TheIndian Army (IA) (ISO:Bhāratīya Sēnā) is theland-based branch and largest component of theIndian Armed Forces. ThePresident of India is theSupreme Commander of the Indian Army,[3] and its professional head is theChief of the Army Staff (COAS). TheIndian Army was established on 1 April 1895 alongside the long established presidency armies of theEast India Company, which too were absorbed into it in 1903. Some princely states maintained their own armies which formed theImperial Service Troops which, along with the Indian Army formed the land component of the Armed Forces of the Crown of India, responsible for the defence of the Indian Empire.[4][5] The Imperial Service Troops were merged into the Indian Army afterindependence. The units and regiments of the Indian Army have diverse histories and have participated in several battles and campaigns around the world, earning manybattle and theatre honours before and after Independence.[6]
The primary mission of the Indian Army is to ensure national security and national unity, to defend the nation from external aggression and internal threats, and to maintain peace and security withinits borders. It conducts humanitarian rescue operations during natural calamities and other disturbances, such asOperation Surya Hope, and can also be requisitioned by the government to cope with internal threats. It is a major component of national power, alongside theIndian Navy and theIndian Air Force.[7] The independent Indian army has been involved infour wars with neighbouringPakistan andone withChina. It has emerged victorious in all wars againstPakistan. Other major operations undertaken by the army includeOperation Vijay,Operation Meghdoot, andOperation Cactus. The army has conducted large peacetime exercises such asOperation Brasstacks and Exercise Shoorveer, and it has also been an active participant in numerousUnited Nations peacekeeping missions. The Indian Army was a major force in theFirst andSecond World Wars, particularly in theWestern Front and theMiddle Eastern theatre duringWorld War I, and theSouth-East Asian Theatre and theEast African andNorth African campaigns duringWorld War II.
The Indian Army is operationally and geographically divided intoseven commands, with the basic field formation being adivision. The army is anall-volunteer force and comprises more than 80% of the country's active defence personnel. It is thelargest standing army in the world,[8] with 1,248,000[1] active troops and 960,000 reserve troops.[9][10] The army has embarked on an infantry modernisation program known as Futuristic Infantry Soldier As a System (F-INSAS), and is also upgrading and acquiring new assets for its armoured, artillery, and aviation branches.[11][12][13]
Until theindependence of India, the "Indian Army" was a British-commanded force defined as "the force recruited locally and permanently based in India, together with its expatriate British officers";[14] the "British Army in India" referred to British Army units posted to India for a tour of duty. The "Army of India" meant the combined Indian Army and the British Army in India.
In 1776, a Military Department was created within the government of theEast India Company atCalcutta. Its main function was to record orders that were issued to the army by various departments of the East India Company for the territories under its control.[15]
With theCharter Act 1833, the Secretariat of the government of the East India Company was reorganised into four departments, including a Military Department. The army in the presidencies ofBengal,Bombay andMadras functioned as respective Presidency Armies until 1 April 1895, when they were unified into a single force known as theIndian Army.[16][17][18][19] For administrative convenience, it was divided into four commands, namely Punjab (including the North West Frontier), Bengal, Madras (including Burma), and Bombay (including Sind, Quetta and Aden).[20]
The Indian Army was a critical force for maintaining the primacy of theBritish Empire, both in India and throughout the world. Besides maintaining internal security,[5] the Army fought in many other theatres:Third Anglo-Afghan war; theBoxer Rebellion in China; inAbyssinia and in theFirst andSecond World Wars.
The Kitchener Reforms brought the British Army to a new century.[21] In the 20th century, the Indian Army was a crucial adjunct to the forces of the British Empire in bothworld wars. 1.3 million Indian soldiers served inWorld War I (1914–1918) with theAllies, in which 74,187 Indian troops were killed or missing in action.[22][failed verification] In 1915 there was amutiny by Indian soldiers in Singapore. The United Kingdom made promises of self-governance to theIndian National Congress in return for its support but reneged on them after the war, following which theIndian Independence movement gained strength.
The "Indianisation" of the Indian Army began with the formation of thePrince of Wales Royal Indian Military College at Dehradun, in March 1912, to provide education to the scions of aristocratic and well-to-do Indian families and to prepare selected Indian boys for admission into theRoyal Military College, Sandhurst. Cadets were given a King's commission, after passing out, and were posted to one of theeight units selected for Indianisation. Because of the slow pace of Indianisation, with just 69 officers being commissioned between 1918 and 1932, political pressure was applied, leading to the formation of theIndian Military Academy in 1932 and greater numbers of officers of Indian origin being commissioned.[23] On the eve ofWorld War II, the officer corps consisted of roughly 500 Indians holding regular commissions against approximately 3,000 British officers.[24]
InWorld War II Indian soldiers fought alongside theAllies. In 1939, British officials had no plan for expansion and training of Indian forces, which comprised about 130,000 men (in addition there were 44,000 men in British units in India in 1939), whose mission was internal security and defence against a possibleSoviet threat through Afghanistan. As the war progressed, the size and role of the Indian Army expanded dramatically, and troops were sent to battlefronts as soon as possible. The most serious problem was the lack of equipment.[25] Indian units served in Burma, wherein 1944–45, five Indian divisions were engaged along with one British and three African divisions. Even larger numbers operated in the Middle East. Some 87,000 Indian soldiers died in the war. By the end of the war, it had become the largestvolunteer army in history, rising to over 2.5 million men in August 1945.[26][27]
In theAfrican and Middle East campaigns, captured Indian troops were given a choice to join theGerman Army, to eventually "liberate" India from Britain, instead of being sent toPOW camps. These men, along with Indian students who were inGermany when the war broke out, made up what was called theFree India Legion. They were originally intended as pathfinders for German forces in Asia but were soon sent to help guard theAtlantic Wall. Few who were part of the Free India Legion ever saw any combat, and very few were ever stationed outside Europe. At its height, the Free India Legion had over 3,000 troops in its ranks.[28]
Indian POWs also joined theIndian National Army, which was allied with theEmpire of Japan. It was raised by a former colonel of the Indian Army, General Mohan Singh, but was later led bySubhas Chandra Bose andRash Bihari Bose. With thefall of Singapore in 1942, about 40,000 Indian soldiers were captured. When given the choice, over 30,000 joined the Indian National Army. Those who refused became POWs and were mostly shipped to New Guinea.[29] After initial success, this army was defeated, along with the Japanese; but it had a huge impact on the Indian independence movement.
Upon thePartition of India andIndian independence in 1947, four of the tenGurkha regiments were transferred to the British Army. The rest of the Indian Army was divided between the newly createdUnion of India and theDominion of Pakistan. ThePunjab Boundary Force, which had been formed to help police Punjab during the partition period, was disbanded.[30] Headquarters Delhi and the East Punjab Command were formed to administer the area.
The departure of virtually all senior British officers following independence, and their replacement by Indian officers, meant many of the latter held acting ranks several ranks above their substantive ones. For instance,S. M. Shrinagesh, the ground-forces commander of Indian forces during the first Indo-Pak War of 1947–49 (and the future third COAS), was first an acting major-general and then an acting lieutenant-general during the conflict while holding the substantive rank of major, and only received a substantive promotion to lieutenant-colonel in August 1949.[31]Gopal Gurunath Bewoor, the future ninth COAS, was an acting colonel at his promotion to substantive major from substantive captain in 1949, while future Lieutenant GeneralK. P. Candeth was an acting brigadier (substantive captain) at the same time.[32] In April 1948, the former Viceroy's Commissioned Officers (VCO) were re-designated Junior Commissioned Officers, while the former King's Commissioned Indian Officers (KCIO) and Indian Commissioned Officers (ICO), along with the former Indian Other Ranks (IOR), were respectively re-designated as Officers and Other Ranks.[33]
Army Day is celebrated on 15 January every year in India, in recognition ofLieutenant GeneralK. M. Cariappa's taking over as the first "Indian" Chief of the Army Staff and Commander-in-Chief, Indian Army fromGeneral SirRoy Bucher, on 15 January 1949. With effect from 26 January 1950, the date India became a republic, all active-duty Indian Army officers formerly holding the King's Commission were recommissioned and confirmed in their substantive ranks.[34]
Immediately after independence, tensions between India and Pakistan erupted into the first of three full-scale wars between the two nations over the thenprincely state ofKashmir. TheMaharaja of Kashmir wanted to have a standstill position. Since Kashmir was aMuslim majority state, Pakistan wanted to make Kashmir a Pakistani territory. As a result, Pakistan invaded Kashmir on 22 October 1947, causingMaharaja Hari Singh to look to India, specifically toLord Mountbatten of Burma, the governor-general, for help. He signed theInstrument of Accession to India on 26 October 1947. Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar from dawn on 27 October.[35] This contingent includedGeneral Thimayya who distinguished himself in the operation and in the years that followed became a Chief of the Indian Army. An intense war was waged across the state and former comrades found themselves fighting each other. Pakistan suffered significant losses. Its forces were stopped on the line formed which is now called theLine of Control (LOC).[36][37]
An uneasy peace, sponsored by the UN, returned by the end of 1948, with Indian and Pakistani soldiers facing each other across the Line of Control, which has since divided Indian-held Kashmir from that part held by Pakistan. SeveralUN Security Council resolutions were passed, withResolution 47 calling for a plebiscite to be held in Kashmir to determine accession to India or Pakistan, only after Pakistan withdrew its army from Kashmir.[38] A precondition to the resolution was for Pakistan and India to return to astate of "as was" before the conflict. Pakistan would withdraw all tribesmen and Pakistani nationals brought in to fight in Kashmir. Pakistan refused to pull back, and there could be no further dialogue on fulfilling the UN resolution.[39][38] Tensions between India and Pakistan, largely over Kashmir, have never been eliminated.
After the partition of India,Hyderabad State, a princely state under the rule of theNizam of Hyderabad, chose to remain independent. The ensuing stand-off between theGovernment of India and the Nizam ended on 12 September 1948, when India's then Deputy Prime MinisterSardar Vallabhbhai Patel ordered Indian troops to secure Hyderabad State. During five days of fighting, the Indian Army, backed by anIndian Air Force squadron ofHawker Tempest aircraft, routed the Hyderabad State forces. Five Indian Army infantry battalions and one armoured squadron were engaged in the operation. The following day, Hyderabad was proclaimed part of India. Major GeneralJoyanto Nath Chaudhuri, who led the operation, and accepted the surrender of the Nizam's forces on 18 September 1948, was appointed the military governor of Hyderabad, to restore law and order, and served until 1949.[40][41]
During the Korean War, although deciding against sending combat forces, India sent its 60th Parachute Field Ambulance unit to aid the UN troops fighting against the North Korean invasion of South Korea, as part of the1st Commonwealth Division.[42] In the aftermath of the war, an Indian infantry brigade formed the Custodian Force of India, some of whose soldiers were also part of theNeutral Nations Repatriation Commission, which assisted in the exchange of prisoners of war and was headed by Lieutenant GeneralK. S. Thimayya.[43]
Even though the British and French vacated all their colonial possessions in theIndian subcontinent,Portugal refused to relinquish control of its colonies ofGoa,Daman, and Diu. After repeated attempts by India to negotiate were spurned by Portuguese prime minister and dictator,António de Oliveira Salazar, on 12 December 1961 India launchedOperation Vijay to capture the Portuguese colonies, which was accomplished by small contingents of Indian troops. After a brief conflict that lasted twenty-six hours—during which 31 Portuguese soldiers were killed, thePortuguese Navy frigateNRP Afonso de Albuquerque was destroyed, and over 3,000 Portuguese were captured—Portuguese GeneralManuel António Vassalo e Silva surrendered to Major General Kunhiraman Palat Kandoth of the Indian Army. Goa, Daman, and Diu became a part of the Republic of India.[44][45]
The cause of this war was a dispute over the sovereignty of the widely separatedAksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh border regions. Aksai Chin, claimed by India as part of Kashmir, and by China as part of Xinjiang, contains an important road link that connects the Chinese regions of Tibet and Xinjiang. China's construction of this road was one of the triggers of the conflict.
Small-scale clashes between Indian and Chinese forces broke out as India insisted on the disputedMcMahon Line being regarded as the international border between the two countries. Chinese troops claimed not to have retaliated to the cross-border firing by Indian troops, despite sustaining losses.[46] China's suspicion of India's involvement inTibet created more rifts between the two countries.[47]
In 1962, the Indian Army was ordered to move to theThag La ridge, located near the border between Bhutan andArunachal Pradesh and about 5 kilometres (3 miles) north of the disputed McMahon Line. Meanwhile, Chinese troops had also made incursions into Indian-held territory, and tensions between the two reached a new high when Indian forces discovered the road constructed by China in Aksai Chin. After a series of failed negotiations, thePeople's Liberation Army attacked Indian Army positions on the Thag La ridge. This move by China caught India by surprise, and on 12 October Nehru gave orders for the Chinese to be expelled from Aksai Chin. However, poor coordination among various divisions of the Indian Army, and the late decision to mobilise the Indian Air Force in vast numbers, gave China a crucial tactical and strategic advantage over India. On 20 October, Chinese soldiers attacked India from both the northwest and northeast; and captured large portions of Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh.
As the fighting moved beyond disputed territories, China called on the Indian government to negotiate; however, India remained determined to regain lost territory. With no agreement in sight, China unilaterally withdrew its forces from Arunachal Pradesh. The reasons for the withdrawal are disputed, with India claiming various logistical problems for China and diplomatic support from the United States, while China stated that it still held territory it had staked a claim on. The dividing line between the Indian and Chinese forces was named theLine of Actual Control.
The poor decisions made by India's military commanders, and the political leadership, raised several questions. TheHenderson-Brooks and Bhagat committee was soon set up by the government of India to determine the causes of the poor performance of the Indian Army. Its report criticised the decision not to allow the Indian Air Force to target Chinese transport lines, out of fear of a Chinese aerial counterattack on Indian civilian areas. Much of the blame was placed on the then–defence minister,Krishna Menon, who resigned from his post soon after the war ended. Despite frequent calls for its release, the Henderson-Brooks report remains classified.[48]Neville Maxwell has written an account of the war.[49]
A second confrontation with Pakistan took place in 1965. Although the war is described as inconclusive, India had the better of the war and was the clear winner in tactical and strategic terms.[50][51][52] Pakistani presidentAyub Khan launchedOperation Gibraltar in August 1965, during which Pakistani paramilitary troops infiltrated into Indian-administered Kashmir and attempted to ignite anti-India agitation inJammu and Kashmir. Pakistani leaders believed that India, which was still recovering from theSino-Indian War, would be unable to deal with a military thrust and a Kashmiri rebellion. India reacted swiftly and launched a counter-offensive against Pakistan. In reply, on 1 September Pakistan launchedOperation Grand Slam, invading India's Chamb-Jaurian sector. In retaliation, the Indian Army launched a major offensive all along its border with Pakistan, with Lahore as its prime target.
Initially, the Indian Army met with considerable success in the northern sector. After launching prolonged artillery barrages against Pakistan, India was able to capture three important mountain positions in Kashmir. By 9 September, the Indian Army had made considerable inroads into Pakistan. India had its largest haul of Pakistani tanks when an offensive by Pakistan's 1st Armoured Division was blunted at theBattle of Asal Uttar, which took place on 10 September near Khemkaran.[53] The biggest tank battle of the war was theBattle of Chawinda, the largest tank battle in history afterWorld War II. Pakistan's defeat at theBattle of Asal Uttar hastened the end of the conflict.[53]
At the time of the ceasefire declaration, India reported casualties of about 3,000. On the other hand, it was estimated that more than 3,800 Pakistani soldiers were killed in the conflict.[54][55][56] About 200–300 Pakistani tanks were either destroyed or captured by India. India lost a total of 150-190 tanks during the conflict.[53][57] The decision to return to pre-war positions, following theTashkent Declaration, caused an outcry in New Delhi. It was widely believed that India's decision to accept the ceasefire was due to political factors, not military, since it was facing considerable pressure from theUnited States and theUnited Nations to cease hostilities.[58]
The 1967 Sino-Indian skirmish, also known as theCho La incident, was amilitary conflict between Indian troops and members of theChinesePeople's Liberation Army who, on 1 October 1967, invadedSikkim, which was then a protectorate of India. On 10 October, both sides clashed again. Defence ministerSardar Swaran Singh assured the Indian people that the government was taking care of developments along the border. Indian losses were 88 killed, and 163 wounded, while Chinese casualties were 300 killed and 450 wounded inNathula, and 40 in Chola.[59] The Chinese Army left Sikkim after this defeat.[60][61][62]
Under Prime MinisterIndira Gandhi, during thepresident's rule in 1971, the Indian Army and theIndian police launchedOperation Steeplechase, a gigantic "counter-insurgency" operation against theNaxalites, which resulted in the death of hundreds of Naxalites and the imprisonment of more than 20,000 suspects and cadres, including senior leaders.[63] The army was also assisted by abrigade ofpara commandos and theIndian paramilitary. The operation was organised in October 1969, and Lieutenant GeneralJ.F.R. Jacob was told byGovind Narain, theHome Secretary, that "there should be no publicity and no records". Jacob's request to be presented with written orders was also refused by the then Army ChiefSam Manekshaw.[64]
An independence movement broke out inEast Pakistan which wascrushed by Pakistani forces. Due to large-scaleatrocities committed against them, thousands ofBengalis took refuge in neighbouring India causing a major refugee crisis there. In early 1971, India declared its full support for the Bengali freedom fighters, known asMukti Bahini, and Indian agents were extensively involved in covert operations to aid them.[65][66]
On 20 November 1971, the Indian Army moved 14 Punjab Battalion of the45th Cavalry regiment, into Garibpur, a strategically important town in East Pakistan, near India's border, and successfullycaptured it. The following day, moreclashes took place between Indian and Pakistani forces. Wary of India's growing involvement in the Bengali rebellion, thePakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a preemptive strike on 10 Indian air bases—atSrinagar,Jammu,Pathankot,Amritsar,Agra,Adampur,Jodhpur,Jaisalmer,Uttarlai, andSirsa—at 17:45 hours on 3 December. However, this aerial offensive failed to accomplish its objectives and gave India an excuse to declare a full-scale war against Pakistan the same day. By midnight, the Indian Army, accompanied by theIndian Air Force, launched a major three-pronged assault into East Pakistan. The Indian Army won several battles on the eastern front including the decisiveBattle of Hilli. The operation also included a battalion-level airborne operation on Tangail, which resulted in the capitulation of all resistance within five days.[67] India's massive early gains were attributed largely to the speed and flexibility with which Indian armoured divisions moved across East Pakistan.[68]
Pakistan launched a counterattack against India on the western front. On 4 December 1971, A Company of the 23rd Battalion of India'sPunjab Regiment intercepted the Pakistani 51st Infantry Brigade near Ramgarh, Rajasthan. TheBattle of Longewala ensued, during which A Company, though outnumbered, thwarted the Pakistani advance until the Indian Air Force directed its fighters to engage the Pakistani tanks. By the time the battle had ended, 38 Pakistani tanks and 100 armoured vehicles were either destroyed or abandoned. About 200 Pakistani troops were killed in action, while only two Indian soldiers died. Pakistan suffered another major defeat on the western front at theBattle of Basantar, which was fought from 4 to 16 December. During the battle, about 66 Pakistani tanks were destroyed and 40 more were captured. Pakistani forces destroyed only 11 Indian tanks.[69] By 16 December, Pakistan had lost sizeable territory on both the eastern and western fronts.
On 16 December 1971, under the command ofLt. General J. S. Arora, elements of the three corps of the Indian Army that had invaded East Pakistan enteredDhaka as a part of the Indo-Bangladesh allied force and forced Pakistani forces to surrender, one day after the conclusion of theBattle of Basantar. After Pakistan's Lt GeneralA. A. K. Niazi signed theInstrument of Surrender, India, as a part of the allied forces, took more than 90,000 Pakistaniprisoners of war. By the time of the signing, 11,000 Pakistani soldiers had been killed in action, while India suffered 3,500 battle-related deaths.[55] In addition, Pakistan lost 220 tanks during the battle compared to India's 69.[70]
In 1972, theSimla Agreement was signed between the two countries, although subsequent incidences of heightened tensions have resulted in continued military vigilance on both sides.
TheSiachen Glacier, although a part of the Kashmir region, was not demarcated on maps prepared and exchanged between the two sides in 1947. In consequence, before the 1980s neither India nor Pakistan maintained a permanent military presence in the region. However, beginning in the 1950s, Pakistan began sending mountaineering expeditions to the glacier. By the early 1980s, the Government of Pakistan was granting special expedition permits to mountaineers and United States Army maps showed Siachen as a part of Pakistan.[71] This practice gave rise to the termoropolitics.
India, possibly irked by these developments, launchedOperation Meghdoot in April 1984. An entire battalion of theKumaon Regiment was airlifted to the glacier. Pakistani forces responded quickly, and clashes between the two followed. The Indian Army secured the strategicSia La andBilafond La mountain passes, and by 1985 more than 2,600 km2 (1,000 sq mi) of territory claimed by Pakistan was under Indian control.[72] The Indian Army continues to control all of the Siachen Glacier and its tributary glaciers. Pakistan has made several unsuccessful attempts to regain control over Siachen. In late 1987, Pakistan mobilised about 8,000 troops and garrisoned them nearKhapalu, aiming to captureBilafond La.[73] However, they were repulsed by Indian Army personnel guarding Bilafond. During the battle, about 23 Indian soldiers lost their lives, while more than 150 Pakistani troops perished.[74] Further unsuccessful attempts to reclaim positions were launched by Pakistan in 1990, 1995, 1996, and 1999, most notably in Kargil in the latter year.
India continues to maintain a strong military presence in the region, despite inhospitable conditions. The conflict over Siachen is regularly cited as an example ofmountain warfare.[75][76] The highest peak in the Siachen Glacier region,Saltoro Kangri, could be viewed as strategically important for India because of its height, which would enable Indian forces to monitor Pakistani or Chinese movements in the area.[77] Maintaining control over Siachen poses several logistical challenges for the Indian Army. Several infrastructure projects were constructed in the region, including a helipad at an elevation of 6,400 m (21,000 ft).[78] In 2004, the Indian Army was spending an estimated US$2 million a month to support its personnel stationed in the region.[79]
The Indian Army has played a crucial role in fightinginsurgents and terrorists within the nation. The army launchedOperation Blue Star andOperation Woodrose in the 1980s to combatSikh insurgents. The army, along withsome paramilitary forces, has the prime responsibility of maintaininglaw and order in the troubledJammu and Kashmir region, under Northern Command. The Indian Army sent a contingent to Sri Lanka in 1987 as a part of theIndian Peace Keeping Force.[80][81][82] The Indian Army also successfully conductedOperation Golden Bird in 1995, as a counter-insurgency operation in northeast India.[83]
In 1998, India carried outnuclear tests; and a few days later, Pakistan responded withnuclear tests of its own, giving both countriesnuclear deterrence capability, although India had tested a hydrogen bomb, which Pakistan lacked. Diplomatic tensions eased after theLahore Summit was held in 1999. However, the sense of optimism was short-lived. In mid-1999, Pakistani paramilitary forces and Kashmiri insurgents captured the deserted, but strategic, Himalayan heights in theKargil district of India. These had been vacated by the Indian Army during the onset of the inhospitable winter and were to be reoccupied in spring. The troops that took control of these areas received important support, of both arms and supplies, from Pakistan. Some of the heights under their control, which also included theTiger Hill, overlooked the vitalSrinagar–Leh Highway (NH 1A),Batalik, andDras.
Once the scale of the Pakistani incursion was realised, the Indian Army quickly mobilised about 200,000 troops, andOperation Vijay was launched. However, since the heights were under Pakistani control, India was at a clear strategic disadvantage. From theirobservation posts, the Pakistani forces had a clear line-of-sight to lay downindirect artillery fire on NH 1A, inflicting heavy casualties on the Indians.[84] This was a serious problem for the Indian Army as the highway was its main supply route.[85] Thus, the Indian Army's priority was to recapture peaks near NH 1A. This resulted in Indian troops firsttargeting the Tiger Hill andTololing complex in Dras.[86] This was soon followed by more attacks on the Batalik–Turtok sub-sector, which provided access to Siachen Glacier. Point 4590, which had the nearest view of the NH 1A, was successfully recaptured by Indian forces on 14 June.[87]
Though most of the posts in the vicinity of the highway were cleared of the enemy by mid-June, some posts near Dras endured sporadic shelling until the end of the war. Once the NH 1A area was cleared, the Indian Army turned to drive the invading force back across the Line of Control. TheBattle of Tololing, among others, slowly tilted the war in India's favour. Nevertheless, some Pakistani posts put up a stiff resistance, including Tiger Hill (Point 5140), which fell only later in the war. As the operation was fully underway, about 250 artillery guns were brought in to clear the infiltrators in posts that were in theline-of-sight. At many vital points, neither artillery nor air power could dislodge the Pakistan soldiers, who were out of visible range. The Indian Army mounted some direct frontal ground assaults, which were slow and took a heavy toll, given the steep ascents that had to be made on peaks as high as 5,500 m (18,000 ft). Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges they had lost.[88][89] According to official accounts, an estimated 75%–80% of the enemy-occupied area, and nearly all the high ground, was back under Indian control.
Following theWashington Accord of 4 July, where Sharif agreed to withdraw Pakistani troops, most of the fighting came to a gradual halt; but some Pakistani forces remained in positions on the Indian side of the LOC. In addition, theUnited Jihad Council (an umbrella group for all extremists) rejected Pakistan's plan for a draw-down, deciding instead to fight on.[90] The Indian Army launched its final attacks in the last week of July. As soon as the Dras sub-sector had been cleared of Pakistani forces, the fighting ceased on 26 July, which has since been celebrated asKargil Vijay Diwas (Kargil Victory Day) in India. By the end of the war, India had resumed control of all the territory south and east of the Line of Control, as was established in July 1972 per theShimla Accord. By the time all hostilities had ended, the number of Indian soldiers killed during the conflict stood at 527,[91] while more than 700 regular members of the Pakistani Army had been killed.[92] The number of Islamist fighters, also known as Mujahideen, killed by Indian armed forces during the conflict stood at about 3,000.[93][94][95]
On 18 September 2016, afedayeen attack was made by four armed militants on an army base near the town ofUri. Nineteen Indian Army soldiers were killed. India accusedJaish-e-Muhammad, a Pakistan-based terrorist organisation.[96] On 29 September 2016, the India Army announced that it conducted "surgical strikes" against militant launch pads across theLine of Control, in Pakistani-administeredKashmir, and inflicted "significant casualties".[97] Indian media reported the casualty figures variously from 35 to 70 killed.[98][99] Partial footage of the strikes was released to the Indian media on 27 June 2018 as proof of the strike.[100][101][102] The incident triggered the2016–2018 India-Pakistan border conflict, which ended on 16 June 2018 with both India and Pakistan agreeing on a ceasefire.[103][104]
Following the2019 Pulwama attack inJammu and Kashmir, which killed 40 IndianCentral Reserve Police Force personnel. Responsibility for the attack was claimed by aPakistan-based militant group,Jaish-e-Mohammed.[105] India blamed Pakistan for the attack and promised a robust response, while the latter condemned the attack and denied having any connection to it.[106][107]
Twelve days later, in the early morning of 26 February 2019,India carried out a cross-border airstrike nearBalakot,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.[108][109]
After over a month-long skirmish, both Indian Prime MinisterNarendra Modi and Pakistani Prime MinisterImran Khan agreed on a peace offer on 22 March 2019 ending hostilities and vowed to fight against terrorism together.[110][111]
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India has been the largest troop contributor toUN peacekeeping missions since its inception. So far, India has taken part in 43 Peacekeeping missions, with a total contribution exceeding 160,000 troops and a significant number of police personnel having been deployed. In 2014, India was the third largest troop contributor (TCC), with 7,860 personnel deployed, of which 995 were police personnel, including the first UNFemale Formed Police Unit, serving with ten UN peacekeeping missions.[112][113] As of 30 June 2014[update], 157 Indians have been killed during such missions.[114] The Indian army has also provided paramedical units to facilitate the withdrawal of the sick and wounded.
Operation Brasstacks was launched by the Indian Army in November 1986 to simulate a full-scale war on India's western border. The exercise was the largest ever conducted in India; it included nine infantry, three mechanised, three armoured divisions, and one air assault division, as well as three independent armoured brigades. Amphibious assault exercises were also conducted with theIndian Navy. Brasstacks also allegedly incorporated nuclear attack drills. It led to tensions with Pakistan and a subsequent rapprochement in mid-1987.[115]
Since 2004, and every year since, the Indian Army has been conducting training exercises with theMongolian Army. In 2012, the exercise took place inBelgaum; in June 2013, it was held in Mongolia. The aim of the exercises is to enhance counterinsurgency and counter-terrorism operations, and to train in conducting peacekeeping operations under the mandate of the United Nations.[116][117]
Indian Army tested its network-centric warfare capabilities in the Ashwamedha exercise. The exercise was held in theThar desert, and over 300,000 troops participated.[118] Asymmetric warfare capability was also tested by the Indian Army during the exercise.[119]
The Yudh Abhyas exercise is an ongoing series, since 2005 of joint exercises between the Indian and United States armies, agreed upon under the New Framework of the India-US Defence Relationship. Commencing at the platoon level, the exercise has graduated to a command post (CPX) and field training exercise (FTX).
The seventh edition of Yudh Abhyas began on 5 March 2012, in two locations under the Southwestern Command. The US Army contingent is from theUS Army Pacific (USARPAC), part of theUnited States Pacific Command (USPACOM). The command post exercise has an engineer brigade headquarters, with its planners drawn from both countries, while the field training exercise comprises troops of the United States' 2nd Squadron,14th Cavalry Regiment, from the25th Infantry Division, Hawaii, along with aStryker platoon, and a similarly sized Indian Army contingent of mechanised infantry. Several key surveillance, communications, andIED detection and neutralisation technologies, available to both sides, were fielded in the exercise.[120][121]
The eighth edition of Yudh Abhyas was conducted from 3 to 17 May 2013 as a U.S.-Army-Pacific-sponsored bilateral training exercise with the Indian Army, an exercise that focused on the two countries' cultures, weapons training, and tactics. Units from the United States included the 1st Brigade Combat Team,82nd Airborne Division, fromFort Bragg, N.C., and the 3rd Squadron,73rd Cavalry Regiment. Units from India were the Indian Army's99th Mountain Brigade; the 2nd Battalion,5th Gurka Rifles; the50th Independent Parachute Brigade; and the 54th Engineers Regiment.[122][123][124][125]
The Shakti exercise is an ongoing series, since 2011, of joint exercises between the Indian and French armies. The exercise is conducted to practice and validate anti-terrorist operations in snowbound and mountainous areas. The first joint exercise was held in India in October 2011 and the second one in September 2013. The theme of the exercise is to conduct joint platoon-level counter-insurgency operations in high-altitude mountainous terrain under the UN Charter, thus emphasising the shared concerns of both countries regarding global terrorism. An added aim of the exercise is to qualitatively enhance knowledge of each other's military procedures, thus increasing the scope for interoperability and the ability to respond to a common threat. The twelve-day exercise with the French Army is scheduled to be conducted in multiple modules in order to achieve complete integration between the two contingents at every stage.[126][127]
From the first week of April to the first week of May 2012, the Indian Army launched a massive summer exercise in the Rajasthan desert, involving over 50,000 troops and several hundred artillery pieces and infantry combat vehicles, as part of its efforts to shore up its battle worthiness on the western front, the border with Pakistan. The exercise, code-named "Shoorveer", was being conducted by the Jaipur-based South Western Command. This was the largest ever exercise conducted by the Indian army since 1947. The collective training started with the honing of basic battle procedures and tactical drills.
Several field firings were carried out to check the accuracy and lethality of weapon systems. Many innovations, adopted by units and formations to enhance combat power, were tested in the field. The troops built on the training momentum gradually, with increasing combat tempo, to set the stage for a major joint army–air force exercise in the latter part of the exercise.[128]
In May 2012, the Indian Army conducted several war games aimed (according to officials) at validating "the operational and transformational effectiveness of various formations under the Western Army Command".[129] The exercise involved approximately 20,000 troops and support from the Indian Air Force.
In April 2016, the Indian Army conducted a major exercise called Shatrujeet, with the eliteMathura-based Strike Corps in the desert area of the Mahajan Field Firing Range inRajasthan, whose object was to evaluate the capability to strike deep into enemy territory, to deliver a quick, lethal strike against the enemy in an integrated air-land battle environment, with co-ordination among all the forces in a nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare scenario.[130][131][132]
Initially, the army's main objective was to defend the nation's frontiers. However, over the years, the army has also taken up the responsibility of providing internal security, especially against insurgencies inKashmir andNortheast India. Currently, the army is also looking at enhancing itsspecial forces capabilities. With India's increasing international role, and the requirement to protect its interests in far-off countries becoming important, the Indian Army and the Indian Navy are jointly planning to set up a marine brigade.[133][134]
The current combat doctrine of the Indian Army is based on effectively utilising holding formations and strike formations. In the case of an attack, the holding formations would contain the enemy and strike formations would counter-attack to neutralise enemy forces. In the case of an Indian attack, the holding formations would pin enemy forces down, whilst the strike formations would attack at a point of India's choosing. The Indian Army is large enough to devote several corps to the strike role.
| Post | Current Holder |
|---|---|
| Chief of the Army Staff | GeneralUpendra Dwivedi, PVSM, AVSM[135] |
| Vice Chief of Army Staff | Lieutenant GeneralPushpendra Pal Singh, AVSM, SM**[136] |
| Deputy Chief of Army Staff (Strategy) | Lieutenant GeneralRajiv Ghai, UYSM, AVSM, SM***[137] |
| Deputy Chief of the Army Staff (Information Systems and Coordination) | Lieutenant General Rakesh Kapoor, AVSM, VSM[138] |
| Deputy Chief of Army Staff (Capability Development and Sustenance) | Lieutenant General Rahul R Singh, AVSM, VSM[139] |
| Adjutant General | Lieutenant General VPS Kaushik, UYSM, YSM, SM[140] |
| Military Secretary | Lieutenant General Rashim Bali, UYSM, AVSM, SM, VSM |
| Quartermaster General | Lieutenant General VMB Krishnan, PVSM, AVSM, YSM |
| Master General Sustenance | Lieutenant GeneralAmardeep Singh Aujla, PVSM, UYSM, YSM, SM, VSM[141] |
| Engineer-in-Chief | Lieutenant General Vikas Rohella, SM**[142] |
The troops are organized into 40 Divisions in 14 Corps.[citation needed] Army headquarters is located in the Indian capital, New Delhi, and it is under the overall command of theChief of Army Staff (COAS).
The army operates six operational commands and one training command.[143] Each command is headed byGeneral Officer Commanding-in-Chief with the rank ofLieutenant General. Each command directly reports to Army HQ in New Delhi. These commands are given below in order of creation, with location (city) and commanders listed. There is also theArmy Training Command (ARTRAC).
Six Area Headquarters are also part of the operational commands, alongside corps and divisions: Delhi; Dakshin Bharat (Southern Command); Madhiya; Uttar Pradesh; MG&G; and 101 Areas.
Not to be confused with the field corps listed above, the corps mentioned below are divisions entrusted with specific pan-Army tasks.
TheIndian Territorial Army has battalions affiliated with different infantry regiments and some department units that are from the Corps of Engineers, Army Medical Corps, or the Army Service Corps. They serve as a part-time reserve. On 4 June 2017, the chief of staff announced that the Army was planning to open combat positions to women, who would first be appointed to positions in the military police.[citation needed]
| Name | Director General | Centre |
|---|---|---|
| Armoured Corps | The Armoured Corps Centre and School,Ahmednagar | |
| Regiment of Artillery | Lieutenant General Adosh Kumar, PVSM, AVSM, SM[154] | The School of Artillery,Devlali nearNasik |
| Corps of Army Air Defence | Lieutenant General Sumer Ivan D'Cunha, SM[155] | Gopalpur,Odisha. |
| Army Aviation Corps | Lieutenant General Vinod Nambiar, SM[156] | Combat Army Aviation Training School,Nasik. |
| Electronic and Mechanical Engineers | Lieutenant General Rajiv Kumar Sahni, AVSM, VSM | Military College of Electronic and Mechanical Engineering, Secunderabad |
| Corps of Engineers | Lieutenant General Vikas Rohella, SM**[142] | College of Military Engineering, Pune Madras Engineer Group,Bangalore Bengal Engineer Group,Roorkee Bombay Engineer Group,Khadki nearPune |
| Corps of Signals | Lieutenant General Kanwar Vinod Kumar, AVSM[157] | Military College of Telecommunication Engineering (MCTE),Mhow Two Signal Training Centres atJabalpur andGoa. |
| Infantry | Lieutenant General Ajay Kumar, VSM[158] | Multiple centres |
There are 65armoured regiments in the Indian Army. These include thePresident's Bodyguard and the61st Cavalry as well as the following historic regiments dating back to the nineteenth century or earlier:1st (Skinner's) Horse, the2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse), the3rd Cavalry, the4th (Hodson's) Horse, the7th Light Cavalry, the8th Light Cavalry, the9th (Deccan) Horse, the14th (Scinde) Horse, the17th (Poona) Horse, the15th Lancers, the16th Light Cavalry, the18th Cavalry, the 20th Lancers and the21st (Central India) Horse. A substantial number of additional units designated as either "Cavalry" or "Armoured" Regiments have been raised since Independence.
The Mechanised Infantry is the newest combat arm of the Indian Army. Often referred to as "tomorrow's arm in today's army", it is formed of two regiments—The Brigade of the Guards andMechanised Infantry Regiment—and comprises 50 Mechanised Infantry battalions in all. It is the brainchild of GeneralKrishnaswamy Sundarji (28 April 1930 – 8 February 1999), who was the Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army from 1986 to 1988. During the late 70s, as part of Indian Army modernisation, there was an urgent need to re-calibrate the Indian Mechanised Forces, which led to the forming of Mechanised Infantry units to further the shock-action, fire-power, flexibility, and mobility of armoured formations by including ground-holding ability. The Mechanised Infantry regiments were first created with carefully selected existing Infantry battalions, based on their operational performance. As the need for more mechanised battalions grew, the elite Brigade of The Guards was also converted to the mechanised profile. The two regiments along with the Armoured Corps form part of the Indian Army's elite "Mechanised Forces".
There are 50 mechanised infantry battalions in the Army. Of these, 10 are for reconnaissance and support battalions (5 wheeled and 5 tracked) and 40 are standard mechanised infantry battalions (10 wheeled and 30 tracked).[159]
The Standard and Recce & Support Tracked battalions are equipped withBMP-2 while the Wheeled ones are equipped with Jeep (mountedATGM launchers) andBRDM-2. The recce and support battalions also included 4 ATGM battalions (including 17Guards battalion). These were later converted to R&S battalions.[160]
Upon its inception, the Indian Army inherited the British Army's organisational structure, which is still maintained today. Therefore, like its predecessor, an Indian infantry regiment's responsibility is not to undertake field operations but to provide battalions and well-trained personnel to the field formations. As such, it is common to find battalions of the same regiment spread across several brigades, divisions, corps, commands, and even theatres. Like its British and Commonwealth counterparts, troops enlisted within the regiment are immensely loyal, take great pride in the regiment to which they are assigned, and generally spend their entire career within the regiment.
MostIndian Army infantry regiments recruit based on certain selection criteria, such as region (for example, theAssam Regiment), caste/community (Jat Regiment), or religion (Sikh Regiment). Most regiments continue the heritage of regiments raised under the British Raj, but some have been raised after independence, some of which have specialised in border defence, in particular theLadakh Scouts, theArunachal Scouts, and theSikkim Scouts.
Over the years there have been fears that troops' allegiance lay more with their regiments and the regions/castes/communities/religions from which they were recruited, as opposed to the Indian union as a whole. Thus some "all India" or "all class" regiments have been created, which recruit troops from all over India, regardless of region, caste, community, or religion: such as theBrigade of the Guards (which later converted to the Mechanised Infantry profile) and theParachute Regiment.
Given the rise indrone warfare, the Indian Army included drone platoons to each of its infantry battalions.[161]
TheRegiment of Artillery is the second-largest arm of the Indian Army, constituting nearly one-sixth of the Army's total strength. Originally raised in 1935 as part of theRoyal Indian Artillery of the British Indian Army, the Regiment is now tasked with providing the Army's towed and self-propelledfield artillery, including guns, howitzers, heavy mortars, rockets, and missiles.
As an integral part of nearly all combat operations conducted by the Indian Army, the Regiment of Artillery has a history of being a major contributor to its military success. During theKargil War, it was the Indian Artillery that inflicted the most damage.[163] Over the years, five artillery officers have gone on to the Army's highest post as Chief of Army Staff.
For some time, the Regiment of Artillery commanded a significantly larger share of the Army's personnel than it does now, as it was also responsible for air defence artillery and some aviation assets. The 1990s saw the formation of the Corps of Army Air Defence and the coalescing of all aviation assets into the Army Aviation Corps. The arm is now focused on field artillery and supplies regiments and batteries to each of the operational commands. The home of the Regiment is inNashik,Maharashtra, where their headquarters is located, along with the service's museum. The School of Artillery of the Indian Army is located nearby, inDevlali.
After suffering consistent failure to import or produce modern artillery for three decades,[164][165] theRegiment of Artillery is finally going ahead with procurement of brand new 130-mm and 155-mm guns.[166][167][168] The Army is also putting large numbers of rocket launchers into service, with 22 regiments to be equipped with the indigenously developedPinaka multi barrel rocket launcher by the end of the next decade.[169]
TheIndian Army Corps of Engineers has a long history dating back to the mid-18th century. The earliest existing subunit of the Corps (18 Field Company) dates back to 1777, while the Corps officially recognises its birth as 1780, when the senior-most group of the Corps, the Madras Sappers, were raised. The Corps consists of three groups of combat engineers, namely theMadras Sappers, theBengal Sappers, and theBombay Sappers. A group is roughly analogous to a regiment of the Indian infantry, each group consisting of several engineer regiments. The engineer regiment is the basic combat-engineer unit, analogous to an infantry battalion.
Indian Army Corps of Signals is a corps and the arm of the Indian Army which handles itsmilitary communications. It was formed on 15 February 1911 as a separate entity under Lieutenant Colonel S. H. Powell and went on to make important contributions during World War I and World War II.[170] On 15 February 2011, the corps celebrated the 100th anniversary of its raising.[171]
TheArmy Aviation Corps, formed on 1 November 1986, is the aviation arm of the Indian Army. It is headed by a Director-General with the rank ofLieutenant General at Army HQ inNew Delhi.
TheCorps of Army Air Defence (abbreviated AAD) is an active corps of the Indian Army, and a major combat formation tasked with theair defences of the country from foreign threats. The Corps is responsible for the protection of Indian air space from enemy aircraft and missiles, especially those below 5,000 feet.[175]
The history of the AAD dates back to 1939, during the times of theBritish Raj in India. The corps actively took part in theSecond World War, fighting on behalf of theBritish Empire. Post-independence, the corps has participated in all thewars involving India, starting with the1947 Indo-Pakistani War, up to the1999 Kargil conflict. The corps enjoyed autonomous status from 1994, after the bifurcation of the Corps of Air Defence Artillery from the Army's artillery regiment. A separate training school, the Army Air Defence College (AADC), was established to train its personnel.
| Name | Director General | Centre |
|---|---|---|
| Army Service Corps | Lieutenant General Mukesh Chadha, AVSM, SM, VSM[176] | Bangalore |
| Army Medical Corps | Lieutenant General C G Muralidharan | Lucknow/Pune |
| Army Dental Corps | Lieutenant General Vineet Sharma, AVSM, VSM[177] | Lucknow |
| Army Ordnance Corps | Lieutenant General Deepak Ahuja | Jabalpur andSecunderabad (HQ) |
| Corps of Electronics and Mechanical Engineers | Lieutenant General Rajiv Kumar Sahni, AVSM, VSM[178] | Secunderabad |
| Remount and Veterinary Corps | Meerut | |
| Army Education Corps | - | Pachmarhi |
| Corps of Military Police | Bangalore | |
| Pioneer Corps | Bangalore | |
| Army Postal Service Corps | - | Kamptee near Nagpur |
| Territorial Army | New Delhi | |
| Defence Security Corps | - | Kannur Cantonment, Kerala |
| Intelligence Corps | - | Pune |
| Judge Advocate General's Department | - | Institute of Military LawKamptee,Nagpur |
| Military Nursing Service | - | Pune and Lucknow |
| Human Rights Cell | - | Delhi |
Pre-commission training of Gentlemen Cadets is carried out at theIndian Military Academy atDehradun and theOfficers Training Academy atChennai. There are also specialised training institutions such as theArmy War College, at Mhow, Madhya Pradesh; theHigh Altitude Warfare School (HAWS), at Gulmarg, Jammu and Kashmir; theCounter Insurgency and Jungle Warfare School (CIJW), in Vairengte, Mizoram; and theCollege of Military Engineering (CME), in Pune.
TheArmy Training Command (ARTRAC), atShimla, supervises training of personnel.
In 2020 a 'Tour of Duty' scheme was proposed for voluntary recruitment into the forces for civilians, to enable them to join for three years of short service.[179] The scheme is on a trial basis and will start with a test group of 100 officers and 1000 jawans.[180]
Agnipath Scheme is a new scheme introduced by theGovernment of India on 14 June 2022, for recruitment of soldiers below the rank of commissioned officers into the three services of thearmed forces.[181][182] All recruits will be hired only for a four-year period. Personnel recruited under this system are to be calledAgniveers (transl. Fire-Warriors), which will be a new military rank. The introduction of the scheme has been criticized for lack of consultation and public debate. The scheme was implemented in September 2022.
| Year | Soldiers |
|---|---|
| 2015–16 | 71,804 |
| 2016–17 | 52,447 |
| 2017–18 | 50,026 |
| 2018–19 | 53,431 |
| 2019–20 | 80,572 |
| 2020–21 | 0 |
| 2021–22 | 0 |
| 2022–23 | 0 |
| 2023-24 | 13,000 |
This scheme will bypass many things including long tenures, pension and other benefits which were there in old system.[184] Opposition parties in India have criticised and expressed concerns about the consequences of the new scheme. They have asked the scheme to be put on hold and that the scheme be discussed in theParliament.[185]
TheDirectorate of Military Intelligence (DMI) is an intelligence-gathering arm of the Indian Army. The MI (as it is commonly referred to) was constituted in 1941. It was initially created to check corruption in the Army's ranks. With time, its role has evolved into cross-border intelligence, intelligence sharing with friendly nations, infiltrating insurgent groups, and counterterrorism.
In the late 1970s, the MI was embroiled in theSamba spy scandal, wherein three Indian Army officers were falsely implicated as Pakistani spies. The organisation has since emerged from the scandal as a prime intelligence organisation of the Indian Army.
As of 2012[update], the MI has seen many of its roles taken away by the newly createdNational Technical Research Organisation and theDefence Intelligence Agency.[186] Since it was set up in 2004 as a premier scientific agency under the National Security Adviser in the Prime Minister's Office, it also includes theNational Institute of Cryptology Research and Development (NICRD), which is the first of its kind in Asia.[187]
The Signals Technology Evaluation and Adaptation Group (STEAG), a specialist technical unit tasked with investigating and evaluating cutting-edge communication technologies, was founded by the Indian Army on 18 March 2024. It will prioritize the development of specialized technologies for both wired and wireless systems, such as5G and6G networks,quantum technologies,artificial intelligence,machine learning,software-defined radios (SDR),electronic exchanges,mobile communications, andElectronic Warfare (EW) systems. In order to find appropriate defense applications, the unit will work with industry and academics to utilize state-of-the-art technology. In addition to developing and evaluating keyInformation and Communications Technology (ICT) solutions, STEAG will do technical scouting and provide user interface assistance by maintaining and upgrading modern technologies.[188]
Below are the basic field formations of the Indian Army:
The Indian Army is a voluntary service, and although a provision for militaryconscription exists in theIndian constitution, conscription has never been imposed. As of 1 July 2017[update], the Indian Army has a sanctioned strength of 49,932 officers (42,253 serving, being 7,679 under strength), and 1,215,049 enlisted personnel (1,194,864 serving, being 20,185 under strength).[192][193] Recently, it has been proposed to increase the strength of the army by more than 90,000, to counter the increasing presence of Chinese troops along theLine of Actual Control.[194][195] According to theInternational Institute for Strategic Studies, in 2020 the army had a strength of 1,237,000 active personnel and 960,000 reserve personnel.[196] Of those in reserve, 300,000 are first-line reserves (within 5 years of active service), 500,000 are committed to return if called until the age of 50, and 160,000 were in theIndian Territorial Army, with 40,000 in regular establishment. This makes the Indian Army the world's largest standingvolunteer army.[197][198]
The ranks of the Indian Army for the most part follow theBritish Army tradition.
| Strength of the Indian Army[199] | ||
| Pay level | Rank | Borne Strength (status as on 1st July, 2021) |
|---|---|---|
| Officers | ||
| 18 | General | 2 |
| 17/16/15 | Lieutenant General | 80 |
| 14 | Major General | 292 |
| 13A | Brigadier | 1162 |
| 13 | Colonel | 5586 |
| 12A | Lieutenant Colonel | 12620 |
| 11 | Major | 11885 |
| 10B | Captain | 6637 |
| 10 | Lieutenant | 3218 |
| — | Re-employed & Officers in select rank officers outside cadre | 1574 |
| Total | 43056 | |
| Officers inAMC &ADC | 6647 | |
| Officers inMNS | 3866 | |
| GRAND TOTAL | 53569 | |
As of January 2019, the Indian Army had an authorized strength of 50,312 officers and 1,223,381 personnel below officer rank (PBOR), bringing the total to 1,273,693. However, there was a shortfall of 7,399 officers and 38,235 PBORs, reducing the actual strength to 42,913 officers and 1,185,146 PBORs. This resulted in a total actual strength of 1,228,059 personnel.[200]
Commissioned OfficersCommissioned officers are the leaders of the army and command units from platoon/company to brigade, division, corps, and above.
Indian Army officers are continually put through different courses of training, and assessed on merit, for promotions and appointments. Substantive promotions up to lieutenant colonel, or equivalent, are based on time in service, whereas those for the colonel and above are based on selection, with promotion to colonel being also based on time served.
| Rank group | General / flag officers | Senior officers | Junior officers | |||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Indian Army[201] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | ||||||||||||||
| Field marshal फील्ड मार्शल | General जनरल | Lieutenant general लेफ्टिनेंट जनरल | Major general मेजर जनरल | Brigadier ब्रिगेडियर | Colonel कर्नल | Lieutenant colonel लेफ्टिनेंट कर्नल | Major मेजर | Captain कैप्टन | Lieutenant लेफ्टिनेंट | |||||||||||||||
| Honorary/ War time rank | Held by the Chief of Defence Staff (with different insignia) or the Chief of the Army Staff | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Other Ranks
| Rank group | Junior commissioned officers | Non commissioned officer | Enlisted | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Indian Army[201] |  |  |  |  |  |  | No insignia | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Subedar-major सूबेदार मेजर | Subedar सूबेदार | Naib subedar नायब सूबेदार | Havildar हवलदार | Naik नायक | Lance naik लांस नायक | Sepoy सिपाही | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
To make themselves less of a target, the forces of theEast India Company in India dyed their white summertunics to neutral tones initially a tan calledkhaki (from theHindi word for "dusty"). This was a temporary measure that became standard in the Indian service in the 1880s. Only during theSecond Boer War in 1902, did the entireBritish Army standardise ondun forService Dress. The Indian Army uniform standardised on dun for khaki.
The service dress consists of a dark green coloured short-sleeved shirt with matching dark green trousers. Officers can add a four pocket tunic worn over a peach coloured button down shirt and black tie. The Winter "Angola", meaning Angora wool, version substitutes a light brown/dark khaki long-sleeved button up shirt. It is accompanied by beret or peaked cap depending on the regiment the soldier belongs to. Organizational headwear, sashes, belts,spats, medals, lanyards, and other achievements are added for ceremonial duties. A black version is worn by the Armoured Corps.[202]
The 2006 standard issuedcamouflage uniform of the Indian Army was the PC-DPM which consists ofFrench Camouflage Europe Centrale featuring a forest camouflage pattern and is designed for use in woodland environments being printed onBDU. The Desert variant issued in 2006 was based on theFrench Camouflage Daguet printed onBDU, which features a desert camouflage pattern, is used by artillery and infantry posted in dusty, semi-desert, and desert areas ofRajasthan and its vicinity. Starting in 2022, a digital pixelated camouflage pattern uniform designed byNIFT has been adopted, while the uniform style is similar to the US MarineMMCUU uniform.[203][204]
The newcamouflage pattern retains the mix of colours includingolive green andearthen, and has been designed keeping in mind aspects like areas of deployment of the troops and climatic conditions they operate in. According to the officials, thefabric of the new material makes it lighter, sturdier, more breathable, and more suitable for the differentterrains that the soldiers are posted in.[205]
The new uniform, unlike the old one, has acombat T-shirt worn underneath and ajacket over it. Also, unlike the older uniform, the shirt will not be tucked in. The jacket has angular top pockets, lower pockets with vertical openings, knifepleats at the back, a pocket on the leftsleeve & a pen holder on the left forearm, and improved-quality buttons. Thetrousers will be adjustable at the waist with elastic and buttons, and has a double layer at the groin. For the caps, thegirth will be adjustable, and the logo of the Army will be of better quality than earlier.
The new uniforms would not be available in theopen market. The uniforms will bebarcoded andQR coded to maintain their uniqueness and will be available only through the ordnance chain or military canteens.[206] To control random proliferation, they will come in over a dozen pre-stitched standard sizes. The new uniform will be made available in a phased manner to the nearly 1.2 million personnel of the Indian Army.
The modern Indian Army wears distinctive parade uniforms characterised by variegated turbans and waist-sashes in regimental colours. The Gurkha andGarhwal Rifles and the Assam, Kumaon, and Naga Regiments wear broad-brimmed hats of traditional style. Traditionally, all rifle regiments (the Jammu and Kashmir Rifles, the Garhwal Rifles, all Gorkha Rifles, and the Rajputana Rifles), as well as the Jammu and Kashmir Light Infantry, wearrank badges, buttons, and wire-embroidered articles in black, instead of the usual brass (or gold) colour, as the original role of the rifle regiments was camouflage and concealment.
The medals awarded by the President of India for gallantry displayed on the battlefield, in order of precedence, areParam Vir Chakra,Maha Vir Chakra, andVir Chakra.
The medals awarded by the President for gallantry displayed away from the battlefield, in order of precedence, areAshoka Chakra,Kirti Chakra, andShaurya Chakra.
Many of the recipients of these awards have been Indian Army personnel.
The role of women in the Indian Army began when the Indian Military Nursing Service was formed in 1888. Nurses served in World Wars I and II, where 350 Indian Army nurses either died, were taken prisoner of war, or declared missing in action; this includes nurses who died when SS Kuala was sunk by Japanese Bombers in 1942.[207] In 1992, the Indian Army began inducting women officers in non-medical roles.[208]
TheAgnipath Scheme[209] (also spelledAgneepath Scheme) (Hindi:Agnīpath Yojanā,transl. Agnipath Scheme) is atour of duty style scheme approved by theGovernment of India on 14 June 2022 and implemented in the country a few months later in September 2022, for recruitment of soldiers below the rank of commissioned officers into the three services of thearmed forces.[181] All recruits will be hired only for a four-year period however 25% will be eligible for advancement into career status.[210] Personnel recruited under this system are to be calledAgniveers (transl. Fire-Warriors), which will be a new military rank.[211][182] The introduction of the scheme has been criticised for lack of consultation and public debate.[182] Initial training will last six months and the remaining three years and six months will be service time.[212]
TheNDA/NA is the premier entry route to join the army as Permanent Commission officers. It is open to unmarried candidates aged 16½–19½ years, NDA/NA selects students after 10+2, irrespective of stream for army. The NDA/NA exam is held twice a year, consisting ofMathematics and General Ability. Candidates who clear the cutoff undergo a five-dayServices Selection Board (SSB) interview, followed by a medical examination. The final merit determines the selection. The examination is highly competitive as approximately 600,000 candidates apply for roughly 800 vacancies each year.
Training is conducted in two phases. First, cadets spend three years atNational Defence Academy, earning aJawaharlal Nehru University affiliated degree inB.Sc. orB.A. while undergoing basic military training. After graduation, Army cadets move to theIndian Military Academy (IMA), Dehradun for one year of advanced army training focused on leadership and field warfare.
On completion, cadets are commissioned as Lieutenants. Based on merit and preference, they are allotted to infantry (such asRajputana Rifles,Dogra Regiment, etc.), armoured corps (such asPoona Horse,87th Armoured Regiment, etc.),Regiment of Artillery,Corps of Engineers,Corps of Signals, etc.
TheCombined Defence Services Examination (CDSE) is conducted for graduates to join the army as Permanent Commission officers. It is conducted by UPSC twice a year (April and September), CDSE allows entry into the Indian Military Academy (IMA) for the Army.
Candidates applying must be unmarried Indian male citizens, aged 19–24 years for IMA entry. A bachelor's degree in any stream is required for the Army, along with medical fitness standards similar to NDA, with strict requirements for vision, height, and general health.The selected candidates for the army join the Indian Military Academy (IMA), Dehradun, for 12 months of pre-commission training. This includes advanced weapon training, field tactics, leadership development, and physical conditioning. After the successful completion of the training, the candidate is commissioned as a Lieutenant in the army.
TheArmed Forces Medical College (AFMC) is India's premier military medical institution and the primary pathway to join the army as a medical officer (PC). It trains qualifiedphysicians for the Armed Forces Medical Services (AFMS), which serves the Army,Navy, andAir Force. AFMC offers a fully funded MBBS program, after which graduates are commissioned as officers in theArmy Medical Corps (AMC). The candidate applying must be an unmarried Indian citizen, aged 17 to 24 years. The candidate must have opted forPhysics,Chemistry,Biology orBiotechnology andEnglish in 10+2 with minimum 60% aggregate (50% minimum in each subject).
The selection is based shortlisting of candidates based onNational Eligibility cum Entrance Test scores. Then shortlisted candidates attend a ToELR-WT test (Test of English Language, Comprehension, Logic, and Reasoning + Written Test) followed by Psychological Assessment, Interview Board, and document verification, and medical tests. The final merit list is preepared using NEET scores, ToELR-WT marks, and interview performance.
After the selection, the candidate obtains aBachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) undergraduate degree from AFMC, along with basic military training. After completion of the course graduates are directly commissioned as Captains in the Army Medical Corps with a Permanent Commission. Around 150 seats are available every year in the AFMC, and 2.5 to 3 lakh NEET aspirants apply annually for these limited seats, making it the most competitive and academically challenging course in theIndian Armed Forces.
The Technical entry scheme (TES) is a specialized route for 10+2, students who have opted Physics, Chemistry and Maths as their main subjects; to join the Army as engineering officers in technical branches. Candidates applying for TES shall be unmarried male indian citizens, aged 16½ to 19½ years, and must have passed 10+2 with Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics with at least 60% aggregate, and appeared inJoint Entrance Examination - Main with 85-90 percentile score. Unlike NDA or CDSE, TES has no written exam and selection is based on academic performance, SSB evaluation and final medical tests.
TES offers a 5-year integrated program, combining engineering education and military training:
In the first three years, academic engineering training at one of the Army's technical institutes likeCollege of Military Engineering, MCEME, Secunderabad, or MCTE, Mhow. Cadets also undergo basic military training, discipline, and physical conditioning. In the last few years the cadets are trained at Officers Training Academy, Gaya. On successful completion of training, cadets are awarded aB.Tech degree in their engineering stream.
The Technical Graduate Course (TGC) is a direct entry scheme for engineering graduates to join the army as engineering officers in technical branches. It is available for candidates who have completed or are in the final year of their B.E./B.Tech and want to serve in core technical roles like Engineers, Signals, or EME. The candidate must be an unmarried male candidate, aged 20 to 27 years at the commencement of the course and must have completed or be in the final year of an engineering degree in a stream notified in the TGC recruitment notification (e.g.,Civil,Mechanical,Electronic,Computer Science). Around 30–40 seats, distributed across engineering streams like Civil, Mechanical, ECE, CSE, etc are available each year, and the interview process is similar to TES.
Since the introduction of theAgnipath Scheme in 2022, India has shifted to inducting Gorkha troops exclusively through this new recruitment system. However, theGovernment of Nepal strongly opposed the scheme, stating that its four-year short-term service contracts and absence of long-term benefits were inconsistent with the principles of the historic 1947Britain–India–Nepal Tripartite Agreement, which has governed the recruitment of Gorkhas for decades. As a result, Nepal has refused to allow its citizens to participate in Agnipath recruitment.[213]
This deadlock has led to a complete halt in the recruitment ofNepali Gorkhas for nearly five years, creating deep uncertainty for thousands of aspiring candidates and casting doubt on the future of the legendary Gorkha regiments, which have been an integral part of the army for over seven decades.[214]
Traditionally, India recruits Gorkha soldiers who are citizens of Nepal under the framework of the Tripartite Agreement. To qualify, a candidate shall be aged between 17.3 to 21 years and must have successfully completed Class 10 and hold a matriculation certificate from a recognized educational board. Following this, the candidate must undergo a rigorous physical and medical examination, demonstrating excellent physical fitness, 6/6 eyesight, and being completely free of deformities, disorders, or diseases that could impair service.[215]
Gorkha candidates are provided special height relaxation compared to the general requirements for the Western Plains region. As per current standards, the minimum height required for Gorkha recruits is 157 centimetres, with a minimum weight of 48 kilograms and a chest measurement of 77 centimetres (with a 5 cm expansion).[216]
Most of the army equipment is imported, but efforts are being made to manufacture indigenous equipment. TheDefence Research and Development Organisation has developed a range of weapons for the Indian Army, including small arms, artillery, radars, and theArjun tank. All Indian military small-arms are manufactured under the umbrella administration of theOrdnance Factories Board, with principal firearm manufacturing facilities in Ichhapore,Cossipore, Kanpur, Jabalpur, and Tiruchirapalli. The Indian Small Arms System (INSAS) rifle, which has been successfully deployed since 1997, is a product ofRifle Factory Ishapore, while ammunition is manufactured at Khadki, and possibly at Bolangir.[217][218]
In 2014, Army chiefGeneral Bikram Singh said that if given sufficient budget support, the Indian Army might be able to acquire half the ammunition needed to fight in a major conflict by the next year.[219]
TheArmy Aviation Corps is the main body of the Indian Army for tactical air transport, reconnaissance, and medical evacuation, while theIndian Air Force's helicopter assets are responsible for assisting army troop transport and close air support. The Aviation Corps operates approximately 150 helicopters. The Indian army had projected a requirement for a helicopter that can carry loads of up to 750 kilograms (1,650 lb) to heights of 7,000 m (23,000 ft) on the Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir. Flying at these heights poses unique challenges due to the rarefied atmosphere. The Indian Army will induct theHAL Light Utility Helicopter to replace its ageing fleet ofChetaks andCheetahs, some of which were deployed more than three decades ago.[220]
On 13 October 2012, the defence minister gave control of attack helicopters to the Indian Army, which had formerly rested the Indian Air force.[221]
The major ongoing weapons programmes of the Indian Army are as follows:
The Indian Army planned to undergo a phased restructuring from 2023 in order to become a lean, agile, and technologically advanced military. The internal study reportRe-organization and Rightsizing of the Indian Army from 2022 served as its foundation. As part of the restructuring, theChief of the Army Staff GeneralUpendra Dwivedi ordered the creation of theRudra all-arms brigades,Bhairavlight commando battalions,Shaktibaan artillery regiments andDivyastra batteries on 25 July 2025. He announced these approvals inDrass War Memorial on 26 July on the occasion ofKargil Vijay Diwas.[230][231][232] Additionally, he also announced that each infantry battalion is also equipped with drone platoons.[233] In multi-domain battlefields dominated by information, digitization, automation, precision, andAI, Rudra and Bhairav are built for quick and decisive action.[234] The Chief of the Army Staff General Upendra Dwivedi called these restructuring moves as Indian Army's approach as a “transformative, modern, and future-oriented force”.[235]
On 10 August, it was reported that the Indian Army has issued "specific orders" with "implementation instructions" to undertake these major reorganisations through “Save and Raise” mode which will not have an effect on the defence budget.[236][237]
On 22 October, Director General (Infantry),Lieutenant General Ajay Kumar, announced the completion of raising 380 'Ashni' specialist drone platoons with each of the 380 infantry batallions. Each platoon employs 20–25 soldiers and is equipped withloitering munitions and drones to performintelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) roles. The Army is procuring six types of loitering munitions and four types of ISR drones for the infantry.[238][239]
The concept ofcombined arms operations was first demonstrated with the Indian Army in a field exercises in Punjab in 2013.[231] The idea was later reintroduced in 2018 by the then CoAS GeneralBipin Rawat as Integrated Battle Group (IBG).[240]
The Integrated Battle Groups would be Brigade-sized, self-sufficientcombined arms formations commanded by an officer of the rankMajor General. The IBGs are meant to transform the overall field formation of the Indian Army. As of July 2019, the new concept of formations had been test-bedded with theIX Corps (Rising Star Corps) and were being reorganised based on the basis of feedbacks. The formation of a specific IBG amd its resource allocation would depend on three T's — Threat, Terrain and Task. The formation would have mobilisation time of 12–48 hours. The IBG will replace the traditional field formation ofCommands–Corps–Divisions–Brigades with Commands and Corps being the largest static formation spread across a defined geography and the largest mobile formation, respectively. As of 2019, each IBG fields 5,000 troops and includesinfantry,armoured,artillery andair defence units. The composition of IBG also depends on its nature – offensive or defensive. While Offensive IBG will be designed to be mobilised at the earliest to thrust into enemy territory for strike operations, the Defensive IBG will be tasked to hold ground at vulnerable points where enemy action is expected.[241]
In October 2019, the 59 Infantry Division of theXVII Corps (Brahmastra Corps) conducted its first Integrated Battle Groups (IBG)military exercise for the formation's validation. ExerciseHim Vijay included three IBGs of the Division. The aim was to reduce the response timeCold Start Doctrine's 72 hours to below 24 hours.[242] By May 2022, the IBGs were test-bedded by IX Corps and further validated by the XVII Corps. The Army identified these Holding Corps in the Western Front and the Strike Corps in the Northern/Eastern Front for total 'IBG-isation' parallel to the formation ofIntegrated Theatre Commands to integrate the Armed Forces into larger theatres.[243][244]
As of June 2024, two and five IBGs under IX Corps and XVII Corps were raised under the first and second phases, respectively. These formations were also war-gamed and validated in multiple instances. Though the Army HQ had earlier submitted the report on Phase 1 of 'IBG-isation', theDefence Ministry also demanded the same for Phase 2 before the official Government Sanction Letter (GSL) can be issued. The original plan was to initially carve out 8–10 IBGs (5,000 to 6,000 troops each) and followed by more over the years.[245] By November 2024, the Army submitted a draft GSL seeking official approval for the establishment of IBGs. The issuing of the GSL implied the approval for the implementation of IBGs. Post approval, the Army aimed to have the IBGs operational by 2025.[246][247]
During the annualpress conference on 15 January 2025, on the occasion of theArmy Day, CoAS General Upendra Dwivedi said that the Integrated Battle Groups will be either implemented if approval is granted in 2025 else the project will be totally abandoned. The proposals were in the final stages of approval and has financial as well as equipment and human resources implications. "It is the firstSpecial Purpose Vehicle (SPV) as far as the restructuring is concerned. If it goes through, others will also follow suit," as per the COAS stated by a report. Some top-of-the-rack changes in theNorthern Theatre Command has been identified to implement the IBGs and will incorporate lessons learnt from ExerciseHimVijay 2019. The IBGs could be equipped to leadsurgical strike-like operations in case of a war unlike the current structure of the Army where the same role is carried out by Strike Corps.[248][249]
However, on the occasion of 26thKargil Vijay Diwas, the COAS announced that he had approved the formation ofRudra all-arms brigades a day earlier, on 25 July 2025 and that two brigades deployed on the border has already been converted to Rudra brigades. As part of the plan, 250 single-arm brigades — with over 3,000 soldiers each — are to be converted to all-arms ones with integration of fighting elements like infantry, mechanised infantry, armoured (tanks),Special Forces as well as support elements likeartillery,engineers,air defence,electronic warfare and UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles). The formations will receive specially prepared logistics for support and combat support.[235][250][251]
Though, the design of the Rudra brigades is based on the concept of Integrated Battle Groups, there are few but major modifications. Firstly, while an IBG was conceptualised to be a scaled-down Division, the Rudra brigades are not so but are slightly larger than standard brigades. Secondly, IBGs were envisioned to be commanded by a Major General, eliminating the rank ofBrigadier. However, the Rudra brigades will have a Brigadier- rankedcommanding officer.[252]
Reportedly, the two Rudra brigades that are already formed will be operationalised in eastern Ladakh and Sikkim likely under IX Corps and XVII Corps, respectively, within few months.[237][251]
The Rudra Brigade under theKonark Corps of theSouthern Command was operationally validated during Exercise Akhand Prahaar under theTri Serivce Exercise (TSE) Trishul in early November 2025.[253][254][255] With the operationalisation of these brigades, the Army reportedly plans to upgrade itsCold Start military doctrine to "Cold Strike". The term was coined by a retired Army officer,Lieutenant General A B Shivane[256] and later used by the commanding officer of Southern Command, Lieutenant GeneralDhiraj Seth.[253][257][255]
Bhairav Light Commando Battalions are another type of formation that is being raised by the Indian Army. The battalion has a strength of 250 personnel, including 78 officers, which is much lesser than that of a standard infantry battalion or aParachute Regiment battalion which include 800 and 620 soldiers each.[258] These agile and compact battalions, evolving from theGhatak Platoon concept,[231] are designed asshock troops to undertakeclandestine missions or deliver surprise strikes under high-risk conditions the enemy lines to inflict maximum damage. The units are being raised under the long-standing “son of the soil” concept which is used by the Indian Army while raising battalions. Under this concept, the Army Chief has tasked the individual Infantry Regimental Centres to select, train, and depute personnel from their respective units, which will be affiliated with and operate alongside specific corps. The selected soldiers will be trained for 2–3 months for their first phase under the Regimental Centre, followed by a month-long second phase of advanced training under the aegis ofSpecial Forces training centres of the troops' respective deploymenttheatres. These units will be lighter armed and less strategically tasked than the Special Forces, serving instead as a bridge between Special Forces and regular infantry, thereby freeing the former for more critical operations.[236][252][258]
As per a report on 14 August, the Indian Army plans to have five such battalions by the end of 31 October. From the five battalions, three of the battalions will be assigned to theNorthern Command with one each forXIV Corps,XV Corps andXVI Corps, while one each will be deployed in theWestern and theNortheastern sectors. The battalions will be tasked for roles like cross-border interdiction,reconnaissance and disruption of adversary positions. Ultimately, 23 Bhairav Battalions are planned to be raised.[252][258]
As of 22 October, the service will raise 25 Bhairav battalions within six months. Meanwhile, five battalions, as earlier planned, have already been deployed[238] and their training programme will culminate on 30 October, following which, the battalions will be operationalised.[259] Additionally, four additional battalions are being raised.[260][239]
List of Corps equipped with Bhariav battalions: —[239][252]
The Indian Army will also reorganise theArtillery Regiments to adapt with modern battlefield needs.
Each newly raised Shaktibaan regiment will be purely technology-driven units with the objective of "see-and-strike" operations and will include three batteries, with two of them operating long- and medium-rangeloitering munitions and the third operatingswarm drones andremotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS). The regiments are being raised under "Save and Raise" format, implying restructuring existing assets and infrastructure rather than forming entirely new units.[252][261]
Additionally, each traditional artillery regiment will be equipped with a Divyastra Battery. These will be composite batteries equipped with loitering munitions as well as dual-role RPAs and operating alongside the two batteries equipped with eightmedium artillery guns each. The configuration will enable sensor-to-shoot networking and integrate real-time surveillance and engagement into an independent unit.[252][233][261]
Under the first phase, five artillery regiments are expected to be introduced with Divyastra batteries by the end of August 2025.[261][262]
Liability with regard to Defence
This point was examined at length and it was put forward that with due regard to the obligations undertaken by the Crown to protect the States against internal commotion and external aggression, the States could not be asked to contribute the cost of the armed forces of the Crown of India. In the case of several States the price of protection was settled by the Crown and paid by the States.
In 1914, the Indian Army consisted of 39 cavalry regiments, 118 battalions of Indian infantry, and 20 battalions of Gurkha Rifles. The army contained 159,134 Indian soldiers, and 2,333 British officers (plus reserves). Together with the 70,000 troops of the British garrison of India these forces made up the "Army in India." This army had three principal functions: first, the maintenance of internal security; second, the defence of the Indian Empire's frontiers; and third (if necessary) the provision of a force for imperial purposes outside India.
The second turning point came in the wake of the 1971 Bangladesh war of independence which India supported with armed troops. With large contingents of Indian Army troops amassed in the West Bengal border with what was then East Pakistan, the Government of Indira Gandhi used the opening provided by President's Rule to divert sections of the army to assist the police in decisive counter-insurgency drives across Naxal–impacted areas. "Operation Steeplechase," a police and army joint anti–Naxalite undertaking, was launched in July–August 1971. By the end of "Operation Steeplechase" over 20,000 suspected Naxalites were imprisoned and including senior leaders and cadre, and hundreds had been killed in police encounters. It was a massive counter-insurgency undertaking by any standards.
Meanwhile, the Congress government led by Indira Gandhi decided to send in the army and tackle the problem militarily. A combined operation called Operation Steeplechase was launched jointly by the military, paramilitary and state police forces in West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.[permanent dead link]
In Kolkata, Lt General J.F.R. Jacob of the Indian Army's Eastern Command received two very important visitors in his office in October 1969. One was the army chief General Sam Manekshaw and the other was the home secretary Govind Narain. Jacob was told of the Centre's plan to send in the army to break the Naxal. More than 40 years later, Jacob would recall how he had asked for more troops, some of which he got along with a brigade of para commandos. When he asked his boss to give him something in writing, Manekshaw declined, saying, 'Nothing in writing.' while secretary Narain added that there should be no publicity and no records.
The Pakistan-based militant group Jaish-e-Mohammed claimed responsibility for the bombing. It said it was carried out by Adil Ahmad Dar, a locally recruited fighter from south Kashmir's Pulwama district. The group released a video showing Dar delivering his will and a photograph of him surrounded by guns and grenades
We will give a befitting reply, our neighbour will not be allowed to de-stabilise us", Modi said
Pakistan has denied involvement in the attack, in which at least 40 Indian soldiers were killed Thursday when a driver slammed an explosives-packed vehicle into a paramilitary convoy.
Pakistan, said the war planes made it up to five miles [eight kilometres] inside its territory
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