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TheRomanimperial cult (Latin:cultus imperatorius) identifiedemperors and some members of their families with thedivinely sanctioned authority (auctoritas) of theRoman State. Its framework was based on Roman and Greek precedents, and was formulated during the earlyPrincipate ofAugustus. It was rapidly established throughout theEmpire and itsprovinces, with marked local variations in its reception and expression.
Augustus's reforms transformed Rome'sRepublican system of government to ade facto monarchy, couched intraditional Roman practices and Republican values. Theprinceps (emperor) was expected to balance the interests of theRoman military,Senate and people, and to maintain peace, security and prosperity throughout an ethnically diverse empire. The official offer ofcultus to a living emperor acknowledged his office and rule as divinely approved and constitutional: his Principate should therefore demonstratepious respect for traditional Republican deities andmores.
A deceased emperor held worthy of the honor could be voted a state divinity (divus, pluraldivi) by theSenate and elevated as such in an act ofapotheosis. The granting of apotheosis served religious, political and moral judgment on Imperial rulers and allowed living emperors to associate themselves with a well-regarded lineage of Imperialdivi from which unpopular or unworthy predecessors were excluded. This proved a useful instrument toVespasian in his establishment of theFlavian Imperial Dynasty following the death ofNero and civil war, and toSeptimius in his consolidation of theSeveran dynasty after the assassination ofCommodus.
The imperial cult was inseparable from that of Rome's official deities, whose cult was essential to Rome's survival and whose neglect was therefore treasonous. Traditional cult was a focus of Imperial revivalist legislation underDecius andDiocletian. It therefore became a focus of theological and political debate during the ascendancy of Christianity underConstantine I. The emperorJulian failed to reverse the declining support for Rome's official religious practices:Theodosius I adopted Christianity as Rome's state religion. Rome's traditional gods and imperial cult were officially abandoned.
For five centuries, theRoman Republic (509–27 BC) did not give worship to any historic figure, or any living man, although surrounded by divine and semi-divine monarchies. Rome's legendary kings had been its masters; with their removal, Republican Romans could identifyRomulus, the founder of the city, with the godQuirinus and still retain Republican liberty. Similarly, Rome's ancestor-heroAeneas was worshipped asJupiter Indiges.[1] The Romans worshipped several gods and demi-gods who had been human, and knew the theory that all the gods had originated as human beings, yet Republican traditions(mos maiorum) were staunchly conservative and anti-monarchic. The aristocrats who held almost all Roman magistracies, and thereby occupied almost all of the Senate, acknowledged no human as their inherent superior. No citizen, living or dead, was officially regarded as divine, but the honors[2] awarded by the state—crowns, garlands, statues, thrones, processions—were also suitable to the gods, and tinged with divinity; indeed, when the emperors were later given state worship, it was done by a decree of the Senate, phrased like any other honor.[3]
Among the highest of honors was thetriumph. When a general was acclaimedimperator by his troops, the Senate would then choose whether to award him a triumph, a parade to the Capitol in which thetriumphator displayed his captives and spoils of war in the company of his troops; by law, all were unarmed. The triumphator rode in a chariot, bearing divine emblems, in a manner supposed to be inherited from the ancientkings of Rome, and ended by dedicating his victory to Jupiter Capitolinus. Some scholars have viewed the triumphator as impersonating or even becoming a king or a god (or both) for the day but the circumstances of triumphal award and subsequent rites also functioned to limit his status. Whatever his personal ambitions, his victory and his triumph alike served the Roman Senate, people, and gods and were recognised only through their consent.[4][5]
In private life, however, tradition required that some human beings be treated as more or less divine; cult was due from familial inferiors to their superiors. Everyhead of household embodied thegenius – the generative principle and guardian spirit – of his ancestors, which others might worship and by which his family and slaves took oaths;[6] his wife had ajuno. Aclient could call his patron "Jupiter on earth".[7] The dead, collectively and individually, were gods of the underworld or afterlife (Manes). A letter has survived fromCornelia, the mother of theGracchi, expecting that when she was dead, her sons would venerate her asdeus parens, a parental (or a nurturing) divinity; such piety was expected from any dutiful son.[8]
A prominent clan might claim divine influence and quasi-divine honors for its leader.Death masks (imagines) were made for all notable Romans and were displayed in theatria of their houses; they were used to represent their ghostly presence at family funerals. The mask ofScipio Africanus, Cornelia's father and victor overHannibal, was stored in the temple of Jupiter; his epitaph (byEnnius) said that he had ascended to Heaven.[8] A tradition arose in the centuries after his death that Africanus had been inspired by prophetic dreams, and was himself the son of Jupiter.[9]
There are several cases of unofficial cult directed at men viewed as saviors, military or political. InFurther Spain in the 70s BC, loyalist Romans greeted the proconsulMetellus Pius as a savior, burning incense "as if to a god" for his efforts to quash theLusitanian rebellion led by the RomanSertorius, a member of the faction which called itself "men of the People" (populares). This celebration, in Spain, featured a lavish banquet with local and imported delicacies, and a mechanical statue ofVictory to crown Metellus, who wore (extralegally) a triumphator'stoga picta for the occasion. These festivities were organized by thequaestor[10] Gaius Urbinus, but were not acts of the state. Metellus liked all this, but his older and pious (veteres et sanctos) contemporaries thought it arrogant and intolerable.[11][12] After the land reformersTiberius andGaius Gracchus were both murdered by their opponents, their supporters "fell down" and offered daily sacrifice at the statues of the Gracchi "as though they were visiting the shrines of the gods".[13] AfterGaius Marius defeated theTeutones, private citizens would offer food and drink to him alongside their household gods; he was called the third founder of Rome after Romulus andCamillus.[14] In 86 BC, offerings of incense and wine were made atcrossroad shrines to statues of the still-livingMarius Gratidianus, the nephew of the elder Marius, who was wildly popular in his own right, in large part for monetary reforms that eased an economic crisis in Rome during hispraetorship.[15]
When the Romans began to dominate large parts of the Greek world, Rome's senior representatives there were given the same divine honours as wereHellenistic rulers. This was a well-established method for Greekcity-states to declare their allegiance to an outside power; such a cult committed the city to obey and respect the king as they obeyed and respectedApollo or any of the other gods.
The cities ofIonia worshipped theSpartan generalLysander, when he personally dominated Greece, immediately following thePeloponnesian War; according toPlutarch, this was the first instance ofruler cult in Greek history. There were similar instances of divine cult to humans in the same century, although some rulers, likeAgesilaus, declined it.[16]Clearchus, tyrant of Heraclea, dressed up likeZeus and claimed godhood; this did not stop the Heracleots from assassinating him.Isocrates said ofPhilip II of Macedon that after he conquered thePersian Empire, there would be nothing for him to attain but to become a god; the city ofAmphipolis, and a private society at Athens, worshipped him even without this conquest; he himself set out his statue, dressed as a god, as the thirteenth of theTwelve Olympians.[17]
But it was Philip's sonAlexander the Great who made the divinity of kings standard practice among the Greeks. The Egyptians accepted him asPharaoh, and therefore divine, after he drove the Persians out of Egypt; other nations received him as their traditional divine or quasi-divine ruler as he acquired them. In 324 BC, he sent word to the Greek cities that they should also make him a god; they did so, with marked indifference,[18] which did not stop them fromrebelling when they heard of his death next year.
His immediate successors, theDiadochi, offered sacrifices to Alexander, and made themselves gods even before they claimed to be kings; they put their own portraits on the coinage, whereas the Greeks had always reserved this for a god or for an emblem of the city. When the Athenians allied withDemetrius Poliorcetes, eighteen years after the deification of Alexander, they lodged him in theParthenon withAthena, and sang a hymn extolling him as a present god who heard them, as the other gods did not.[19]
Euhemerus, a contemporary of Alexander, wrote a fictitious history of the world, which showed Zeus and the other established gods of Greece as mortal men, who hadmade themselves into gods in the same way;Ennius appears to have translated this into Latin some two centuries later, inScipio Africanus' time.
ThePtolemies of Egypt and theSeleucids claimed godhood as long as they lasted; they may have been influenced in this by the Persian and Egyptian traditions of divine kings – although the Ptolemies had separate cults inEgyptian polytheism, as Pharaoh, and in the Greek. Not all Greek dynasties made the same claims; the descendants of Demetrius, who were kings ofMacedon and dominated the mainland of Greece, did not claim godhead or worship Alexander (cf.Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great).
The Roman magistrates who conquered the Greek world were fitted into this tradition; games were set up in honor ofMarcus Claudius Marcellus, when he conquered Sicily at the end of theSecond Punic War, as the Olympian games were for Zeus; they were kept up for a century and a half untilanother Roman governor abolished them, to make way for his own honors. WhenTitus Quinctius Flamininus extended Roman influence to Greece proper, temples were built for him and cities placed his portrait on their coinage; he called himself godlike (isotheos) in an inscription atDelphi – but not in Latin, or at Rome. The Greeks also devised a goddessRoma, who was worshipped with Flamininus (their joint cult is attested in 195 BC); she would become a symbol of idealisedromanitas in the later Roman provinces, and a continuing link, whereas a Marcellus or Flamininus might only hold power for a couple years.
When KingPrusias I of Bithynia was granted an interview by the Roman Senate, he prostrated himself and addressed them as "Saviour Gods", which would have been etiquette at his own court;Livy was shocked byPolybius' account of this, and insists that there is no Roman source it ever happened.[20]
Worship and temples appear to have been routinely offered by Greeks to their Roman governors, with varied reactions.Cicero declined a temple proposed by the city officials ofRoman Asia tohis brother and himself, while the latter was proconsul, to avoid jealousy from other Romans; when Cicero himself was Governor ofCilicia, he claimed to have accepted no statues, shrines, or chariots. His predecessor,Appius Claudius Pulcher, was so pleased, however, when the Cilicians built a temple to him that, when it was not finished at the end of Claudius' year in office, Claudius wrote Cicero to make sure it was done, and complaining that Cicero was not active enough in the matter.[21]
The Romans and the Greeks gave religious reverence to and for human beings in ways that did not make the recipients gods; these made the first Greekapotheoses easier. Similar middle forms appeared asAugustus approached official divinity.
The Greeks did not consider the dead to be gods, but they did pay them homage and gave them sacrifices, using different rituals than those for the gods of Olympus. The Greeks called the extraordinary dead – founders of cities and the like –heroes; in the simplest form,Greek hero cult was the burial and the memorials which any respectable Greek family gave their dead, but paid for by their City in perpetuity.[22] Most heroes were the figures of ancient legend, but some were historical: the Athenians reveredHarmodius and Aristogeiton as heroes, as saviours of Athens from tyranny; also, collectively, those who fell at theBattle of Marathon. Statesmen did not generally become heroes, butSophocles was the hero Dexion ("the Receiver") – not as a playwright, nor a general, but because when the Athenians tookAsclepius' cult during the Peloponnesian War, Sophocles housed an image of Asclepius until a shrine could be built. The Athenian leaderHagnon foundedAmphipolis shortly before the Peloponnesian War; thirteen years later, while Hagnon was still alive, the Spartan generalBrasidas liberated it from the Athenian Empire, and was fatally wounded in the process. The Amphipolitans buried him as a hero, declaring him the second founder of the city, anderased Hagnon's honors as much as they could.
The Greeks also honored founders of cities while they were still alive, like Hagnon. This could also be extended to men who did equally important things; during the period whenDion ruled inSyracuse, the Syracusans gave him "heroic honors" for suppressing the tyrants, and repeated this forTimoleon; these could also be described as worshipping his good spirit (agathos daimon,agathodaemon; every Greek had an agathodaemon, and the Greek equivalent of a toast was offered to one's agathodaemon).[23] Timoleon was calledsavior; he set up a shrine to Fortune (Automatia) in his house; and his birthday, the festival of hisdaimon, became a public holiday.[24]
Other men might claim divine favor by having a patron among the gods; soAlcibiades may have had bothEros andCybele as patrons;[25] and Clearchus of Heraclea claimed to be "son of Zeus". Alexander claimed the patronage of Dionysus and other gods and heroes;[26] he held a banquet atBactra which combined the toast to hisagathos daimon andlibations to Dionysus, who was present within Alexander (and therefore the celebrants saluted Alexander rather than the hearth and altar, as they would have done for a toast).[27]
It was not always easy to distinguish between heroic honors, veneration for a man's good spirit, worship of his patron deity, worship of the Fortune of a city he founded, and worship of the man himself. One might slide into another: In Egypt, there was a cult of Alexander as god and as founder of Alexandria;Ptolemy I Soter had a separate cult as founder ofPtolemais, which presumably worshipped hisdaimon and then gave him heroic honors, but inhis son's reign, the priests of Alexander also worshipped Ptolemy andBerenice as the Savior Gods (theoi soteres).[28]
Finally, a man might, like Philip II, assume some prerogatives of godhood and not others. The firstAttalid kings ofPergamum, were not gods, and supported a cult of Dionysus Cathegemon, as their ancestor; they put the picture ofPhiletaerus, the first prince, on the coins, rather than their own. Eventually, like the Seleucids, they acquired an eponymous priest, and put themselves on the coinage; but they still were not called gods before their deaths. Pergamum was usually allied with Rome, and this may have influenced the eventual Roman practice.[29]
In the last decades of the Roman Republic, its leaders regularly assumed extra-constitutional powers. Themos majorum had required that magistrates hold office collectively, and for short periods; there were twoconsuls; evencolonies were founded by boards of three men;[30] but these new leaders held power by themselves, and often for years.
The same men were often given extraordinary honors. Triumphs grew ever more splendid;Marius andSulla, the rival leaders in Rome's first civil war, each founded cities, which they named after themselves; Sulla had annual games in his honor, at Rome itself, bearing his name; the unofficial worship of Marius is above. In the next generation,Pompey was allowed to wear his triumphal ornaments whenever he went to theGames at the Circus.[31] Such men also claimed a special relationship to the gods: Sulla's patron was Venus Felix, and at the height of his power, he added Felix to his own name; his opponent Marius believed he had a destiny, and that no ordinary man might kill him. Pompey also claimed Venus' personal favour, and built her atemple. But the first Roman to become a god, as part of aiming at monarchy, wasJulius Caesar.
Caesar could claim personal ties to the gods, both by descent and by office. He was from thegens Julia, whose members claimed to be "descended fromAeneas and his motherVenus". In his eulogy for his auntJulia, Caesar also indirectly claimed to be descended fromAncus Marcius and the kings of Rome, and so fromMars.[32] Moreover, when he was a teenager, Marius had named himflamen Dialis, the special priest ofJupiter. Sulla had cancelled this appointment; however, relatively early in his career, Caesar had becomepontifex maximus, the chief priest of Rome, who fulfilled most of the religious duties of the ancient kings.[33] He had spent his twenties in the divine monarchies of the eastern Mediterranean, and was intimately familiar withBithynia.[34] Caesar made use of these connections in his rise to power, but not more than his rivals would have, or more than his other advantages. When hespoke at the funeral of his auntJulia in 69 BC, Julius Caesar spoke of her descent from the Roman kings, and implied his own; but he also reminded his audience she had been Marius' wife, and (by implication) that he was one of the few surviving Marians.
When, however, he defeated his rivals in 45 BC and assumed full personal control of the Roman state, he asserted more. During theRoman Civil War, since 49 BC, he had returned to the Eastern Mediterranean, where he had been called god and savior, and been familiar with the Ptolemaic Egyptian monarchy ofCleopatra, calledCleopatra Thea because of the weight she placed on her own divinity. Also, he had a new Senate to deal with. Most of the more resolute defenders of the Senate had joined with Pompey, and – one way or another – they were not sitting in the Senate. Caesar had replaced them with his own partisans, few of whom were committed to the old Roman methods; some of them were not even from Italy. It was rumoured that Caesar intended a despotic removal of power and wealth from Rome eastwards, perhaps to Alexandria orIlium (Troy).[35]
During the Civil War, he had declared Venus his patron goddess: he vowed to erect a temple for Venus Victrix if she granted him thebattle of Pharsalia, but he had built it, in 46 BC, toVenus Genetrix, which epithet combined her aspects as his ancestress, the mother of the Roman people, and the goddess invoked in the philosophical poemDe rerum natura. The new Senate had also put up a statue of Caesar, with an inscription declaring him a demi-god, but he had it effaced, as not the claim he wished to make.[36] Granted the same extension of rights to triumphal dress as Pompey had been given, Caesar took to wearing his triumphal head-wreath "wherever and whenever", excusing this as a cover for his baldness. He may also have publicly worn the red boots and thetoga picta ("painted", purple toga) usually reserved to a triumphing general for the day of his triumph; a costume also associated with therex sacrorum (the priestly "king of the sacred rites" of Rome's monarchic era, later thepontifex maximus), theMonte Albano kings, and possibly the statue ofJupiter Capitolinus.
When the news of his final victory, at thebattle of Munda, reached Rome, theParilia, the games commemorating the founding of the city, were to be held the next day; they were rededicated to Caesar, as if he were founder. Statues were set up to "Caesar's Liberty", and to Caesar himself, as "unconquered god."[37] He was accorded a house at public expense which was built like a temple; his image was paraded with those of the gods;[38] his portrait was put on the coins (the first time a living man had appeared on Roman coinage). Early in 44 BC, he was calledparens patriae (father of the country);[39] legal oaths were taken by his Genius; his birthday was made a public festival; the month Quinctilis was renamed July, in his honor (as June was named forJuno). At last a special priest, aflamen, was ordained for him; the first was to beMark Antony, Caesar's adjutant, then consul. To be served by a flamen would rank Caesar not only as divine, but as an equal of Quirinus, Jupiter, and Mars. InCicero's hostile account, the living Caesar's honours in Rome were already and unambiguously those of a full-blown god (deus).[40]
Caesar's name as a living divinity – not as yet ratified by senatorial vote – wasDivus Julius (or perhapsJupiter Julius);divus, at that time, was a slightly archaic form ofdeus, suitable for poetry, implying some association with the bright heavens. A statue of him was erected next to the statues of Rome's ancient kings: with this, he seemed set to make himself King of Rome, in the Hellenistic style, as soon as he came back from the expedition toParthia he was planning; but he was betrayed and killed in the Senate on15 March 44 BC.[41]
An angry, grief-stricken crowd gathered in theRoman Forum to see his corpse and hearMark Antony's funeral oration. Antony appealed to Caesar's divinity and vowed vengeance on his killers. A fervent popular cult todivus Julius followed. It was forcefully suppressed but the Senate soon succumbed to Caesarian pressure and confirmed Caesar as adivus of the Roman state. A comet interpreted as Caesar's soul in heaven was named the"Julian star" (sidus Iulium) and in 42 BC, with the "full consent of the Senate and people of Rome", Caesar's young heir, his great-nephewOctavian, held ceremonial apotheosis for his adoptive father.[42] In 40 BC Antony took up his appointment asflamen of thedivus Julius. Provincial cult centres (caesarea) to thedivus Julius were founded in Caesarian colonies such asCorinth.[43] Antony's loyalty to his late patron did not extend to Caesar's heir: but in the last significant act of the long-drawn civil war, on 1 August 31 BC, Octavian defeated Antony atActium.
In 30–29 BC, thekoina ofAsia andBithynia requested permission to worship Octavian as their "deliverer" or "saviour".[45] This was by no means a novel request but it placed Octavian in a difficult position. He must satisfy popularist and traditionalist expectations and these could be notoriously incompatible.Marius Gratidianus's popular support and cult had ended in his public and spectacular death in 82 BC, at the hands of his enemies in the Senate; likewise Caesar's murder now marked anhubristic connection between living divinity and death.[43] Octavian had to respect the overtures of his Eastern allies, acknowledge the nature and intent of Hellenic honours and formalise his own pre-eminence among any possible rivals: he must also avoid a potentially fatal identification in Rome as a monarchic-deistic aspirant. It was decided that cult honours to him could be jointly offered todea Roma, at cult centres to be built atPergamum andNicomedia. Provincials who were also Roman citizens were not to worship the living emperor, but might worshipdea Roma and thedivus Julius at precincts inEphesus andNicaea.[46][47][48]
In 29 BC Octavian dedicated thetemple of thedivus Julius at the site of Caesar's cremation. Not only had he dutifully, legally and officially honoured his adoptive father as adivus of the Roman state. He "had come into being" through the Julian star and was therefore thedivi filius (son of the divinity).[49] But where Caesar had failed, Octavian had succeeded: he had restored thepax deorum (lit. peace of the gods) and re-founded Rome through "August augury".[50] In 27 BC he was voted – and accepted – the elevated title ofAugustus.[51]
Augustus appeared to claim nothing for himself, and innovate nothing: even the cult to thedivus Julius had a respectable antecedent in the traditional cult todi parentes.[52] His unique – and still traditional – position within the Senate asprinceps orprimus inter pares (first among equals) offered a curb to the ambitions and rivalries that had led to the recent civil wars. As censor andpontifex maximus he was morally obliged to renew themos maiores by the will of the gods and the "Senate and People of Rome" (Senatus Populusque Romanus). Astribune he encouraged generous public spending, and asprinceps of the Senate he discouragedambitious extravagance. He disbanded the remnants of the civil war armies to form new legions and a personal imperial guard (thePraetorian Guard): the patricians who still clung to the upper echelons of political, military and priestly power were gradually replaced from a vast, Empire-wide reserve of ambitious and talented equestrians. For the first time, senatorial status became heritable.[53]
Ordinary citizens could circumvent the complex, hierarchic bureaucracy of the State, and appeal directly to the emperor, as if to a private citizen. The emperor's name and image were ubiquitous – on state coinage and on the streets, within and upon the temples of the gods, and particularly in the courts and offices of the civil and military administration. Oaths were sworn in his name, with his image as witness. His officialres gestae (achievements) included his repair of 82 temples in 28 BC alone, the founding or repair of 14 others in Rome during his lifetime and the overhauling or foundation of civic amenities including a new road, water supplies, Senate house and theatres.[54] Above all, his military pre-eminence had brought an enduring andsacred peace, which earned him the permanent title ofimperator and made the triumph anImperial privilege.[55] He seems to have managed all this within due process of law through a combination of personal brio, cheerfully veiled threats andself-deprecation as "just another senator".[56][57]
In Rome, it was enough that the office, munificence,auctoritas andgens of Augustus were identified with every possible legal, religious and social institution of the city. Should "foreigners" or private citizens wish to honour him as something more, that was their prerogative, within moderation; his acknowledgment of their loyalty demonstrated his own moral responsibility and generosity; "his" Imperial revenue funded temples, amphitheatres, theatres, baths, festivals and government. This unitary principle laid the foundations for what is now known as "imperial cult", which would be expressed in many different forms and emphases throughout the multicultural Empire.[citation needed]
In the Eastern provinces, cultural precedent ensured a rapid and geographically widespread dissemination of cult, extending as far as the Augustan military settlement at modern-dayNajran.[58] Considered as a whole, these provinces present the Empire's broadest and most complex syntheses of imperial and native cult, funded through private and public initiatives and ranging from the god-like honours due a living patron to what Harland (2003) interprets as privately funded communal mystery rites.[59][60] The Greek cities ofRoman Asia competed for the privilege of building high-status imperial cult centres (neocorates).Ephesus andSardis, ancient rivals, had two apiece until the early 3rd century AD, when Ephesus was allowed an additional temple, to the reigning EmperorCaracalla. When he died, the city lost its brief, celebrated advantage through a religious technicality.[61]
The Eastern provinces offer some of the clearest material evidence for the imperialdomus andfamilia as official models of divine virtue and moral propriety. Centres including Pergamum,Lesbos and Cyprus offered cult honours to Augustus and the Empress Livia: the Cypriot calendar honoured the entire Augustanfamilia by dedicating a month each (and presumably cult practise) to imperial family members, their ancestral deities and some of the major gods of the Romano-Greek pantheon. Coin evidence linksThea Livia withHera andDemeter, andJulia the Elder with Venus Genetrix (Aphrodite). In Athens, Livia and Julia shared cult honour withHestia (equivalent toVesta), and the name ofGaius was linked toAres (Mars). These Eastern connections were made within Augustus' lifetime – Livia was not officially consecrated in Rome until some time after her death. Eastern imperial cult had a life of its own.[62] Around 280, in the reign of the emperorProbus and just before the outbreak of theDiocletianic persecution, part of theLuxor Temple was converted to an imperial cult chapel.[63]
The Western provinces were only recently "Latinised" following Caesar'sGallic Wars and most fell outside the Graeco-Roman cultural ambit. There were exceptions: Polybius mentions a past benefactor ofNew Carthage in Republican Iberia "said to have been offered divine honours".[64] In 74 BC, Roman citizens in Iberia burned incense toMetellus Pius as "more than mortal" in hope of his victory againstSertorius.[65] Otherwise, the West offered no native traditions of monarchic divinity or political parallels to the Greekkoina to absorb the imperial cult as a romanising agency.[66] The Western provincialconcilia emerged as direct creations of the imperial cult, which recruited existing local military, political and religious traditions to a Roman model. This required only the willingness of barbarian elites to "Romanise" themselves and their communities.[67]
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The first known Western regional cults to Augustus were established with his permission around 19 BC in north-western ("Celtic") Spain and namedarae sestianae after their military founder,L. Sestius Albanianus Quirinalis.[68] Soon after, in either 12 BC or 10 BC, the first provincial imperial cult centre in the West was founded atLugdunum byDrusus, as a focus for his new tripartite administrative division ofGallia Comata. Lugdunum set the type for official Western cult as a form of Roman-provincial identity, parcelled into the establishment of military-administrative centres. These were strategically located within the unstable, "barbarian" Western provinces of the newPrincipate and inaugurated by military commanders who were – in all but one instance – members of the imperial family.[69]
The first priest of the Ara (altar) at Lugdunum's greatimperial cult complex wasCaius Julius Vercondaridubnus, a Gaul of the provincial elite, givenRoman citizenship and entitled by his priestly office to participate in the local government of his provincialconcilium. Though not leading to senatorial status, and almost certainly an annually elected office (unlike the traditional lifetime priesthoods of Romanflamines), priesthood in imperial provinces thus offered a provincial equivalent to the traditional Romancursus honorum.[70] The rejection of cult spurnedromanitas, priesthood and citizenship; in 9 ADSegimundus, imperial cult priest of what would later be known asColonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (sited at modernCologne in Germany) cast off or destroyed his priestly regalia to join the rebellion of his kinsmanArminius.[71]
In the early Principate, an altar inscribedMarazgu Aug(usto) Sac(rum) ("Dedicated to Marazgu Augustus"), identifies a localAncient Libyan (Berber) deity with the supreme power of Augustus. In the senatorial province ofAfrica Proconsularis, altars to theDii Magifie Augusti attest (according to Potter) a deity who was simultaneously local and universal, rather than one whose local identity was subsumed or absorbed by an Imperialdivus or deity.[72]Two temples are attested to Roma and the divus Augustus: one dedicated under Tiberius atLeptis Magna, and another (Julio-Claudian) atMactar.[73] Athird atCarthage was dedicated to theGens Augusta in the very early empire.[74]
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Even as he prepared his adopted son Tiberius for the role ofprinceps and recommended him to the Senate as a worthy successor, Augustus seems to have doubted the propriety of dynasticimperium; this, however, was probably his only feasible course.[75] When Augustus died, he was voted adivus by the Senate, and his body was cremated in a sumptuous funeral; his soul was said to have ascended to the heavens, to join his adoptive father among the Olympians; his ashes were deposited in the Imperial Mausoleum, which tactfully identified him (and later, his descendants) by his Imperial names, rather than asdivus.[76] After Augustus, the only new cults to Roman officials are those connected to the Imperial household.[77][78][79] On his death, the Senate debated and passed alex de imperio which voted Tiberiusprinceps through his "proven merit in office", and awarded him the honorificAugustus as name and title.[80]
Tiberius accepted his position and title as emperor with apparent reluctance. Though he proved a capable and efficient administrator, he could not match his predecessor's extraordinary energy and charisma. Roman historians described him as morose and mistrustful. With a self-deprecation that may have been entirely genuine, he encouraged the cult to his father, and discouraged his own.[81] After much wrangling, he allowed a single temple inSmyrna to himself and thegenius of the Senate in 26 AD; eleven cities had competed – with some vehemence and even violence – for the honour.[82] His lack of personalauctoritas allowed increasing praetorian influence over the Imperial house, the Senate and through it, the state.[83] In 31 AD, his praetorian prefectSejanus – by now a virtual co-ruler – was implicated in the death of Tiberius' son and heir apparentDrusus, and was executed as a public enemy. In Umbria, the imperial cult priest (sevir Augustalis) memorialised "the providence of Tiberius Caesar Augustus, born for the eternity of the Roman name, upon the removal of that most pernicious enemy of the Roman people". In Crete, thanks were given to "thenumen and foresight of Tiberius Caesar Augustus and the Senate" in foiling the conspiracy, but at his death the Senate and his heirCaligula chose not to officially deify him.[84]
Caligula's rule exposed the legal and moral contradictions of the Augustan "Republic". To legalise his succession, the Senate was compelled to constitutionally define his role, but the rites and sacrifices to the livinggenius of the emperor already acknowledged his constitutionally unlimited powers. Theprinceps played the role ofprimus inter pares only through personal self-restraint and decorum. It became evident that Caligula had little of either. He seems to have taken the cult of his owngenius very seriously and is said to have enjoyed acting the god – or rather, several of them. However, his infamous and oft-cited impersonations of major deities may represent no more than his priesthood of their cults, a desire to shock and a penchant for triumphal dress[85] or simply mental illness.[86] Whatever his plans, there is no evidence for his official cult as a livingdivus in Rome or his replacement of state gods, and none for major deviations or innovations in his provincial cult.[87] His reported sexual relations with his sisterDrusilla and her deification after death aroused scorn from later historians; after Caligula's death, her cult was simply allowed to fade. His reported extortion of priesthood fees from unwilling senators are marks of private cult and personal humiliations among the elite. Caligula's fatal offense was to willfully "insult or offend everyone who mattered", including the senior military officers who assassinated him.[88] The histories of his reign highlight his wayward impiety. Perhaps not only his: in 40 AD the Senate decreed that the "emperor should sit on a high platform even in the very Senate house".[89] Claudius (his successor and uncle) intervened to limit the damage to the imperial house and those who had conspired against it and had Caligula's public statues discreetly removed.[90]
Claudius was chosen emperor by Caligula'sPraetorian Guard and consolidated his position with cash payments (donativa) to the military. The Senate was forced to ratify the choice and accept the affront. Claudius adopted the cognomen Caesar, deified Augustus' wife, Livia, 13 years after her death and in 42 AD was granted the titlepater patriae (father of the country), but relations between emperor and Senate seem to have been irreparable.[91] Claudius showed none of Caligula's excesses. He seems to have entirely refused a cult to his owngenius: but the offer of cult simultaneously acknowledged the high status of those empowered to grant it and the extraordinary status of theprinceps – Claudius' repeated refusals may have been interpreted as offensive to Senate, provincials and the imperial office itself. He further offended the traditional hierarchy by promoting his own trustedfreedmen as imperialprocurators; those closest to the emperor held high status through their proximity.[92]
It has been assumed that he allowed a single temple for his cult inBritain, following his conquest there.[93] Thetemple is certain – it was sited atCamulodunum (modernColchester), the maincolonia in the province, and was a focus of British wrath during theBoudiccan revolt of 60 AD.[94] But cult to the living Claudius there is very unlikely: he had already refused Alexandrine cult honours as "vulgar" and impious and cult to living emperors was associated witharae (altars), not temples.[95] The British worship offered him as a livingdivus is probably no more than a cruel literary judgment on his worth as emperor. Despite his evident respect for republican norms, he was not taken seriously by his own class, and inSeneca's fawning Neronian fiction, the Roman gods cannot take him seriously as adivus – the wild British might be more gullible.[96] In reality, they proved resentful enough to rebel, though probably less against the Claudiandivus than against brutal abuses and the financial burden represented by its temple.
Claudius died in 54 AD and was deified by his adopted son and successorNero.[97] After an apparently magnificent funeral, thedivus Claudius was given atemple on Rome's disreputableCaelian Hill.[98] Fishwick remarks that "the malicious humour of the site can hardly have been lost by those in the know... the location of Claudius' temple in Britain (the occasion for his "pathetic triumph") may be more of the same".[99]
Once in power,Nero allowed Claudius' cult to lapse, built hisDomus Aurea over the unfinished temple, indulged his sybaritic and artistic inclinations and allowed the cult of his owngenius aspater familias of the Roman people.[100] Senatorial attitudes to him appear to have been largely negative. He was overthrown in a military coup, and his institutions of cult to his dead wife Poppaea and infant daughter Claudia Augusta were abandoned. Otherwise, he seems to have been a popular emperor, particularly in the Eastern provinces. Tacitus reports a senatorial proposal to dedicate a temple to Nero as a livingdivus, taken as ominous because "divine honours are not paid to an emperor till he has ceased to live among men".[101]
Nero's death saw the end of imperial tenure as a privilege of ancient Roman (patrician and senatorial) families. In a single chaotic year, power passed violently from one to another offour emperors. The first three promoted their owngenius cult: the last two of these attempted Nero's restitution and promotion todivus. The fourth,Vespasian – son of an equestrian fromReate – secured hisFlavian dynasty through reversion to an Augustan form ofprincipate and renewed the imperial cult ofdivus Julius.[102][103] Vespasian could not validate his reign in the same way as the previous Julio-Claudian dynasty, who could trace their lineage back to the divine ancestry of Julius Caesar. Without the ability to trace their origins to any Roman deity, the new Flavian dynasty under Vespasian had to establish a new standard of policy in order to rule over a people predisposed to the divine imperial cult tradition.[104] Vespasian was respected for his "restoration" of Roman tradition and the Augustan modesty of his reign. He dedicated state cult togenio populi Romani (thegenius of the Roman people), respected senatorial "Republican" values and repudiated Neronian practice by removing various festivals from the public calendars, which had (in Tacitus' unsparing assessment) become "foully sullied by the flattery of the times".[105] He may have had the head ofNero's Colossus replaced or recut for its dedication (or rededication) to thesun god in 75 AD.[106][107][108] Following the firstJewish Revolt and the destruction of theTemple inJerusalem in 70 AD, he imposed thedidrachmon, formerly paid by Jews for their Temple's upkeep but now re-routed to Jupiter Capitolinus as victor over them "and their God". Jews who paid the tax were exempt from the cult to imperial state deities. Those who offered it however were ostracised from their own communities.[109] Vespasian appears to have approached his own impending cult with dry humour: according toSuetonius, his last words wereputo deus fio ("I think I'm turning into a god"). Vespasian's sonTitus reigned for two successful years then died of natural causes. He was deified and replaced by his younger brotherDomitian.
Within two weeks of accession, Domitian had restored the cult of the ruling emperor'sgenius.[110] He remains a controversial figure, described as one of the very few emperors to scandalously style himself a livingdivus, as evidenced by the use of "master and god" (dominus et deus) in imperial documents. However, there are no records of Domitian's personal use of the title, its use in official address or cult to him, its presence on his coinage or in the Arval Acts relating to his state cult. It occurs only in his later reign and was almost certainly initiated and used by his own procurators (who in the Claudian tradition were also his freedmen).[111] Like any otherpater familias andpatron, Domitian was "master and god" to his extendedfamilia, including his slaves, freedmen and clients. Pliny's descriptions of sacrifice to Domitian on the Capitol are consistent with the entirely unremarkable "private and informal" rites accorded to living emperors. Domitian was a traditionalist, severe and repressive but respected by the military and the general populace. He admired Augustus and may have sought to emulate him but made the same tactless error as Caligula in treating the Senate as clients and inferiors, rather than as the fictive equals required by Augustan ideology. His assassination was planned and implemented from within his court, and his name officially but rather unsystematically erased from inscriptions.[112]
The Senate chose the elderly, childless and apparently reluctantNerva as emperor. Nerva had long-standing family and consular connections with the Julio-Claudian and Flavian families but proved a dangerously mild and indecisiveprinceps: he was persuaded to abdicate in favour ofTrajan.Pliny the Younger'spanegyric of 100 AD claims the visible restoration of senatorial authority and dignity throughout the empire underTrajan, but while he praises the emperor's modesty, Pliny does not disguise the precarious nature of this autocratic gift.[113] Under Trajan's very capable civil and military leadership, the office of emperor was increasingly interpreted as an earthly viceregency of the divine order. He would prove an enduring model for Roman imperial virtues.[114][115]
The emperorHadrian's Hispano-Roman origins and marked pro-Hellenism changed the focus of imperial cult. His standard coinage still identifies with thegenius populi Romani, but other issues stress his identification withHercules Gaditanus (Hercules ofGades), and Rome's imperial protection of Greek civilisation.[116] Commemorative coinage shows him "raising up" provincial deities (thus elevating and "restoring" the provinces); he promotedSagalassos in GreekPisidia as the Empire's leading imperial cult centre and in 131–2 AD he sponsored the exclusively GreekPanhellenion.[117] He was said to have "wept like a woman" at the death of his young loverAntinous, and arranged his apotheosis. Dio claims that Hadrian was held to ridicule for this emotional indulgence, particularly as he had delayed the apotheosis of his own sisterPaulina after her death.[118]
The cult ofAntinous would prove one of remarkable longevity and devotion, particularly in the Eastern provinces. Bithynia, as his birthplace, featured his image on coinage as late as the reign ofCaracalla (r. 211–217). His popular cult appears to have thrived well into the 4th century, when he became the "whipping boy of pagan worship" in Christian polemic.Vout (2007) remarks his humble origins, untimely death and "resurrection" astheos, and his identification – and sometimes misidentification by later scholarship – with the images and religious functions of Apollo, Dionysius/Bacchus, and later, Osiris.[119] In Rome itself he was alsotheos on two of three surviving inscriptions but was more closely associated with hero-cult, which allowed direct appeals for his intercession with "higher gods".[120][121] Hadrian imposed the imperial cult to himself and Jupiter on Judaea following theBar Kokhba revolt. He was predeceased by his wifeVibia Sabina. Both were deified but Hadrian's case had to be pleaded by his successorAntoninus Pius.[122]
Marcus Aurelius' tutorFronto offers the best evidence of imperial portraiture as a near-ubiquitous feature of private and public life.[123] Though evidence for private emperor worship is as sparse in this era as in all others, Fronto's letters imply thegenius cult of the living emperor as an official, domestic and personal practice, probably more common than cult to thedivi in this and other periods.[124]
Marcus' sonCommodus succumbed to the lures of self-indulgence, easy populism and rule by favourites.[125][126] He described his reign as a "golden age", and himself as a new Romulus and "re-founder" of Rome, but was deeply antagonistic toward the Senate – he reversed the standard "Republican" imperial formula topopulus senatusque romanus (the people and senate of Rome). He increasingly identified himself with the demigod Hercules in statuary, temples and in the arena, where he liked to entertain as abestiarius in the morning and a gladiator in the afternoon. In the last year of his life he was voted the official titleRomanus Hercules; the state cult to Hercules acknowledged him as heroic, a divinity or semi-divinity (but not adivus) who had once been mortal.[127] Commodus may have intended declaring himself as a living god some time before his murder on the last day of 192 AD.[128]
The Nervan-Antonine dynasty ended in chaos. The Senate declareddamnatio memoriae on Commodus, whoseurban prefectPertinax was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard in return for the promise of very largedonativa.[129] Pertinax had risen through equestrian ranks by military talent and administrative efficiency to become senator, consul and finally and briefly emperor; he was murdered by his Praetorians for attempting to cap their pay.[130] Pertinax was replaced byDidius Julianus, who had promised cash to the Praetorians and restoration of power to the Senate. Julianus began his reign with an ill-judged appeal to the memory of Commodus, a much resented attempt to bribe the populaceen masse and the use of Praetorian force against them. In protest, a defiant urban crowd occupied the senatorial seats at theCircus Maximus.[131] Against a background of civil war amongcompeting claimants in the provinces,Septimius Severus emerged as a likely victor. The Senate soon voted for the death of Julianus, the deification of Pertinax and the elevation of Septimius as emperor.[132] Only a year had passed since the death of Commodus.
"Sit divus dum non sit vivus" (let him be adivus as long as he is not alive).Attributed to Caracalla, before murdering his co-emperor and brother Geta.[133]
In 193 AD,Septimius Severustriumphally entered Rome and gave apotheosis toPertinax. He cancelled the Senate'sdamnatio memoriae of Commodus, deified him as afrater (brother) and thereby adopted Marcus Aurelius as his own ancestor through an act of filial piety.[134] Severan coin images further re-enforced Severus' association with prestigious Antonine dynasts and thegenius populi Romani.[135][136]
Severus' reign represents a watershed in relations between Senate, emperors, and the military.[137] Senatorial consent defined divineimperium as a republican permission for the benefit of the Roman people, and apotheosis was a statement of senatorial powers. Where Vespasian had secured his position with appeals to thegenius of the Senate and Augustan tradition, Severus overrode the customary preferment of senators to senior military office. He increased plebeian privilege in Rome, stationed a loyal garrison there and selected his own commanders. He paid personal attention to the provinces, as sources of revenue, military manpower and unrest. Following his defeat of his rivalClodius Albinus at Lugdunum, he re-founded and reformed its imperial cult centre:dea Roma was removed from the altar and confined to the temple along with the deified Augusti.[138] Fishwick interprets the obligatory new rites as those due anypater familias from his inferiors.[139] Severus' own patron deities,Melqart/Hercules andLiber/Bacchus, took pride of place with himself and his two sons at theSecular Games of 204 AD.[140] Severus died of natural causes in 211 AD atEboracum (modern York) while on campaign in Britannia, after leaving the Empire equally toCaracalla and his older brotherGeta, along with advice to "be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, and scorn all other men."[141]
By 212 AD, Caracalla had murdered Geta, pronounced hisdamnatio memoriae and issued theConstitutio Antoniniana: this gave full Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire.[142] and was couched as a generous invitation to celebrate the "victory of the Roman people" in foiling Geta's "conspiracy". In reality, Caracalla was faced by an endemic shortfall of cash and recruits. His "gift" was a far from popular move, as most of its recipients werehumiliores of peasant status and occupation – approximately 90% of the total population.Humiliores they remained, but now liable to pay taxes, serve in the legions and adopt the name of their "liberator". Where other emperors had employed themos maiorum of family obligation at the largely symbolic level ofgenius cult, Caracalla literally identified his personal survival with the state and "his" citizens.[143] Caracalla inherited the devotion of his father's soldiery but his new citizens were not inclined to celebrate and his attempts to court popularity in Commodan style seem to have misfired.[144] InPhilostratus' estimation, his embrace of Empire foundered on his grudging, parochial mindset. He was assassinated in 217 AD, with the possible collusion of his praetorian prefectMacrinus.[145]
The military hailed Macrinus asimperator, and he arranged for the apotheosis of Caracalla. Aware of the impropriety of his unprecedented leap through the traditionalcursus honorum from equestrian to emperor, he respectfully sought senatorial approval for his "self-nomination". It was granted – the new emperor had a lawyer's approach toimperium,[146] but his foreign policy proved too cautious and placatory for the military.[147] After little more than a year, he was murdered in a coup and replaced with an emperor of Syrian background and Severan descent,Varius Avitus Bassianus, more usually known by the Latinised name of his god and his priesthood, Elagabalus.[148]
The 14-year-old emperor brought his solar-mountain deity from his nativeEmesa to Rome and into official imperial cult.[149] In Syria, the cult of Elagabalus was popular and well established. In Rome, it was a foreign and (according to some ancient sources) disgusting Eastern novelty. In 220 AD, the priest Elagabalus replaced Jupiter with the god Elagabalus assol invictus (the unconquered Sun) and thereafter neglected his Imperial role aspontifex maximus. According to Marius Maximus, he ruled from his degeneratedomus through prefects who included among others a charioteer, a locksmith, a barber, and a cook.[150] At the very least, he appears to have been regarded as an unacceptably effete eccentric by the Senate and military alike. He was assassinated by the Praetorians at the age of 18, subjected to the fullest indignities ofdamnatio memoriae and replaced with his young cousinAlexander Severus, the last of his dynasty, who reigned for 13 years until killed in a mutiny in 235.
The end of the Severan dynasty marked thebreakdown of centralimperium. Against a background of economichyperinflation and latterly, endemic plague, rival provincial claimants fought for supremacy and failing this, set up their own provincial Empires. Most emperors seldom even saw Rome, and had only notional relationships with their senates. In the absence of coordinated Imperial military response, foreign peoples seized the opportunity for invasion and plunder.
Maximinus Thrax (reigned 235–8 AD) sequestered the resources of state temples in Rome to pay his armies. The temples of thedivi were first in line. It was an unwise move for his own posterity, as the grant or withholding of apotheosis remained an official judgment of Imperial worthiness, but the stripping of the temples of state gods caused far greater offense. Maximinus's actions more likely show need in extreme crisis than impiety, as he had his wife deified on her death,[151] but in a rare display of defiance the Senate deified his murdered predecessor, then openly rebelled.[152] His replacement,Gordian I, reigned briefly but successfully and was made adivus on his death. A succession of short-lived soldier-emperors followed. Further development in imperial cult appears to have stalled untilPhilip the Arab, who dedicated a statue to his father as divine in his home town ofPhilippopolis and brought the body of his young predecessorGordian III to Rome for apotheosis. Coins of Philip show him in theradiate crown (suggestive of solar cult or a Hellenised form of imperial monarchy), with Rome's temple to Venus anddea Roma on the reverse.[153]
In 249 AD, Philip was succeeded (or murdered and usurped) by his praetorian prefectDecius, a traditionalist ex-consul and governor. After an accession of doubtful validity, Decius justified himself as rightful "restorer and saviour" of Empire and itsreligio: early in his reign he issued a coin series of imperialdivi in radiate (solar) crowns.[154] Philip, the threeGordians, Pertinax and Claudius were omitted, presumably because Decius thought them unworthy of the honour.[155][156] In the wake of religious riots in Egypt, he decreed that all subjects of the Empire must actively seek to benefit the state through witnessed and certified sacrifice to "ancestral gods" or suffer a penalty: sacrifice on Rome's behalf by loyal subjects would define them and their gods as Roman.[157] Only Jews were exempt from this obligation.[158] The Decian edict required that refusal of sacrifice be tried and punished atproconsular level.Apostasy was sought, rather than capital punishment.[159] A year after its due deadline, the edict was allowed to expire and shortly after this, Decius himself died.[160]
Valerian (253–60) identified Christianity as the largest, most stubbornly self-interested of non-Roman cults, outlawed Christian assembly and urged Christians to sacrifice to Rome's traditional gods.[161][162] His son and co-AugustusGallienus, an initiate of theEleusinian Mysteries, identified himself with traditional Roman gods and the virtue of military loyalty.[163]Aurelian (270–75) appealed for harmony among his soldiers (concordia militum), stabilised the Empire and its borders and established an official, Hellenic form of unitary cult toSol Invictus in Rome'sCampus Martius. The Senate hailed him asrestitutor orbis (restorer of the world) anddeus et dominus natus (god and born ruler); he was murdered by his Praetorians. His immediate successors consolidated his achievements: coinage ofProbus (276–82) shows him in radiate solar crown, and his prolific variety of coin types include issues showing the temple of Venus andDea Roma in Rome.[164][165]
These policies and preoccupations culminated inDiocletian'sTetrarchy: the Empire was divided into Western and Eastern administrative blocs, each with an Augustus (senior emperor), helped by a Caesar (junior emperor) as Augustus-in-waiting. Provinces were divided and subdivided: their imperial bureaucracy became extraordinary in size, scope and attention to detail. Diocletian was a religious conservative. On his accession in AD 284, he held games in honour of thedivusAntinous.[166] Where his predecessors had attempted the persuasion and coercion of recalcitrant sects, Diocletian launched a series of ferocious reactions known in Church history as theDiocletianic Persecution. According toLactantius, this began with a report of ominousharuspicy in Diocletian'sdomus and a subsequent (but undated) dictat of placatory sacrifice by the entire military.[167] A date of 302 is regarded as likely andEusebius also says the persecutions of Christians began in the army.[168] However,Maximilian's martyrdom (295) came from his refusal of military service, andMarcellus' (298) for renouncing his military oath. Legally, these were military insurrections and Diocletian's edict may have followed these and similar acts of conscience and faith.[161] An unknown number of Christians appear to have suffered the extreme and exemplary punishments traditionally reserved for rebels and traitors.
Under Diocletian's expanded imperialcollegia, imperial honours distinguished both Augusti from their Caesares, and Diocletian (as senior Augustus) from his colleagueMaximian.[169] While the division of Empire andimperium seemed to offer the possibility of a peaceful and well-prepared succession, its unity required the highest investiture of power and status in one man. An elaborate choreography of etiquette surrounded the approach to the imperial person and imperial progressions. The senior Augustus in particular was made a separate and unique being, accessible only through those closest to him.[170]
Diocletian's avowed conservatism almost certainly precludes a systematic design toward personal elevation as a "divine monarch". Rather, he formally elaborated imperial ceremony as a manifestation of the divine order of Empire and elevated emperorship as the supreme instrument of the divine will. The idea was Augustan, or earlier, expressed most clearly inStoic philosophy and the solar cult, especially underAurelian. At the very beginning of his reign, before his Tetrarchy, Diocletian had adopted thesignum ofJovius; his co-Augustus adopted the titleHerculius. During the Tetrarchy, such titles were multiplied, but with no clear reflection of implicit divine seniority: in one case, the divinesignum of the Augustus is inferior to that of his Caesar. These divine associations may have followed a military precedent of emperors ascomes to divinities (or divinities ascomes to emperors). Moreover, the divinesignum appears in the fairly narrow context of court panegyric and civil etiquette. It makes no appearance on the general coinage or statuary of the Tetrarchs, who are presented as impersonal, near-homogenous abstractions of imperial might and unity.[171][172]
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TheAugustan settlement was promoted by its contemporary apologists as restorative and conservative rather than revolutionary.[173] Official cult to thegenius of the livingprinceps as "first among equals" recognised his exceptional powers, his capacity for self-restraint, and his pious respect for Republican traditions. "Good" emperors rejected offers of official cult as a living deity, and accepted the more modest honour ofgenius cult. Claims that later emperors sought and obtained divine honours in Rome reflect their bad relationship with their senates: in Tertullian's day, it was still "a curse to name the emperor a god before his death". On the other hand, to judge from the domestic ubiquity of the emperor's image, private cults to living emperors are as likely in Rome as elsewhere. As Gradel observes, no Roman was ever prosecuted for sacrificing to his emperor.[174][175]
Thedivi had some form of precedent in thedi parentes, divine ancestors who received ancestral rites asmanes (gods of the underworld) during theParentalia and other important domestic festivals. Their powers were limited; deceased mortals did not normally possess the divine power (numen) of the higher gods.[176][177] Deceased emperors did not automatically becomedivi; they must be nominated for the privilege. Their case was discussed by the Senate, then put to the vote.[178][179] As long as the correct rituals and sacrifice were offered, thedivus would be received by the heavenly gods as acoelicola (a dweller in heaven), a lesser being than themselves.[180] Popular belief held that thedivus Augustus would be personally welcomed by Jupiter. In Seneca'sApocolocyntosis, on the other hand, the unexpected arrival of the divinised Claudius creates a problem for the Olympians, who have no idea who or what he is; and when they find out, they cannot think what to do with him. Seneca's sarcastic wit, an unacceptable impiety towards adeus, freely portrays thedivus Claudius as just a dead, ridiculous and possibly quite bad emperor.[181] Though their images were sacrosanct and their rites definitively divine[182]divi could be created, unmade, reinstated or simply forgotten.[183] Augustus and Trajan appear to have remained the ideals for longer than any, and cult to "good"divi appears to have lasted well into the late Imperial dominate.
The immense power of living emperors, on the other hand, was mediated through the encompassing agency of the state. Once acknowledged aspater familias to an empire, a princeps was naturally entitled togenius cult from Imperial subjects of all classes. Cult to a living emperor'snumen was quite another matter and might be interpreted as no less than a statement of divine monarchy. Imperial responses to the first overtures of cult to the Augustnumen were therefore extremely cautious.[184] Only much later, probably in consequence of the hyperinflation of honours to living emperors, could a living emperor be openly, formally addressed asnumen praesens (the numinous presence).[185]
The obscure relationship betweendeus,divus andnumen in imperial cult might simply reflect its origins as a pragmatic, respectful and somewhat evasive Imperial solution using broad terminology whose meanings varied according to context. For Beardet al., a practicable and universal Roman cult of deified emperors and others of the Imperial house must have hinged on the paradox that a mortal might, like the semi-divine "heroic" figures of Hercules, Aeneas and Romulus, possess or acquire sufficient measure ofnumen to rise above their mortal condition and be in the company of the gods, yet remain mortal in the eyes of Roman traditionalists.[186]
Sacred offerings (sacrificium) formed the contract of public and privatereligio, from oaths of office, treaty and loyalty to business contracts and marriage. Participation insacrificium acknowledged personal commitment to the broader community and its values, which under Decius became a compulsory observance.[187] Livy believed that military and civil disasters were the consequence of error (vitium) in augury, neglect of due and proper sacrifice and the impious proliferation of "foreign" cults andsuperstitio.[188] Religious law focused on the sacrificial requirements of particular deities on specific occasions.[189]
In Julio-Claudian Rome, theArval priesthood sacrificed to Roman state gods at various temples for the continued welfare of the Imperial family on their birthdays, accession anniversaries and to mark extraordinary events such as the quashing of conspiracy or revolt. On 3 January they consecrated the annual vows: sacrifice promised in the previous year was paid, as long as the gods had kept the Imperial family safe for the contracted time. If not, it could be withheld, as it was in the annual vow following the death ofTrajan.[190] InPompeii, thegenius of the living emperor was offered a bull: presumably a standard practice in imperial cult at this time, though lesser offerings of wine, cakes and incense were also given, especially in the later Imperial era. Thedivi andgenii were offered the same kind of sacrifice as the state gods, but cult officials seem to have offered Christians the possibility of sacrifice to emperors as the lesser act.[191][192]
By ancient tradition, presiding magistrates sought divine opinion of proposed actions through an augur, who read the divine will through the observation of natural signs in the sacred space (templum) of sacrifice.[193] Magistrates could use their right of augury (ius augurum) to adjourn and overturn the process of law, but were obliged to base their decision on the augur's observations and advice. For Cicero, this made the augur the most powerful authority in the Late Republic.[194][195]
In the later Republic augury came under the supervision of the college ofpontifices, a priestly-magistral office whose powers were increasingly woven into thecursus honorum. The office ofpontifex maximus eventually became ade facto consular office.[196] When the consulLepidus died, his office aspontifex maximus passed to Augustus, who took priestly control over the State oracles (including theSibylline books), and used his powers ascensor to suppress unapproved oracles.[197] Octavian's honorific title of Augustus indicated his achievements as expressions of divine will: where the impiety of the Late Republic had provoked heavenly disorder and wrath(ira deorum), his obedience to divine ordinance brought divine peace(pax deorum).
Themos maiorum established the near-monarchic familial authority of the ordinarypater familias ("the father of the family" or the "owner of the family estate"), his obligations to family and community and his priestly duties to hislares and domesticpenates. His position was hereditary and dynastic, unlike the elected, time-limited offices of republican magistrates. His family – and especially his slaves and freedmen – owed a reciprocal duty of cult to hisgenius.[198][199]
Genius (pl.genii) was the essential spirit and generative power – depicted as a serpent or as a perennial youth, often winged – within an individual and their clan (gens, pl.gentes), such as theJulli (Julians) of Julius Caesar. Apater familias could confer his name, a measure of hisgenius and a role in his household rites, obligations and honours upon those he adopted. As Caesar's adopted heir, Octavian stood to inherit thegenius, heritable property and honours of his adoptive father in addition to those obtained through his own birth gens and efforts.[200] The exceptionally potentgenius of living emperors expressed the will of the gods through Imperial actions.[201] In 30 BC, libation-offerings to thegenius of Octavian (later Augustus) became a duty at public and private banquets, and from 12 BC, state oaths were sworn by thegenius of the living emperor.[202]
The Romanpater familias offered daily cult to hislares andpenates, and to hisdi parentes/divi parentes, in domestic shrines and in the fires of the household hearth.[203] As goddess of all hearths, including the ritual hearth of the State, Vesta connected the "public" and "private" duties of citizens. Her official cults were supervised by thepontifex maximus from a state-owned house near the temple of Vesta. When Augustus becamepontifex maximus in 12 BC he gave the Vestals his own house on the Palatine. Hispenates remained there as its domestic deities and were soon joined by hislares. His gift therefore tied his domestic cult to the sanctified Vestals and Rome's sacred hearth and symbolically extended hisdomus to the state and its inhabitants. He also co-opted and promoted the traditional and predominantly plebeianCompitalia shrines and extended their festivals, whoselares were known thereafter as Augusti.[204][205][206][207][208]
Rome's citizen legionaries appear to have maintained their Marian traditions. They gave cult to Jupiter for the emperor's well-being and regular cult to State, local and personal divinities. Cult to the Imperial person andfamilia was generally offered on Imperial accessions, anniversaries and renewal of annual vows: a bust of the ruling emperor was kept in the legionary insignia shrine for the purpose, attended by a designated militaryimaginifer. By the time of the early Severans, the legions offered cult to the state gods, the Imperialdivi, the current emperor'snumen,genius anddomus (orfamilia), and special cult to the Empress as "mother of the camp." At around this time,Mithraic cults became very popular with the military and provided a basis for syncretic imperial cult which absorbed Mithras intoSolar and StoicMonism as a focus of militaryconcordia and loyalty.[209][210][211]
An imperial cult temple was known as acaesareum (Latin) orsebasteion (Greek). In Fishwick's analysis, cult to Roman statedivi was associated with temples, and thegenius cult to the living emperor with his altar. The emperor's image, and its siting within the temple complex, focused attention on his person and attributes, and his position in the divine and human hierarchies. Expenditure on the physical expression of imperial cult was vast and was only curbed by the Imperial crisis of the 3rd century. As far as is known, no new temples to statedivi were built after the reign of Marcus Aurelius.[212]
The Imperialdivi and livinggenii appear to have been served by separate ceremonies and priesthoods. Emperors themselves could be priests of state gods, thedivi and their owngenius cult images. The latter practice illustrates the Imperialgenius as innate to its holder but separable from him as a focus of respect and cult, formally consistent with cult to the personification of ideas and ideals such as Fortune (Fortuna), peace (Pax) or victory (Victoria)et al. in conjunction with thegenius of the emperor, Senate or Roman people; Julius Caesar had shown his affinity with the virtue of clemency (clementia), a personal quality associated with his divine ancestor and patron goddess Venus. Priests typically and respectfully identified their function by manifesting the appearance and other properties of theirdeus. The duties of Imperial priests were both religious and magisterial: they included the provision of approved Imperial portraits, statues and sacrifice, the institution of regular calendrical cult and the inauguration of public works, Imperial games (stateludi) andmunera to authorised models. In effect, priests throughout the empire were responsible for re-creating, expounding and celebrating the extraordinary gifts, powers and charisma of emperors.[213]
As part of his religious reforms, Augustus revived, subsidised and expanded theCompitalia games and priesthoods, dedicated to theLares of thevici (neighbourhoods), to include cult to his own Lares (or to hisgenius as a popular benefactor). Thereafter, the Lares Compitales were known as Lares Augusti. Tiberius created a specialised priesthood, theSodales Augustales, dedicated to the cult of the deceased, deified Augustus. This priestly office, and the connections between the Compitalia cults and the Imperial household, appear to have lasted for as long as the imperial cult itself.[214]
Greek philosophies had significant influence in the development of imperial cult. Stoic cosmologists saw history as an endless cycle of destruction and renewal, driven byfortuna (luck or fortune),fatum (fate) andlogos (the universal divine principle). The same forces inevitably produced asōtēr (saviour) who would transform the destructive and "unnatural disorder" of chaos and strife topax,fortuna andsalus (peace, good fortune and well-being) and is thus identified with solar cults such asApollo andSol Invictus. Livy (in the early to mid 1st century BC), and Lucan (in the 1st century AD) interpreted the crisis of the late Republic as a destructive phase which led to religious and constitutional renewal by Augustus and his restoration of peace, good fortune and well-being to the Roman people. Augustus was a messianic figure who personally and rationally instigated a "golden age" – thePax Augusta – and was patron, priest and protege to a range of solar deities. The Imperial order was therefore not merely justified by appeals to the divine; it was represented as an innately natural, benevolent and divine institution.[215][216]
The imperial cult tolerated and later included specific forms of pluralisticmonism. For imperial cult apologists, monotheists had no rational grounds for refusal, but imposition of cult was counter productive. Jews presented a special case. Long before the civil war, Judaism had been tolerated in Rome by diplomatic treaty with Graeco-Judaean rulers. It was brought to prominence and scrutiny after Judaea's enrollment as a client kingdom in 63 BC.[217][218] The following Jewish diaspora helped disperse early "Judaic" Christianity. Early Christians appear to have been regarded as a sub-sect of Judaism and as such were sporadically tolerated.[219]
Jewish sources on emperors, polytheistic cult and the meaning of Empire are fraught with interpretive difficulties. In Caligula's reign, Jews resisted the placing of Caligula's statue in their Temple and pleaded that their offerings and prayers to Yahweh on his behalf amounted to compliance with his request for worship.[220] According toPhilo, Caligula was unimpressed because the offering was not made directly to him (whether to hisgenius or hisnumen is never made clear) but the statue was never installed. Philo does not challenge the imperial cult itself: he commends the god-like honours given Augustus as "the first and the greatest and the common benefactor" but Caligula shames the Imperial tradition by acting "like an Egyptian".[221] However, Philo is clearly pro-Roman: a major feature of the First Jewish Revolt (AD 66) was the ending of Jewish sacrifices to Rome and the emperor and the defacement of imperial images.[222]
To pagan Romans a simple act of sacrifice, whether to ancestral gods under Decius or state gods under Diocletian, represented adherence to Roman tradition and loyalty to the pluralistic unity of the Empire. Refusal to adhere to the cult was treason. Christians, however, identified "Hellenistic honours" as parodies of true worship.[223][224] Under the reign of Nero or Domitian, according toMomigliano, the author of theBook of Revelation represented Rome as the "Beast from the sea", Judaeo-Roman elites as the "Beast from the land" and thecharagma (official Roman stamp) as a sign of the Beast.[225] Some Christian thinkers perceived divine providence in the timing of Christ's birth, at the very beginning of the Empire that brought peace and laid paths for the spread of the Gospels; Rome's destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple was interpreted as divine punishment of the Jews for their refusal of the Christ.[226] With the abatement of persecution Jerome could acknowledge Empire as a bulwark against evil but insist that "imperial honours" were contrary to Christian teaching.[227]
Aspontifex maximusConstantine I favoured the "Catholic Church of the Christians" against theDonatists because:
it is contrary to the divine law... that we should overlook such quarrels and contentions, whereby the Highest Divinity may perhaps be roused not only against the human race but also against myself, to whose care he has by his celestial will committed the government of all earthly things.Official letter from Constantine, dated AD 314.[228]
In this change of Imperial formula Constantine acknowledged his responsibility to an earthly realm whose discord and conflict might arouse theira deorum; he also recognised the power of the new Christian priestly hierarchy in determining what was auspicious or orthodox. Though unbaptised, Constantine had triumphed under thesignum of the Christ (probably some form ofLabarum as an adapted or re-interpreted legionary standard). He may have officially ended – or attempted to end – blood sacrifices to thegenius of living emperors but his Imperial iconography and court ceremonial elevated him to superhuman status. Constantine's permission for a new cult temple to himself and his family in Umbria is extant: the cult "should not be polluted by the deception of any contagious superstition".[229] At theFirst Council of Nicaea Constantine united and re-founded the empire under an absolute head of state by divine dispensation and was honoured as the first Christian Imperialdivus. On his death he was venerated and was held to have ascended to heaven.Philostorgius later criticised Christians who offered sacrifice at statues of thedivus Constantine.[229] His three sons re-divided their Imperial inheritance:Constantius II was anArian – his brothers were Nicene.
Constantine's nephewJulian, Rome's last non-Christian emperor, rejected the "Galilean madness" of his upbringing for a synthesis ofneo-Platonism, Stoic asceticism and universal solar cult and actively fostered religious and cultural pluralism.[230] His restored Augustan form of principate, with himself asprimus inter pares, ended with his death in 363, after which his reforms were reversed or abandoned. The Western emperorGratian refused the office ofpontifex maximus and, against the protests of the Senate,[231] removed the altar ofVictoria (Victory) from the Senate House and began the disestablishment of the Vestals.Theodosius I briefly re-united the Western and Eastern halves of the Empire, officially adopted Nicene Christianity as the Imperial religion and ended official support for all other creeds and cults. He refused to restoreVictoria to the Senate House, extinguished Vesta's sacred fire and vacated her temple. Even so, he accepted address as a living divinity, comparable to Hercules and Jupiter, by his overwhelmingly pagan Senate.[232][233] After his death the sundered Eastern and Western halves of Empire followed increasingly divergent paths: nevertheless both were Roman and both had emperors. Imperial ceremonial – notably the Imperialadventus or ceremony of arrival, which derived in greater part from the Triumph – was embedded within Roman culture, Church ceremony and the Gospels themselves.[234]
The last Westerndivus was probablyLibius Severus, who died in 465 AD.[235] Very little is known about him. His Imperium was not recognised by his Eastern counterpart and he may have been a puppet-emperor of the Germanic generalRicimer. In the west, imperial authority was partly replaced by the spiritual supremacy and political influence of the Roman Catholic Church.
In the Eastern Empire, sworn adherence to Christian orthodoxy became a prerequisite of Imperial accession –Anastasius I signed a document attesting his obedience to orthodox doctrine and practice. He is the last emperor known to be consecrated asdivus on his death (AD 518). The title appears to have been abandoned on grounds of its spiritual impropriety but the consecration of Eastern emperors continued: they held power through divine ordinance and their rule was the manifestation of sacred power on earth. Theadventus and the veneration of the Imperial image continued to provide analogies for devotional representations (Icons) of the heavenly hierarchy and the rituals of the Orthodox Church.[236]
The Roman imperial cult is sometimes considered a deviation from Rome's traditional Republican values, a religiously insincerecult of personality which served Imperial propaganda.[237][238] It drew its power and effect, however, from both religious traditions deeply engrained in Roman culture, such as the veneration of thegenius of each individual and of the ancestral dead, and on forms of the Hellenistic ruler cult developed in the eastern provinces of the Empire.
The nature and function of imperial cult remain contentious, not least because its Roman historians employed it equally as a topos for Imperial worth and Imperial hubris. It has been interpreted as an essentially foreign, Graeco-Eastern institution, imposed cautiously and with some difficulty upon a Latin-Western Roman culture in which the deification of rulers was constitutionally alien, if not obnoxious.[239] In this viewpoint, the essentially servile and "un-Roman" imperial cult was established at the expense of the traditional Roman ethics which had sustained the Republic.[240] For Christians and secularists alike, the identification of mortal emperors with godhead represented the spiritual andmoral bankruptcy of paganism which led to the triumph of Christianity as Rome's state religion.[241][242]
Very few modern historians would now support this point of view. Some – among them Beardet al. – find no distinct category of imperial cult within the religio-political life of Empire: the Romans themselves used no such enveloping term. Cult to living or dead emperors was inseparable from Imperial state religion, which was inextricably interwoven with Roman identity and whose beliefs and practices were founded within the ancient commonality of Rome's social and domesticmos maiorum. Descriptions of cult to emperors as a tool of "Imperial propaganda" or the less pejorative "civil religion" emerge from modern political thought and are of doubtful value: in Republican Rome, cult could be given to state gods, personal gods, triumphal generals, magnates, benefactors, patrons and the ordinarypaterfamilias – living or dead. Cult to mortals was not an alien practise: it acknowledged their power, status and their bestowal of benefits. The Augustan settlement appealed directly to the Republicanmos maiorum and under the principate, cult to emperors defined them as emperors.[243]
With rare exceptions, the earliest institution of cult to emperors succeeded in providing a common focus of identity for Empire. It celebrated the charisma of Roman Imperial power and the meaning of Empire according to local interpretations ofromanitas,[244] firstly an agency of transformation, then of stability. Cult to Imperial deities was associated with commonplace public ceremonies, celebrations of extraordinary splendour and unnumbered acts of private and personal devotion. The political usefulness of such an institution implies neither mechanical insincerity nor lack of questioning about its meaning and propriety: an Empire-wide, unifying cult would necessarily be open to a multitude of personal interpretations but its significance to ordinary Romans is almost entirely lost in the critical interpretations of a small number of philosophically literate, skeptical or antagonistic Romans and Greeks, whether Christian or Hellene.[245][246] The decline of prosperity, security and unity of Empire was clearly accompanied by loss of faith in Rome's traditional gods and – at least in the West – in Roman emperors. For some Romans, this was caused by the neglect of traditional religious practices. For others – equally Roman – breakdown of empire was God's judgment on faithless or heretical Christians and hardened pagans alike.
As Roman society evolved, so did cult to emperors: both proved remarkably resilient and adaptable. Until its confrontation by fully developed Christian orthodoxy, "imperial cult" needed no systematic or coherent theology. Its part in Rome's continued success was probably sufficient to justify, sanctify and "explain" it to most Romans.[247][248] Confronted with crisis in Empire, Constantine matched the Augustan achievement by absorbing Christian monotheism into the Imperial hierarchy. Cult to emperors was not so much abolished or abandoned as transformed out of recognition.[249]
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