloudy (lack of sunlight)" | OCSnoštĭ "night" | OPrusnakts "night",Lithnaktis "night" | OIri-nnocht,Wheno "tonight" | natë "night" | An[a]ktim "nightly", Bnekciye "in the evening" | nekuz (gen. sg.) "of evening",nekuzzi "it becomes dark" | |
| *kʷséps "night" | kṣap "night, darkness" | Avxṣ̌ap "night" | |||||||||||
| *wek(ʷ)speros "evening" | west (<OEwest) | vesper "evening" | hésperos "of the evening; western"[ce] | OCSvečerŭ "evening";RusZoryaVechernyaya "deity of the evening star" | Latvvakars,Lithvãkaras "evening";Vakarine "goddess of the evening star" | OIrucher "evening" | OArmgišer "night; darkness" | ||||||
| *h₂éwsōs "dawn",*h₂ews-tero- "east",*h₂ewso- "gold" | eastern (<OEēasterne) | ONaustr "east" | aurōra "dawn" (<*ausōsa, byrhot),aurum "gold" (<*ausom) | Doricāṓs "dawn";Aeolicaúōs,ā́wōs "dawn" | uṣās (uṣásas), acc.uṣā́sam "dawn" | Avušā̊ (ušaŋhō), acc.ušā̊ŋhǝm "dawn" | OCS(j)utro "morning" | OPrusaustra "dawn",auss "gold";Lithaušra "dawn",auksas "gold";Latvausma,ausmina "dawn" | OIrfāir "sunrise",Wgwawr "dawn" <*wōsri- | ?os-ki "gold" | ?Awäs "gold" | ||
| *ken- "to arise, begin" [451][452] [453][454] | begin (<OEbeginnan) | duginnan "to begin" | recēns "new, fresh, young" >recent | kainós "new, recent; fresh, unused; unusual" >Cenozoic | kanyā̀, kaníyā "maiden, virgin; daughter"; kanī́na- "young, youthful" | OCSnačęti "to begin"; konŭ "beginning, end"; konĭcĭ "end"; zakonŭ "law"; štenę "young animal" | |||||||
| *ǵʰyem-, ǵʰeym- "winter" | ONgói "winter month" | hiems "winter" | kʰeĩma "winter" | híma- "winter",hemantá- "in winter" | Avzyā̊ (acc.zyąm, gen.zimō) "winter" | OCSzima "winter" | OPruszeima "winter",Lithžiema "winter" | GaulGiamonios "winter month";[cf][53][455] | jmeṙ "winter",jiwn "snow" | Ghegdimën,Toskdimër(ë) "winter" | ? Aśärme "winter"; ? Bśimpriye "winter".[cg] | gimmanza "winter",gimi "in winter" | |
| *semh₂- "summer" | summer (<OEsumor) | OHGsumar,OIcsumar "summer" | sámā "season; year" | Avham- "summer";Pershâmin "summer";Khot-Sakahamāñarva "summer season" | GaulSamon(ios) "summer month"; | OArmam "year",amaṙn "summer" | Aşme "summer"; Bṣmāye "summer" (adj.),ywārś-ṣmañe "midsummer"[458] | ||||||
| *wés-r̥, wes-n-és "spring" | ONvár "spring" | vēr "spring" | (w)éar "spring" | vasan-tá- "spring" | Avvaŋri "in spring";OPersθūra-vāhara- | OCSvesna "spring" | OPruswassara "spring",Lithvasara "summer",pavasaris "spring",vėsu "cool" | OIrerrach "spring"<*ferrach <*wesr-āko-;OWguiannuin "in spring" <*wes-n̥t-eino- | garun "spring"<*wesr- | ||||
| *wet- "year",*per-ut- "last year" | wether "castrated male sheep" (<OEweþer), | OHGwidar "male sheep",MHGvert "last year" <-*per-ut-,ONfjorð "last year" <-*per-ut- | vetus (veteris) "old" | (w)étos "year",pérusi "last year" | vatsá-, vatsará- "year",par-út "last year" | Sogdianwtšnyy (readwat(u)šanē) "old" | OCSvetŭchŭ "old" | OLithvẽtušas "old" | MIrfeis,Cornishguis "sow" <*wet-si- | heru "last year" <*peruti | vit (pl.vjet) "year" | witt- "year" | |
| *h₂et- "to go, year"[459] | aþnam (Dat. Pl.) "years" | annus <atnus "year" | átati "(it) goes, walks, wanders";hā́yana- "yearly" | ||||||||||
| *yeh₁r- "year" | year (<OEġēar) | jēr "year" | hōrnus "this year's" <*hōyōr- | hōra "time, year" <*yoH₁r- | Avyārə "year" | Russ. CHjara "spring" | OLithJórė "spring festival" | ||||||
| *h₂óyu "long time, lifetime" | OEā "always" | aiws "eternity" | aevumaeternum, aeternitas "lifetime" | āyus "life, age" (as in the word āyur·veda, "knowledge of (long) life") | Gaulaiu- "eternity, longevity"[460] |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ǵʰew- "to pour, libate, invoke"[320] | god (<OEgod < PIE.ǵʰutós "invoked, libated") | giutan "pour"?guta "Goth" | fundō "I pour" | hotrá "libation";hotṛ "priest, offerer of libations";juhóti "to worship, sacrifice, present an oblation";hóma "oblation, a Vedic ritual" | gumoj "I pour" | ||||||||
| *h₁yaǵ- "to sacrifice, worship"[320] | ieientō "to eat breakfast" | hágios "devoted to the gods, holy, pious" | yájati "(s/he) worships";yajña "worship, devotion, prayer";yájus "religious reverence, worship, sacrifice"; | ||||||||||
| *ḱréddʰh₁eti "to believe" <*ḱred- "heart" + *dʰh₁eti "place"[320] (See also*k̂erd-) | crēdō "I believe, I trust in, I confide in" (>creed,credo) | śraddhā́ "faith, trust, confidence, loyalty",śrad-dadʰāti "(he) trusts, believes" | Avzrazdā- "to believe" <*srazdā[ch] | Old Irishcretim,Wcredaf "I believe" | |||||||||
| *gʷerH- "to praise, express approval; to elevate" [461][462][463] | grātus "pleasing"; grātia "grace, thankfulness"; grātuītus "freely given, free" | járate "(s/he) praises, invokes"; gṛṇā́ti "(s/he) calls, invokes, mentions with praise, extols"; gūrtá- "agreeable, pleasing, lovely; approved, welcome"; gūrtí "approval, praise; benediction" | OCSžrĭti "to sacrifice"; žrĭtva "sacrifice, offering"; žrĭcĭ "priest" | Lithgirti "to praise",geras "good" | OIrbard,Wbardd "bard" | grah " to incite, to roar" | |||||||
| *h₁wegʷʰ- "to promise, vow; praise"[464][465] | voveō, vōtum "I vow, promise; dedicate, devote; wish for" | eúkhomai "I pray, vow, wish for; profess"; eûkhos "prayer, object of prayer; boast; vow" | óhate "(s/he) says"; ukthá "saying; sentence, verse; eulogy" | Avuxδa "word" | |||||||||
| *ḱwen-, *ḱwen-tos "holy"[320][310] | hunsl "sacrifice" | Avspəṇta "holy"[466] | OCSsvętŭ "holy" | Lithšveñtas "holy",šventė "holiday, celebration",švęsti "to celebrate" | |||||||||
| *seh₂k- "holy"[467][468] | sanciō "I render, appoint as sacred; devote, consecrate, dedicate"; sānctus "sacred, made inviolable; venerable, blessed, saintly"; sacer "sacred, holy, dedicated, consecrated; devoted" |
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *gʰedʰ- "to unite, join, suit"[469] | good (<OEgōd); gather (<OEgaderian); together (<OEtogædere) | goþs "good" | godǔ "suitable time, holiday, feast, right time, time, term, year";[ci] OCSgodina "hour; time"; godĭnŭ "suitable" | ||||||||||
| *bʰed- "to improve, make better"[470] | better (<OEbetera); batten (<ONbatna "to grow better, improve, recover"); boot[cj] (<OEbōt "help, relief, advantage, remedy") | bota "gain, benefit, advantage" batiza "better" | bhadrá- "blessed, auspicious, fortunate, prosperous, happy; good, gracious, friendly, kind; excellent, fair, lovely, pleasant, dear" | Wbodd "consent, will" | betë "good, right" | ||||||||
| *h₂el- "to grow, nourish"[471] | old (<OEeald, ald);alderman (<OEealdorman) | aljan "to cause to grow fat, fatten" alþeis "old" | *oleō (*olēre) "I grow"; alō (alere) "I foster, I nourish; I raise"; alimentum "food, nourishment; obligation to one's parents"; alumnus "nourished, fostered"; alimōnia "food, nourishment"; altus "high, tall"; indolēs "innate, inborn; talent"; adolescēns "growing up"; adultus "grown-up, matured" | ||||||||||
| *h₃erdʰ- "to increase, grow; upright, high"[472][473] | arbor (<OLatarbōs <PIta*arðōs) "tree (high plant)"; arduus "lofty, high, steep, elevated; arduous" | orthós "straight, upright, erect; straight forward" | ūrdhvá "rising, raised, erected; upright, high, above"; ṛ́ddhi "growth, increase; prosperity; elevation" | ||||||||||
| *bʰeh₂g- "to divide, distribute, allot"[474] | baksheesh (< Persbaxšidan "to give, grant, bestow") | éphagon "I ate, devoured (took my share)" >-phagy, (o)esophagus | bhakṣá- "food, drink, delight";bhájati "to distribute, divide, allot, chooe, serve" | ||||||||||
| *deh₂- *deh₂y- "to share, divide"[475][476] | time (<OEtīma); tide (<OEtīd) | daíomai "I divide, share; host (a feast)"; dêmos "district, country, land; the common people; free citizens, sovereign people; deme"; daís "feast, banquet"; daitrós "one who carves and portions out meat at table"; daímōn "god, goddess; departed soul; demon" | dītí "brightness, time"; dā́ti, dyáti "(s/he) cuts, clips, mows, separates, divides"; dātrá- "allotted share" | ditë "day" | |||||||||
| *deh₂p- "to sacrifice, lose"[475][476] | tap "hit lightly" (<OEtappen); tip "touch quietly, bump quietly" (<OEtippen) | ONtafn "sacrifice" | daps "a sacrificial or solemn feast, religious banquet; meal"; damnum <dapnum "damage, injury; (financial) loss; fine" | dáptō "I eat, devour; consume, corrode"; dapánē "cost, expenditure; extravagance" | dāpayati "(s/he) divides" | Gaduan "song, poem" (<PC*daunā) | tawn "feast" | Atāpal "food" | tappala- "person responsible for court cooking" | ||||
| *delh₁- "to split, divide"[477][478] | tell,teller (<OEtellen); tale (<OEtalu); talk (<OEtealcian) | dolō "I hew, chop into shape; fashion, devise"; doleō "I hurt, suffer; I grieve for, lament"; dolor "pain, ache, hurt; anguish, grief, sorrow" | dalati "it bursts"; dālayati "(s/he) splits, cracks"; dala- "deal, portion, piece, half"; | OCSdelěti, odolěti "to overcome, defeat"; Russdólja "share, fate" | Lithdalyti "to divide",dalinti "to divide, to share" | Wdelw "statue, image" | |||||||
| *dʰayl- "part, watershed" | deal (<OEdǣl); dole (<OEdāl) | dails "part, portion, share" | OCSděliti "to divide"; OCSdělŭ "part" | ||||||||||
| *bʰeh₂- "to shine, glow"[479] | faveō "I favor"; favor "id"; faustus "favorable, fortunate"; fautor "patron, protector, promoter" | phaínō "I shine, appear, bring to light" | bhā́s "light";bhānú "light, ray, sun" | ||||||||||
| *bʰewg- "to enjoy, benefit"[480] | fungor "I perform, execute, discharge; finish, complete, end" >fungible,defunct; fūnctiō "performance, execution (of a task)" >function | bhuj-, bhunákti "(s/he) enjoys; consumes, eats, drinks; uses, utilizes" | |||||||||||
| *bʰruHg- "to make use of, have enjoyment of"[481] | brook (<OEbrūcan) "(old meaning) to use, enjoy"; Gerbrauchen "to need, require" | brukjan "to use" | fruor "I enjoy, derive pleasure from"; frūctus "enjoyment, delight, satisfaction; produce, product, fruit; profit, yield, outcome" ⇒ [note 111]; frūmentum "corn, grain"; frūx, frūgēs "fruits of the earth, produce" >frugal | ||||||||||
| *deyḱ- "to point out";[482] | toe (<OEtā); token (<OEtācn); teach (<OEtǣċan) | gateihan "announce, proclaim, declare" PGmc*taihwǭ "toe";*tīhwaną "to show, announce" | dīcō "I say, utter; mention, talk"; digitus "finger, toe, digit" | díkē "custom, manner, fashion; law, order, right; judgement, justice"; deîgma "specimen, sample; pattern";deíknumi, "I point out, show" | diśáti "(s/he) points out, shows;teaches, informs; orders, commands, bids"; deśá- "point, region, spot, part; province, country" | ||||||||
| *h₂eyḱ- "to own, obtain, come in possession of"; *h₂eh₂óyḱe- "to possess, own"[483][484] | own (<OEāgen); owe (<OEāgan); OEāga "owner"; ought, aught (<OEǣht) | aigan "own, possess" | √īś, īṣṭe "(s/he) owns, possesses, is master of; rules"; īśá- "owning"; īśāná-,īśvara- "owner, master; ruler; epithets of the god Śiva" | ||||||||||
| *seǵʰ- "to hold, overpower"[485][486] | OEsiġe "victory" <PGmcsegaz (In personal names, e.g.,Sigmund,Siegfried, etc.) | sigis "victory"; sigislaun "prize, spoils" | sevērus "severe, serious, strict, stern, stringent, austere, harsh, grave" | ékhō "I have, possess; hold, am able" ⇒ [note 112]; ískhō "I hold back, restrain; stay; hold fast, maintain"; iskhū́s "strength, power, might"; héxis "possession, act of having; a certain state, condition" ⇒ [note 113]; skhêma "form, shape, figure; appearance, show; bearing, look, air; stateliness, dignity; fashion, manner; character, persona; state, nature; species, kind; dance; sketch, outline, plan, scheme" ⇒ [note 114]; okhurós "firm, lasting, stout"; skholḗ "leisure, free time; rest; philosophy; place where lectures are given" ⇒ [note 115]; Héktōr lit. "conqueror"; skhétlios "able to hold out, steadfast, unflinching" | sáhate "(s/he) overcomes, vanquishes, conquers, prevails; is able, capable; bears, endures"; sáhas "strength, power, force"; sā́ḍhṛ[ck] "conqueror" | GaulSego- (in personal and tribal names) "victory"[487] | |||||||
| *h₃erbʰ- "to change status, ownership"; *h₃órbʰos "servant, worker, slave; orphan"[488][489] | erf "heritage, inheritance" (<OEerfe); | arbaiþs "labour, work, toil" arbja "heir"arbjo "heiress"Gerarbeit "work",Erbeheir | orbus "orphaned, parentless" | orphanós "orphan; childless; bereft" | árbha- "orphan; child; small" | OCSrabŭ "servant, slave" (<*ārbǔ);[490] Czechorbota "hard work, slavery" >robot; Polrobić "to make, to do" | |||||||
| *Hrew- "to tear out, dig out, open, acquire"[444][445] (See also*Hrewp-,*Hrewk-) | rudis "rough, raw, uncultivated; unrefined, unskilled" ⇒ [note 116] | róman "hair, body hair" | OCSruno "fleece" | ||||||||||
| ḱel- "to cover, to conceal" | helm; hall (<OEheall); hell (<OEhell/hel); hold (<OEhealdan/haldan) | huljan "to cover, to wrap, to veil"; haldan "to hold" | cella "storeroom"; color "color" (<Proto-Italic*kelōs "oustside, aspect"); cilium "eyelid"; clam "secretly"; cālīgō "fog, mist, vapor"; cēlō "I conceal" | koleós "sheath"; kalúptō "I cover"; kalúbē "hut, cabin"; kéluphos "sheath, case"; kelébē "cup, jar"; kálpis "pitcher, cup" | śaraṇá "s/he protects, guards" | Latviansalis "frozen over"; Lithuanianšali̇̀s "land, region, periphery" |
| Singular | Plural | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Language | Nom | Acc | Gen | Dat | Nom | Acc | Gen |
| PIE | gʷṓws | gʷṓm | gʷéws | gʷéwey | gʷówes | gʷówm̥s | gʷéwoHom |
| Sanskrit | gáus | gā́m | gṓs | gávē | gā́vas | gā́s | gávām |
| Avestan | gāuš | gąm | gāuš | gave | gā̆vō | gā̊ | gavąm |
| Language | Nom | Acc | Voc | Gen | Dat | Loc | Instr Pl |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | d(i)yḗws | dyḗm | dyéw | diw-és,-ós | diwéy | dyéwi anddyéw | ? |
| Greek | Zdeús | Zdẽn | Zdeũ | Di(w)ós | Di(w)í | ||
| Sanskrit | d(i)yāús | dyā́m | ? | divás, dyōs | divḗ | dyáví, diví | dyú-bhis |
| Language | Nom | Acc | Voc | Gen | Dat | Loc | Instr Pl |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | d(i)yēus | dyēum | dyĕu | diw-és,-ós | diwéi | dyéwi anddyēu | ? |
| Greek | Zdeús | Zdẽn | Zdeũ | Di(w)ós | Di(w)í | ||
| Sanskrit | d(i)yāús | dyā́m | ? | divás, dyōs | divḗ | dyáví, diví | dyú-bhis |
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link){{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)On numerals:
On nature and the passage of time:
On animals:
On kinship and family:
On agriculture and produce:
On colors:
On verbs related to action and motion:
On bodily functions:
