Коренные народы Сибири | |
|---|---|
.svg) | |
| Total population | |
| 1.6–1.8 million[1] 5% of the total Siberian population | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Siberia | |
| Languages | |
| Russian (lingua franca) Indigenous Siberian language families: Ainu · Chukotko-Kamchatkan · Eskaleut · Mongolic · Nivkh · Tungusic · Turkic · Uralic · Yeniseian (Ket) · Yukaghir | |
| Religion | |
| Russian Orthodox Christianity · Sunni Islam · Tibetan Buddhism · Siberian shamanism (Tengrism · Mongolian · Turkic · Yupik) |
Siberia is a vast region spanning thenorthern part of theAsian continent and forming the Asiatic portion ofRussia. As a result of theRussian conquest of Siberia (16th to 19th centuries) and of the subsequentpopulation movements during the Soviet era (1917–1991), the modern-daydemographics of Siberia is dominated byethnic Russians (Siberiaks) and otherSlavs. However, there remains a slowly increasing number ofIndigenous groups, accounting for about 5% of the total Siberian population (about 1.6–1.8 million),[1] some of which are closely genetically related toIndigenous peoples of the Americas.[2]
InKamchatka, theItelmens' uprisings against Russian rule in 1706, 1731, and 1741, were crushed. During the first uprising the Itelmen were armed with only stone weapons, but in later uprisings they used gunpowder weapons. The RussianCossacks faced tougher resistance from theKoryaks, who revolted with bows and guns from 1745 to 1756, and were even forced to give up in their attempts to wipe out theChukchi in 1729, 1730–31, and 1744–47.[3] After the Russian defeat in 1729 at Chukchi hands, the Russian commander MajorDmitry Pavlutsky was responsible for the Russian war against the Chukchi and the mass slaughters and enslavement of Chukchi women and children in 1730–31, but his cruelty only made the Chukchis fight more fiercely.[4]
A war against the Chukchis and Koryaks was ordered byEmpress Elizabeth in 1742 to totally expel them from their native lands and erase their culture through war. The command was that the natives be "totallyextirpated" with Pavlutskiy leading again in this war from 1744 to 1747 in which he led to the Cossacks "with the help of Almighty God and to the good fortune of Her Imperial Highness", to slaughter the Chukchi men and enslave their women and children as booty. However this phase of the war came to an inconclusive end, when the Chukchi forced them to give up by killing Pavlutskiy and decapitating him.[5]
The Russians launched wars and conducted mass slaughters against theKoryaks in 1744 and 1753–54. After the Russians tried to force the natives to convert toChristianity, different native peoples such as theKoryaks,Chukchis,Itelmens, andYukaghirs all united to drive theRussians out of their land in the 1740s, culminating in the assault on Nizhnekamchatsk fort in 1746.[6] After its annexation by Russia in 1697, around 100,000 of 150,000 Itelmen and Koryaks died due toinfectious diseases such assmallpox, mass suicides and the mass slaughters perpetrated by the Cossacks throughout the first decades of Russian rule.[7]
The genocide by the Russian Cossacks devastated the native peoples of Kamchatka and exterminated much of their population.[8][9] In addition to committing genocide, the Cossacks also devastated the wildlife by slaughtering massive numbers of animals for fur.[10] Ninety percent of theKamchadals and half of theVogules were killed from the 18th to 19th centuries. The rapid genocide of the Indigenous population led to entire ethnic groups being entirely wiped out, with around 12 exterminated groups which were named byNikolai Yadrintsev as of 1882. Much of the slaughter was brought on by theSiberian fur trade.[11]
In the 17th century, Indigenous peoples of theAmur region were attacked and colonized by Russians who came to be known as "red-beards".[12] The Russian Cossacks were named luocha (羅剎) orrakshasa by Amur natives, after demons found inBuddhist mythology. The natives of the Amur region feared the invaders as they ruthlessly colonized the Amur tribes, who were tributaries of theQing dynasty during theSino–Russian border conflicts. Qing forces and Korean musketeers who were allied with the Qing defeated the Cossacks in 1658, which kept the Russians out of the inner reaches of the Amur region for decades.[13]
The regionalistoblastniki were, in the 19th century, among the Russians in Siberia who acknowledged that the natives were subjected to violence of almost genocidal proportions by the Russian colonization. They claimed that they would rectify the situation with their proposed regionalist policies.[14] The colonizers usedmassacres,alcoholism anddisease to bring the natives under their control. Some small nomadic groups essentially disappeared, and much of the evidence of their obliteration has itself been destroyed, with only a few artifacts documenting their presence remaining in Russian museums and collections.[15]
TheRussian colonization of Siberia and conquest of its Indigenous peoples has been compared toEuropean colonization in the United States and its natives, with similar negative impacts on the natives and the appropriation of their land.
From 1918 to 1921, there wasa violent revolutionary upheaval in Siberia during theRussian Civil War. RussianCossacks under CaptainGrigori Semionov established themselves as warlords by crushing the Indigenous peoples who resisted them.[16] TheCzechoslovak Legion initially took control ofVladivostok and controlled all of the territory along theTrans-Siberian Railway by September 1918.[17][18] The Legion later declared its neutrality and was evacuated via Vladivostok.
Today, Kamchatka is largely populated by a Russian majority, although decreasing, with a slowly increasing indigenous population. The Slavic Russians outnumber all of the native peoples in Siberia and its cities except inTuva andSakha (where theTuvans andYakuts serve as the majority ethnic groups respectively), with the Slavic Russians making up the majority inBuryatia and theAltai Republic, outnumbering theBuryat andAltai natives.[citation needed]
Siberia is a sparsely populated region. Historically it has been home to a variety of different linguistic groups. According to some estimates, by the beginning of the 17th century, Indigenous peoples numbered 160,000. In the1897 census, their number was 822,000.[19] The2021 census recorded 1,620,000 Indigenous Siberians.[1]
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| Indigenous peoples of Siberia | ||
|---|---|---|
| Ethnic group | Population (2021) | Population (2010) |
| Turkic |  948,338 | 935,744 |
| Siberian Turkic | 942,041 | 928,965 |
| Yakuts | 478,409 | 478,085 |
| Tuvans | 295,384 | 263,934 |
| Altai | 78,125 | 74,238 |
| Khakas | 61,365 | 72,959 |
| Shors | 10,507 | 12,888 |
| Dolgans | 8,157 | 7,885 |
| Telengits | unknown | 3,712 |
| Soyot | 4,368 | 3,608 |
| Kumandins | 2,408 | 2,892 |
| Teleuts | 2,217 | 2,643 |
| Tubalars | unknown | 1,965 |
| Tozhu Tuvans | unknown | 1,858 |
| Chelkans | unknown | 1,181 |
| Tofalar | 719 | 762 |
| Chulyms | 382 | 355 |
| Kipchak (Siberian Tatars)* | 6,297 | 6,779 |
| Mongolic |  460,060 | 461,389 |
| Buryats | 460,053 | 461,389 |
| Oirats | unknown | unknown |
| Daurs | 7 | unknown |
| Uralic | 97,689 | 92,592 |
| Samoyedic | 53,994 | 49,380 |
| Nenets | 49,646 | 44,640 |
| Selkup | 3,458 | 3,649 |
| Nganasan | 687 | 862 |
| Enets | 201 | 227 |
| Kamasins** | 2 | 2 |
| Ob-Ugric | 43,695 | 43,212 |
| Khanty | 31,467 | 30,943 |
| Mansi | 12,228 | 12,269 |
| Koreanic | 87,819 | 153,156 |
| Koreans | 87,819 | 153,156 |
| Tungusic | 75,844 | 78,447 |
| Evenks | 39,226 | 38,396 |
| Evens | 19,913 | 22,383 |
| Nanai | 11,623 | 12,003 |
| Ulchs | 2,472 | 2,765 |
| Udege | 1,325 | 1,496 |
| Orochs | 527 | 596 |
| Negidals | 481 | 513 |
| Oroks | 268 | 295 |
| Manchus | 9 | unknown |
| Paleosiberian | 35,790 | 37,631 |
| Chukotko-Kamchatkan | 27,851 | 29,045 |
| Chukchi | 16,200 | 15,908 |
| Koryaks | 7,485 + 482Alyutors | 7,953 |
| Itelmens | 2,596 | 3,193 |
| Kamchadals | 1,547 | 1,927 |
| Kereks | 23 | 64 |
| Nivkh (Nivkh) | 3,842 | 4,652 |
| Ainu | 300 | 109 |
| Yukaghir | 2,702 | 2,605 |
| Yukaghir | 1,802 | 1,603 |
| Chuvans | 900 | 1,002 |
| Yeniseian | 1,095 | 1,220 |
| Kets | 1,088 | 1,219 |
| Yughs | 7 | 1 |
| Eskaleut | 2,054 | 2,220 |
| Siberian Yupik (+Sireniks) | 1,657 | 1,738 |
| Aleuts | 397 | 482 |
| Sino-Tibetan | 235 | 274 |
| Taz | 235 | 274 |
| Total | 1,707,829 | 1,761,453 |
| % of Russia | 1.24% | 1.28% |
Ainu languages are spoken onSakhalin,Hokkaido, theKurils, and on theKamchatka Peninsula, as well as in theAmur region. Today, Ainu is nearly extinct, with the last native speakers remaining in Hokkaido and on Kamchatka.
TheBuryats number 461,389 in Russia according to the 2010 census, which makes them the second largest ethnic minority group in Siberia. They are mainly concentrated in their homeland, theBuryat Republic, afederal subject of Russia. They are the northernmost major group of theMongols.[23]
Buryats share many customs with their Mongolian cousins, includingnomadic herding and erectinghuts for shelter. Today, the majority of Buryats live in and aroundUlan Ude, the capital of the republic, although many live more traditionally in the countryside. Their language is calledBuryat.
InZabaykalsky Krai of Russia, in Mongolia and China, there are also theHamnigans—a Mongolic ethno-linguistic (sub)group as MongolizedEvenks.
InAltai Republic andAltai Krai of Russia there exists a community of Altai Oirats. The government does not write them in as a distinct ethnic group and misidentify them as Altaians or Kalmyks. They mostly live in the steppe part of the Altai Republic or aroundBarnaul in the Altai Krai. They number about 2,000-4,500.
Four smalllanguage families andisolates, not known to have any linguistic relationship to each other, compose the Paleo-Siberian languages:
TheEvenks live in theEvenk Autonomous Okrug ofRussia.
TheUdege,Ulchs,Evens, andNanai (also known as Hezhen) are also Indigenous peoples of Siberia, and are known to share genetic affinity toIndigenous peoples of the Americas.[24]
The Turkic peoples include the following ethnic groups:
TheKhanty (obsolete: Ostyaks) andMansi (obsolete: Voguls) live inKhanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug, a region historically known as "Yugra" inRussia. By 2013, oil and gas companies had already devastated much of the Khanty tribes' lands. In 2014 the Khanty-Mansi regionalparliament continued to weaken legislation that had previously protected Khanty and Mansi communities. Tribes' permission was required before oil and gas companies could enter their land.[25]
Samoyedic peoples include:
Yukaghir is spoken in two mutually unintelligible varieties in the lowerKolyma andIndigirka valleys. Other languages, including Chuvantsy, spoken further inland and further east, are now extinct. Yukaghir is held by some to be related to theUralic languages in theUralic–Yukaghir family.
TheYukaghirs (self-designation: одулodul, деткильdetkil) are people inEast Siberia, living in thebasin of theKolyma River. TheTundra Yukaghirs live in the Lower Kolyma region in theSakha Republic; theTaiga Yukaghirs in the Upper Kolyma region in the Sakha Republic and inSrednekansky District ofMagadan Oblast. By the time of Russiancolonization in the 17th century, the Yukaghir tribal groups (Chuvans,Khodyns,Anauls, etc.) occupied territories from theLena River to the mouth of theAnadyr River.
The number of the Yukaghirs decreased between the 17th and 19th centuries due toepidemics, internecine wars andTsarist colonial policy. Some of the Yukaghirs haveassimilated with theYakuts,Evens, andRussians. Currently Yukaghirs live in theSakha Republic and theChukotka Autonomous Okrug of the Russian Federation. In the2002 Census, their total number was 1,509 people, up from 1,112 in the1989 Census.
The earliest Indigenous peoples of Siberia were hunter-gatherers distantly related to modern Europeans, and diverged from a shared ancestral population around 38kya before populating Siberia. In Siberia, they received geneflow from an East-Eurasian population, most closely related to the 40kya oldTianyuan man (c. 22-50%), representing a deep sister lineage of contemporaryEast Asian people, giving rise to a distinct Siberian lineage known asAncient North Eurasian (ANE). By c. 32kya, populations carrying ANE-related ancestry were probably widely distributed across northeast Eurasia.[27][28][note 1]
Around 36kya an Ancient East Asian population diverged from otherEast Asians somewhere inSouthern China and migrated northwards into Siberia, where they encountered and interacted with the Ancient North Eurasians to give rise to the Paleo-Siberians and the Ancestral Native Americans. The Ancestral Native Americans would become isolated in theBeringia region, and subsequently populate the Americas.[29]
The last historical population movement can be associated with the Neo-Siberian expansion outgoing from Northeast Asia (15kya), and contributed ancestry to Indigenous groups throughout Siberia as well as to Native Americans, associated with the expansion ofPaleo-Eskimo, andEskimo-Aleut groups. Modern Indigenous peoples of Siberia derive varying degrees of ancestry from these three layers, although the Ancient North Eurasian like ancestry has been largely replaced.[28][30]
Indigenous Siberians and other Northern Asians form a distinct cluster within wider Eurasian genetic diversity, with their closest relative affinity towardsIndigenous peoples of the Americas and Eastern Asians.[31] Modern Indigenous Siberians also show some affinities with ancient Eastern European populations, such as theYamnaya andPitted Ware Cultures, although this affinity is more significant for western Siberians than eastern Siberians. Both western and eastern Siberians also have strong affinities with theUst’-Ishim man.[32] Present Siberian ancestry found across Eurasia and North America can be traced to a single gene pool from Middle Holocene Siberians that's best represented by Middle NeolithicYakutia populations. These populations can be modeled as a mixture of Dzhylinda-1 (71%), which is a mixture of Ancient North Eurasian, Ancient Northern East Asian and Native American, and Early Neolithic West Baikal ancestries (29%), which is Ancient Northern East Asian-rich. Ancient Northern East Asian ancestry was presumably introduced from northeastern China.[33]
Early Native Americans are thought to have crossed into the Americas through theBeringia land bridge between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago from modern day Siberia. Certain modern Indigenous Siberians are closely related to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, with whom they share a common origin.[34][35]
Analysis of genetic markers has also been used to link the two groups of Indigenous peoples. These studies focused on looking at markers on theY chromosome, which is always inherited by sons from their fathers.Haplogroup Q is a unique mutation shared among most Indigenous peoples of the Americas, less among Siberian populations. Studies have found that 93.8% of Siberia's Ket people and 66.4% of Siberia's Selkup people possess the mutation, while it is largely absent from other populations in Eastern Asia or Europe.[36]
The principal-component analysis suggests a close genetic relatedness between some North American Amerindians (the Chipewyan [Dënesųłı̨ne] and the Cheyenne) and certain populations of central/southern Siberia (particularly theKets,Siberian Tatars,Yakuts,Selkups, andAltaians), at the resolution of major Y-chromosome haplogroups.[37] This pattern agrees with the distribution ofmtDNA haplogroup X, which is found in North America and the Altaians of southern central Siberia, but is absent from eastern Siberia.[37]
According to a 2025 study, Native American-related Paleosiberian ancestry in continental Siberia mixed with ancestries related to Inland East Asians (China_NEastAsia_Inland_EN) and Amur River populations (China_AmurRiver_Mesolithic 14K). This created two distinct ancestries: Cis-Baikal Late Neolithic–Bronze Age and Yakutia Late Neolithic–Bronze Age ancestries. The first was associated with the expansion of Yeniseian-speaking groups whilst the second was associated with the expansion of Uralic-speaking groups. Cis-Baikal Late Neolithic-Bronze Age ancestry is closely related to present Central Siberians from the Yenisei River Basin. Meanwhile, Yakutia Late Neolithic-Bronze Age ancestry is associated with ancient and present Bering Straits populations. It is also associated with the disperal of haplogroup N, which is common for present Uralic speaking-groups. Populations from the Amur River region always have high affinity to Amur River-related East Asian ancestry while those on the Mongolian Plateau and Baikal area share more affinity with Inland East Asian-related ancestry. However, there is minor genetic input from North Eurasian Hunter-Gatherers, who lived about ~10–4kya and are characterized by distinct West and East Eurasian admixture, into ancient and present Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic-speaking populations from Central and Northern Eurasia, as well as pastoralists from the Late Bronze Age and Iron age such as Scythians, Sarmatians, and Xiongnu.[38]
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Customs and beliefs vary greatly among different tribes.
TheChukchi wore laminar armour of hardened leather reinforced by wood and bones.[40]
Kutkh (also Kutkha, Kootkha, Kutq Kutcha and other variants, Russian: Кутх), is a raven spirit traditionally revered by the Chukchi and other Siberian tribal groups. He is said to be very powerful.[41]
Toko'yoto or the "Crab" was theChukchi god of the sea.[42]
Nu'tenut is the chief god of theChukchi.[43]
The Chukchi also respectreindeer in both mortal and holy life. They have several rituals involving them.[44]
The Supreme Deity of theYukaghirs is calledPon, which means "Something".[45] He is described as very powerful.[46]
Siberia portalDr. Willerslev's team found DNA in the Kolyma skull as well. A small fraction of that individual's ancestry came from Ancient North Siberians. But most of it came from a new population. Dr. Willerslev and his colleagues call them theAncient Paleo-Siberians.
The DNA of the Ancient Paleo-Siberians is remarkably similar to that of Native Americans. Dr. Willerslev estimates that Native Americans can trace about two-thirds of their ancestry to these previously unknown people.
One reason that the Ancient Paleo-Siberians were unknown until now is that they were mostly replaced by a third population of people with a different East Asian ancestry. This group moved into Siberia only in the past 10,000 years — and they are the progenitors of most living Siberians.
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