In early history, the Ilocano people referred to themselves as"Samtoy," a term derived from the Iloco phrasesao mi ditoy, meaning"our language."[20]
The term "Ilocano" originates from the native word"Ilúko" and has undergone linguistic evolution influenced by both indigenous andSpanish elements. It is derived from the Ilocano prefixi-, meaning"of" or"from," combined withluék, luëk, orloóc, which denote"sea" or"bay." This etymology suggests that the language, like the people, was historically associated with coastal settlements, thus signifying"language of the people from the bay."[21]
An alternative linguistic interpretation connects the term to the Ilocano wordslúku orlúkung, which refer toflatlands,valleys, or low-lying areas. According to this explanation, "Ilocano" may have originally meant"language of the people of the lowlands," distinguishing it from the languages spoken by mountain-dwelling communities.[22]
DuringSpanish colonization, the term "Ilocano" was formalized and adapted to Spanish linguistic conventions. The suffix-ano, commonly used in Spanish to denote a group or people (as seen in terms such asAmericano orMexicano), was appended to align with Spanish grammatical structures. This adaptation contributed to the term’s official recognition and widespread use in colonial records and classifications.
The Ilocano language, also known as Iloco, belongs to theAustronesian language family, specifically within theMalayo-Polynesian branch. It is widely believed to have originated inTaiwan through the "Out of Taiwan" migration theory. This theory, proposed by archaeologistPeter Bellwood, posits that the Philippines was populated by Austronesian-speaking people who migrated from Taiwan around3,000 BCE.[23][24]
Ilocano constitutes its own branch within the Philippine Cordilleran subfamily, which is part of the largerNorthern Luzon languages. It is spoken as a first language by approximately eight million people. LinguistLawrence Reid, an expert in Austronesian languages, categorizes over thirty Northern Luzon languages into five main branches:Northeastern Luzon,Cagayan Valley,Meso-Cordilleran, with Ilocano (Iloco) andArta further classified as group-level isolates.[25]
Serving as alingua franca for much of Northern Luzon and parts ofCentral Luzon, Ilocano is also spoken as a second language by over two million individuals. These speakers include native speakers of languages such asIbanag,Itawes,Ivatan,Bolinao,Pangasinan,Sambal, and other regional languages.[2]
The Iloco language is primarily spoken inNorthern Luzon with 8.7 million native speakers and about 2 million as second language,[2] where the highest concentration of Iloco speakers remains in their home provinces inIlocos Region, totaling approximately three million. As of the 2020 census, Iloco speakers account for 5.8% of the Philippine population, or 3,083,391 individuals, with the majority residing in the Ilocos Region. The province ofPangasinan has the largest number of Iloco speakers, at 1,258,746, followed byLa Union with 673,312,Ilocos Sur with 580,484, andIlocos Norte with 570,849.[26]
Ilocano-speaking density across provinces. Enlarge for detailed percent distribution.
Map of Ilocano-speaking areas, with striped regions showingItneg-Ilocano bilingual communities inAbra.
Areas where Iloco is the majority language, highlighting regions with the highest concentration of speakers.
Map of the areas where Ilocano is the majority native language.
InCagayan Valley, Iloco speakers number 2,274,435, representing 61.8% of the region’s population.Isabela has the highest number of Iloco speakers at 1,074,212, followed byCagayan with 820,546,Nueva Vizcaya with 261,901,Quirino with 117,360, andBatanes with 416. In theCordillera Administrative Region (CAR), where Iloco serves as alingua franca among the Cordilleran (Igorot) people, the number of Iloco speakers totals 396,713, comprising 22.1% of the region’s population. The province ofAbra, formerly part of the Ilocos Region, has the highest number of Iloco speakers at 145,492, followed byBenguet (includingBaguio City) with 138,022,Apayao with 47,547,Kalinga with 31,812,Ifugao with 26,677, andMountain Province with 7,163 Iloco speakers.[26]
In theVisayas, there are 13,079 Iloco speakers, and inMindanao, the number reaches 416,796. TheSOCCSKSARGEN region in Mindanao has the highest concentration of Iloco speakers, with 248,033, the majority of whom reside inSultan Kudarat (97,983).[26]
Internationally, Iloco is spoken in the United States, with the largest concentrations inHawaii andCalifornia,[15] as well as inCanada.[27] In Hawaii, 17% of those who speak a non-English language at home speak Iloco, making it the most spoken non-English language in the state.[16]
In September 2012, the province ofLa Union became the first in the Philippines to pass an ordinance recognizing Ilocano (Iloko) as an official provincial language, alongside Filipino and English. This ordinance aims to protect and revitalize the Ilocano language, although other languages, such asPangasinan,Kankanaey, andIbaloi, are also spoken in La Union.[18][5]
Pre-colonialIlocano people of all classes wrote in a syllabic system known asBaybayin before the arrival of Europeans. It is a system that is termed as anabugida, or an alphasyllabary, where each character represented a consonant-vowel, or CV, sequence. The Ilocano version of theDoctrina Cristiana, “Libro a Naisuratan amin ti bagas ti Doctrina Cristiana”, published in 1621, was the first to designate coda consonants with a diacritic mark – a cross orvirama. Before the addition of the virama, writers had no way to designate coda consonants. The reader, on the other hand, had to guess whether a consonant not succeeding a vowel is read or not, for it is not written. Vowel apostrophes interchange betweene ori, ando oru. Due to this, the vowelse andi are interchangeable, and letterso andu, for instance,tendera andtindira ('shop-assistant').
Ilocano version of theBook of Mormon, written with the Tagalog system, as can be seen by the use of the letter K
In recent times, there have been two systems in use: the Spanish system and the Tagalog system. In the Spanish system words of Spanish origin kept their spellings. Native words, on the other hand, conformed to the Spanish rules of spelling. Most older generations of Ilocanos use the Spanish system.
In the alphabet system based on that of Tagalog there is more of a phoneme-to-letter correspondence, which better reflects the actual pronunciation of the word.[a] The lettersng constitute adigraph and count as a single letter, followingn in alphabetization. As a result,numo ('humility') appears beforengalngal ('to chew') in newer dictionaries. Words of foreign origin, most notably those from Spanish, need to be changed in spelling to better reflect Ilocano phonology. Words of English origin may or may not conform to this orthography. A prime example using this system is the weekly magazineBannawag.
The following are two versions of the Lord's Prayer. The one on the left is written using Spanish-based orthography, while the one on the right uses the Tagalog-based system.
1.In Ilocano phonology, the labiodental fricative sound /f/ does not exist. Its approximate sound is /p/. Therefore, in words of Spanish or English origin, /f/ becomes /p/. In particular (yet not always the case), last names beginning with /f/ are often said with /p/, for exampleFernández /per.'nan.des/.2.The sound /h/ only occurs in loanwords, and in the negative varianthaan.
Historically, with the implementation by the Spanish of theBilingual Education System of 1897, Ilocano, together with the other sevenmajor languages (those that have at least a million speakers), was allowed to be used as a medium of instruction until the second grade. It is recognized by theCommission on the Filipino Language as one of the major languages of thePhilippines.[29] Constitutionally, Ilocano is an auxiliary official language in theregions where it is spoken and serves as auxiliary media of instruction therein.[30]
In 2009, theDepartment of Education instituted Department Order No. 74, s. 2009 stipulating that "mother tongue-based multilingual education" would be implemented. In 2012, Department Order No. 16, s. 2012 stipulated that the mother tongue-based multilingual system was to be implemented for Kindergarten to Grade 3 Effective School Year 2012–2013.[31] Ilocano is used in public schools mostly in the Ilocos Region and the Cordilleras. It is the primary medium of instruction from Kindergarten to Grade 3 (except for the Filipino and English subjects) and is also a separate subject from Grade 1 to Grade 3. Thereafter, English and Filipino are introduced as mediums of instruction.
Pedro Bucaneg the"Ama ti Literatura Ilocano" or Father of Ilocano literature
Ilocano literature traces its origins to theanimistic past of theIlocano people. Key narratives include creation myths featuring figures such as Aran,Angalo, and Namarsua, the Creator, alongside tales of benevolent and malevolent spirits.
An illustration depicting the Ilocano epic protagonistLam-ang
Ancient Ilocano poets articulated their expressions through folk and war songs, as well as thedállot, an improvised longpoem delivered in a melodic manner. A significant work within this literary tradition is the epicBiag ni Lam-ang (The Life of Lam-ang), which is one of the few indigenous narratives that have survived colonial influence.
Ilocano culture is further celebrated through life rituals, festivities, andoral traditions, expressed in songs (kankanta), dances (salsala), poems (dandániw),proverbs (pagsasao), and literary duels (bucanegan), which all preserve Ilocano identity and demonstrate its adaptability within the evolving Filipino cultural landscape.
During the Spanish regime, Iloco poetry was heavily influenced by Spanish literary forms, with the earliest written Iloco poems largely based on romances translated from Spanish by Francisco Lopez. In 1621, Lopez published theDoctrina Christiana, the first book printed inIloco. The 17th-century authorPedro Bucaneg, known for his collaboration with Lopez on theDoctrina, is celebrated as the "Father of Ilocano Poetry and Literature, credited for composing the epic poemBiag ni Lam-ang ("Life of Lam-ang"), which narrates the adventures of the Ilocano hero Lam-ang. A study of Iloco poetry can also be found in theGramatica Ilokana, published in 1895, which is based on Lopez's earlier work,Arte de la Lengua Iloca, published in 1627 but likely written before 1606.
In the 18th century, missionaries became involved in promoting literacy and religious education among the Ilocano population through the publication of religious and secular texts, includingSumario de las Indulgencias de la Santa Correa by Jacinto Rivera and a translation ofSt. Vincent Ferrer's sermons by Antonio Mejia. The 19th century witnessed the rise ofLeona Florentino, who has been recognized as theNational Poetess of the Philippines, although her sentimental poetry received criticism from modern readers for lacking depth and structure.
The early 20th century brought forth notable Ilocano writers such asManuel Arguilla, who was a guerrilla fighter duringWorld War II, andCarlos Bulosan who authored the novelAmerica Is in the Heart. Other distinguished writers from this period includeSionil Jose, known for his epic sagas set inPangasinan, andIsabelo de los Reyes, who was involved in preserving and publishing Ilocano literary works, including the earliest known text ofBiag ni Lam-ang.
While there is no official dialectology for Ilocano, the usually agreed dialects of Ilocano are two, which are differentiated only by the way the lettere is pronounced. In theAmiánan (Northern) dialect, there exist only five vowels while the olderAbagátan (Southern) dialect employs six.[7]
Amianan:/a/,/i/,/u/,/ɛ~e/,/o/
Abagatan:/a/,/i/,/u/,/ɛ~e/,/o/,/ɯ/
Reduplicate vowels are voiced separately with an intervening glottal stop:
saan:/sa.ʔan/ 'no'
siit:/si.ʔit/ 'thorn'
The letter inbold is the graphic (written) representation of the vowel.
For a better rendition of vowel distribution, please refer to theIPA Vowel Chart.
Unstressed /a/ is pronounced[ɐ] in all positions except final syllables, likemadí[mɐˈdi] ('cannot be') butngiwat ('mouth') is pronounced[ˈŋiwat]. Unstressed /a/ in final-syllables is mostly pronounced[ɐ] across word boundaries.
Although the modern (Tagalog) writing system is largely phonetic, there are some notable conventions.
In nativemorphemes, theclose back rounded vowel/u/ is written differently depending on the syllable. If the vowel occurs in theultima of the morpheme, it is writteno; elsewhere,u.
Instances such asmasapulmonto,'You will manage to find it, to need it', are still consistent. Note thatmasapulmonto is, in fact, three morphemes:masapul (verb base),-mo (pronoun) and-(n)to (future particle). An exception to this rule, however, islaud/la.ʔud/ ('west'). Also,u in final stressed syllables can be pronounced [o], like[dɐ.ˈnom] fordanum ('water').
The two vowels are not highly differentiated in native words due to fact that/o/ was anallophone of/u/ in the history of the language. In words of foreign origin, notably Spanish, they arephonemic.
Example:uso 'use';oso 'bear'
Unlikeu ando,i ande are not allophones, buti in final stressed syllables in words ending in consonants can be[ɛ], likeubíng[ʊ.ˈbɛŋ] ('child').
Unstressed /i/ and /u/ are pronounced[ɪ] and[ʊ] except in final syllables, likepintás ('beauty')[pɪn.ˈtas] andbuténg ('fear')[bʊ.ˈtɛŋ,bʊ.ˈtɯŋ] butbangir ('other side') andparabur ('grace/blessing') are pronounced[ˈba.ŋiɾ] and[pɐ.ˈɾa.buɾ]. Unstressed /i/ and /u/ in final syllables are mostly pronounced[ɪ] and[ʊ] across word boundaries.
The letter⟨e⟩ represents two vowels in the non-nuclear dialects (areas outside the Ilocos provinces)[ɛ~e] in words of foreign origin and[ɯ] in native words, and only one in the nuclear dialects of the Ilocos provinces,[ɛ~e].
Diphthongs are combination of a vowel and /i/ or /u/. In the orthography, the secondary vowels (underlying /i/ or /u/) are written with their corresponding glide,y orw, respectively. Of all the possible combinations, only /aj/ or /ej/, /iw/, /aw/ and /uj/ occur. In theorthography, vowels in sequence such asuo andai, do not coalesce into a diphthong, rather, they are pronounced with an intervening glottal stop, for example,buok 'hair'/bʊ.ʔok/ anddait 'sew'/da.ʔit/.
Diphthongs
Diphthong
Orthography
Example
/au/
aw (for native words) / au (for spanish loanwords)
kabaw 'senile',autoridad ‘authority’
/iu/
iw
iliw 'home sick'
/ai/
ay (for native words) / ai (for spanish loanwords)
The diphthong/ei/ is a variant of/ai/ in native words. Other occurrences are in words of Spanish and English origin. Examples arereyna/ˈɾei.na/ (from Spanishreina, 'queen') andtreyner/ˈtɾei.nɛɾ/ ('trainer'). The diphthongs/oi/ and/ui/ may be interchanged since/o/ is an allophone of/u/ in final syllables. Thus,apúy ('fire') may be pronounced/ɐ.ˈpoi/ andbaboy ('pig') may be pronounced/ˈba.bui/.
As for the diphthong/au/, the general rule is to use /aw/ for native words while /au/ will be used for spanish loanword such as the wordsautoridad, autonomia, automatiko. The same rule goes to the diphthong/ai/.
All consonantal phonemes except/h,ʔ/ may be a syllableonset orcoda. The phoneme/h/ is a borrowed sound (except in the negative varianthaan) and rarely occurs in coda position. Although the Spanish wordreloj 'clock' would have been heard as[re.loh], the final/h/ is dropped resulting in/re.lo/. However, this word also may have entered the Ilokano lexicon at early enough a time that the word was still pronounced/re.loʒ/, with thej pronounced as inFrench, resulting in/re.los/ in Ilokano. As a result, both/re.lo/ and/re.los/ occur.
The glottal stop/ʔ/ is not permissible as coda; it can only occur as onset. Even as an onset, the glottal stop disappears in affixation. Take, for example, the rootaramat[ʔɐ.ɾa.mat], 'use'. When prefixed withag-, the expected form is*[ʔɐɡ.ʔɐ.ɾa.mat]. But, the actual form is[ʔɐ.ɡɐ.ɾa.mat]; the glottal stop disappears. In a reduplicated form, the glottal stop returns and participates in the template, CVC,agar-aramat[ʔɐ.ɡaɾ.ʔɐ.ɾa.mat]. Glottal stop/ʔ/sometimes occurs non-phonemically in coda in words ending in vowels, but only before a pause.
Stops are pronounced without aspiration. When they occur as coda, they are not released, for example,sungbat[sʊŋ.bat̚] 'answer', 'response'.
Ilokano is one of the Philippine languages which is excluded from[ɾ]-[d] allophony, as/r/ in many cases is derived from aProto-Austronesian *R; comparebago (Tagalog) andbaró (Ilokano) 'new'.
The language marginally has a trill[r] which is spelled asrr, for example,serrek[sɯ.ˈrɯk] 'to enter'. Trill[r] is sometimes an allophone of[ɾ] in word-initial position, syllable-final, and word-final positions, spelled as single⟨r⟩, for example,ruar 'outside' [ɾwaɾ] ~ [rwar]. It is only pronounced flap[ɾ] in affixation and across word boundaries, especially when vowel-ending word precedes word-initial⟨r⟩. But it is different in proper names of foreign origin, mostly Spanish, likeSerrano, which is correctly pronounced[sɛ.ˈrano]. Some speakers, however, pronounceSerrano as[sɛ.ˈɾano].
The placement of primary stress is lexical in Ilocano. This results inminimal pairs such as/ˈkaː.jo/ ('wood') and/ka.ˈjo/ ('you' (plural or polite)) or/ˈkiː.ta/ ('class, type, kind') and/ki.ˈta/ ('see'). In written Ilokano the reader must rely on context, thus⟨kayo⟩ and⟨kita⟩. Primary stress can fall only on either thepenult or theultima of the root, as seen in the previous examples.
While stress is unpredictable in Ilokano, there are notable patterns that can determine where stress will fall depending on the structures of the penult, the ultima and the origin of the word.[2]
Foreign words – the stress of foreign (mostly Spanish) words adopted into Ilokano fall on the same syllable as the original.[h]
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
doktór
doctor
Spanish origin
agmaného
(to) drive
Spanish origin ('I drive')
agrekórd
(to) record
English origin (verb)
agtárget
to target
English origin (verb)
CVC.'CV(C)#but 'CVŋ.kV(C)# – in words with a closed penult, stress falls on the ultima, except for instances of/-ŋ.k-/ where it is the penult.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
addá
there is/are
Closed penult
takkí
feces
Closed penult
bibíngka
(a type of delicacy)
-ŋ.k sequence
'C(j/w)V# – in words whose ultima is a glide plus a vowel, stress falls on the ultima.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
al-aliá
ghost
Consonant–glide–vowel
ibiáng
to involve (someone or something)
Consonant–glide–vowel
ressuát
creation
Consonant–glide–vowel
C.'CV:.ʔVC# – in words where VʔV and V is the same vowel for the penult and ultima, the stress falls on the penult.
Vowel length coincides with stressed syllables (primary or secondary) and only on open syllables except for ultimas, for example,/'ka:.jo/ 'tree' versus/ka.'jo/ (second person plural ergative pronoun).
As primary stress can fall only on thepenult or theultima,suffixation causes a shift in stress one syllable to the right. The vowel of open penults that result lengthen as a consequence.
Ilocano is typified by a predicate-initial structure. Verbs and adjectives occur in the first position of the sentence, then the rest of the sentence follows.
Ilocano uses a highly complex list of affixes (prefixes, suffixes,infixes andenclitics) andreduplications to indicate a wide array of grammatical categories. Learning simple root words and corresponding affixes goes a long way in forming cohesive sentences.[33]
Ilocano uses two number systems, one native and the other derived from Spanish.
Numbers
0
ibbong awán (lit. 'none')
sero
0.25 (1/4)
pagkapat
kuarto
0.50 (1/2)
kagudua
mitad
1
maysá
uno
2
duá
dos
3
talló
tres
4
uppát
kuatro
5
limá
singko
6
inném
sais
7
pitó
siete
8
waló
otso
9
siám
nuebe
10
sangapuló (lit. 'a group of ten')
dies
11
sangapuló ket maysá
onse
12
sangapuló ket duá
dose
20
duápuló
beinte
30
tallópuló
treinta
50
limápuló
singkuenta
100
sangagasut (lit. 'a group of one hundred')
sien
1,000
sangaribo (lit. 'a group of one thousand'),ribo
mil
10,000
sangalaksa (lit. 'a group of ten thousand'),sangapulo a ribo
dies mil
1,000,000
sangariwriw (lit. 'a group of one million')
milion
1,000,000,000
sangabilion (American English, 'billion')
bilion (US-influenced),mil miliones
Ilocano uses a mixture of native and Spanish numbers. Traditionally Ilocano numbers are used for quantities and Spanish numbers for time or days and references.Examples:
Spanish:
Mano ti tawenmo?
'How old are you (in years)?' (Lit. 'How many years do you have?')
Baintiuno.
'Twenty one.'
Luktanyo dagiti Bibliayo iti libro ni Juan kapitulo tres bersikolo diesiseis.
'Open your Bibles to the book of John chapter three verse sixteen.'
Ilocano:
Mano a kilo ti bagas ti kayatmo?
'How many kilos of rice do you want?'
Sangapulo laeng.
'Ten only.'
Adda dua nga ikanna.
'He has two fish.' (lit. 'There are two fish with him.')
The names of the units of time are either native or derived from Spanish. The first entries in the following table are native; the second entries are Spanish-derived.
Units of time
second
kanito segundo
minute
daras minuto
hour
oras
day
aldaw
week
lawas dominggo (lit. 'Sunday'),semana (rare)
month
bulan
year
tawen anio
To mention time, Ilocanos use a mixture of Spanish and Ilocano:
1:00 a.m.Ala una iti bigat (one in the morning)
2:30 p.m.Alas dos y media iti malem, in Spanish:A las dos y media de la tarde (half past two in the afternoon)
6:00 p.mAlas sais iti sardang (six in the evening)
7:00 p.mAlas siete iti rabii (seven in the evening)
^However, there are notable exceptions. The reverse is true for the vowel/u/ where it has two representations in native words. The vowel/u/ is writteno when it appears in the last syllable of the word or of the root, for examplekitaemonto /ki.ta.e.mun.tu/. In addition,e represents two vowels in the southern dialect:[ɛ] and[ɯ].
^The '#' represents the start of the word boundary
^the symbol '∅' representszero or an absence of a phoneme.
^Ilocano syllables always begin with a consonant onset. Words that begin with a vowel actually begin with a glottal stop ('[ʔ]'), but it is not shown in the orthography. When the glottal stop occurs within a word there are two ways it is represented. When two vowels are juxtaposed, except certain vowel combinations beginning with/i/ or/u/ which in fact imply a glide/j/ or/w/, the glottal stop is implied. Examples:buokhair[buː.ʔok],daitsew[daː.ʔit], butnotruaroutside[ɾwaɾ]. However, if the previous syllable is closed (ends in a consonant) and the following syllable begins with a glottal stop, a hyphen is used to represent it, for examplelab-aybland[lab.ʔai].
^abcdefgLetters in parentheses are orthographic conventions that are used.
^Spanish permits stress to fall on the antepenult. As a result, Ilokano will shift the stress to fall on the penult. For example,árabean Arab becomesarábo in Ilocano.
^Bauer, Laurie (2007).The Linguistics Student's Handbook. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
^abRubino, Carl Ralph G. (December 1997).A Reference Grammar of Ilocano (in Ilocano and English). Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI A Bell & Howell Information Campany. p. 2.
^abSoria, Julius Bajet. "Paka(sarita)an in the Ilokano: Reclaiming a Native Tongue, Owning a Heritage".Educational Perspectives.48 (1 and 2):28–32 – via United States Department of Education.
^Rubino, Carl (2005).Iloko. In Alexander Adelaar and Nikolaus Himmelmann (eds.), The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar: London & New York: Routledge. pp. 326–349.
^Gelade, George P. (1993).Ilokano English Dictionary.CICM Missionaries/Progressive Printing Palace, Quezon City, Philippines. 719pp.
^Vanoverbergh, Morice (1956).Iloko-English Dictionary:Rev. Andres Carro's Vocabulario Iloco-Español. Catholic School Press,Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Baguio, Philippines. 370pp.
The Online Ilokano Dictionary Project (TOIDP) – A free Ilokano dictionary application for people to utilize to overcome the language barriers existing between the English and Ilokano languages.
Tarabay iti Ortograpia ti Pagsasao nga Ilokano – A free ebook version of the Guide on the Orthography of the Ilokano Language developed by the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino (KWF) in consultation with various stakeholders in Ilokano language and culture and developed back in 2012 as a resource material for the implementation of the Department of Education's K-12 curriculum with the integration of MTB-MLE or Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education.
Iluko.com popular Ilokano web portal featuring Ilokano songs, Iloko fiction and poetry, Ilokano riddles, and a lively Ilokano forum (Dap-ayan).
mannurat.com blog of an Ilokano fictionist and poet written in Iloko and featuring original and Iloko fiction and poetry, literary analysis and criticism focused onIlokano Literature, and literary news about Iloko writing and writers and organization like theGUMIL (Gunglo dagiti Mannurat nga Ilokano).
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