The name "Illyrians", as applied by the ancient Greeks to their northern neighbors, may have referred to a broad, ill-defined group of people. It has been suggested that the Illyrian tribes never collectively identified as "Illyrians", and that it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature at all.[3]Illyrians seems to be the name of a specific Illyrian tribe who were among the first to encounter the ancient Greeks during theBronze Age.[4] The Greeks later applied this termIllyrians,pars pro toto, to all people with similar language and customs.[5]
In archaeological, historical and linguistic studies, research about the Illyrians, from the late 19th to the 21st century, has moved fromPan-Illyrian theories, which identified as Illyrian even groups north of the Balkans to more well-defined groupings based on Illyrianonomastics and material anthropology since the 1960s as newer inscriptions were found and sites excavated. There are two principal Illyrian onomastic areas: the southern and the Dalmatian-Pannonian, with the area of theDardani as a region of overlapping between the two. A third area, to the north of them – which in ancient literature was usually identified as part of Illyria – has been connected more to theVenetic language than to Illyrian. Illyric settlement in Italy was and still is attributed to a few ancient tribes which are thought to have migrated along the Adriatic shorelines to the Italian peninsula from the geographic "Illyria": theDauni, thePeuceti andMessapi (collectively known asIapyges, and speaking theMessapic language).[6][7]
The term "Illyrians" last appears in the historical record in the 7th century, referring to aByzantine garrison operating within the formerRoman province of Illyricum.[8] What happened to the Illyrians after the settlement of the Slavs in the region is a matter of debate among scholars, and includes the hypothesis of the origin of theAlbanian language from theIllyrian language, which is often supported by scholars for obvious geographic and historical reasons but not proven.[9][10][11][12][13][14]
While the Illyrians are largely recorded under theethnonyms of Illyrioi (Ἰλλυριοί) and Illyrii, these appear to be misspelt renditions by Greek or Latin-speaking writers. Based on historically attested forms denoting specific Illyrian tribes or the Illyrians as a whole (e.g.,Úlloí (Ύλλοί) andHil(l)uri),[15][16]the native tribal name from which these renditions were based has been reconstructed by linguists such as Heiner Eichner as *Hillurio- (< older *Hullurio-). According to Eichner, this ethnonym, translating to 'water snake', is derived from Proto-Indo-European*ud-lo ('of water, aquatic') sharing a common root with Ancient Greeküllos (ϋλλος) meaning 'fish'[17] or a 'small water snake'.[18] The Illyrian ethnonym shows adl >ll shift via assimilation as well as the addition of the suffix -uri(o) which is found in Illyrian toponyms such asTragurium.[17]
Eichner also points out the tribal name's close semantic correspondence to that of theEnchelei which translates to 'eel-people', depicting a similar motif of aquatic snake-like fauna. It is also pointed out that the Ancient Greeks must have learned this name from a tribe in southern Illyria, later applying it to all related and neighbouring peoples.[19]
The termsIllyrians,Illyria andIllyricum have been used throughout history for ethnic and geographic contextualizations that have changed over time. Re-contextualizations of these terms often confused ancient writers and modern scholars. Notable scholarly efforts have been dedicated to trying to analyze and explain these changes.[20]
The first known mention of Illyrians occurred in the late 6th and the early 5th century BC in fragments ofHecataeus of Miletus, the author ofGenealogies (Γενεαλογίαι) and ofDescription of the Earth orPeriegesis (Περίοδος Γῆς orΠεριήγησις), where the Illyrians are described as abarbarian people.[21][22][note 1] In theMacedonian history during the 6th and 5th century BC, the termIllyrian had a political meaning that was quite definite, denoting a kingdom established on the north-western borders ofUpper Macedonia.[25] From the 5th century BC onwards, the termIllyrian was already applied to a large ethnic group whose territory extended deep into the Balkan mainland.[26][note 2]Ancient Greeks clearly considered the Illyrians as a completely distinctethnos from both the neighboringThracians and theMacedonians.[32]
Most scholars hold that the territory originally designated as 'Illyrian' was roughly located in the region of the south-easternAdriatic (modernAlbania andMontenegro) and its hinterland, then was later extended to the whole RomanIllyricum province, which stretched from the eastern Adriatic to theDanube.[20] After the Illyrians had come to be widely known to the Greeks due to their proximity, this ethnic designation was broadened to include other peoples who, for some reason, were considered by ancient writers to be related with those peoples originally designated as Illyrians (Ἰλλυριοί,Illyrioi).[26][33]
The original designation may have occurred either during the Middle/LateBronze Age[34] or at the beginning of the 8th century BC.[3] According to the former hypothesis, the name was taken by traders from southern Greece from a small group of people on the coast, theIllyrioi/Illyrii (first mentioned byPseudo-Skylax and later described byPliny the Elder), and thereafter applied to all of the people of the region; this has been explained by the substantial evidence ofMinoan andMycenaean contact inthe valley where the Illyrioi/Illyrii presumably lived.[34] According to the latter hypothesis the label Illyrians was first used by outsiders, in particularAncient Greeks; this has been argued on the basis that when the Greeks began to frequent the eastern Adriatic coast with the colonization ofCorcyra, they started to have some knowledge and perceptions of the indigenous peoples of western Balkans.[3]
It has been suggested that the Illyrian tribes evidently never collectively identified themselves as Illyrians and that it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature at all.[3] Most modern scholars are certain that all the peoples of western Balkans that were collectively labeled as 'Illyrians' were not a culturally or linguisticallyhomogeneous entity.[35][36] For instance, some tribes like theBryges would not have been identified as Illyrian.[37] What criteria were initially used to define this group of peoples or how and why the term 'Illyrians' began to be used to describe the indigenous population of western Balkans cannot be said with certainty.[38] Scholarly debates have been waged to find an answer to the question whether the term 'Illyrians' (Ἰλλυριοί) derived from someeponymous tribe, or whether it has been applied to designate the indigenous population as a general term for some other specific reason.[39]
Ancient Roman writersPliny the Elder andPomponius Mela used the termIllyrii proprie dicti ('properly called Illyrians') to designate a people that was located in the coast of modern Albania and Montenegro.[39] Many modern scholars view the 'properly called Illyrians' as a trace of the Illyrian kingdom known in the sources from the 4th century BC until 167 BC, which was ruled in Roman times by theArdiaei andLabeatae when it was centered in theBay of Kotor andLake Skadar. According to other modern scholars, the termIllyrii may have originally referred only to a smallethnos in the area betweenEpidaurum andLissus, and Pliny and Mela may have followed a literary tradition that dates back as early asHecataeus of Miletus.[21][39] Placed in central Albania, theIllyrii proprie dicti also might have been Rome's first contact with Illyrian peoples. In that case, it did not indicate an original area from which the Illyrians expanded.[40] The area of theIllyrii proprie dicti is largely included in the southern Illyrian onomastic province in modern linguistics.[41]
The Illyrians emerged from the fusion of PIE-descendedYamnaya-related population movements ca. 2500 BCE in the Balkans with the pre-existing Balkan Neolithic population, initially forming "Proto-Illyrian" Bronze Age cultures in the Balkans.[42][43][44] The proto-Illyrians during the course of their settlement towards the Adriatic coast merged with such populations of a pre-Illyrian substratum – like Enchelei might have been – leading to the formation of the historical Illyrians who were attested in later times. It has been suggested that the myth ofCadmus andHarmonia may be a reflection in mythology of the end of the pre-Illyrian era in the southern Adriatic region as well as in those regions located north of Macedonia and Epirus.[45]
OlderPan-Illyrian theories which emerged in the 1920s placed the proto-Illyrians as the original inhabitants of a very large area which reached central Europe. These theories, which have been dismissed, were used in the politics of the era and its racialist notions ofNordicism andAryanism.[35] The main fact which these theories tried to address was the existence of traces of Illyrian toponymy in parts of Europe beyond the western Balkans, an issue whose origins are still unclear.[46] The specific theories have found little archaeological corroboration, as no convincing evidence for significant migratory movements from theUrnfield-Lusatian culture into the west Balkans has ever been found.[47][48][49]
Patterson et al. 2022 study examined 18 samples from the Middle Bronze Age up to Early Iron Age Croatia, which was part of Illyria. Out of the nine Y-DNA samples retrieved, which coincide with the historical territory where Illyrians lived (including testedIapodian andLiburnian sites), almost all belonged to the patrilineal line J2b2a1-L283 (>J-PH1602 > J-Y86930 and >J-Z1297 subclades) with the exception of oneR1b-L2. The mtDNA haplogroups fell under various subclades of H, H1, H3b, H5, J1c2, J1c3, T2a1a, T2b, T2b23, U5a1g, U8b1b1, HV0e. In a three-way admixture model, they approximately had 49-59% EEF, 35-46% Steppe and 2-10% WHG-related ancestry.[51] In Lazaridis et al. (2022) key parts of the territory of historical territory of Illyria were tested. In 18 samples from the Cetina culture, all males except for one (R-L51 > Z2118) carried Y-DNA haplogroup J-L283. Many of them could be further identified as J-L283 > Z597 (> J-Y15058 > J-Z38240 > J-PH1602). The majority of individuals carried mtDNA haplogroups J1c1 and H6a1a. The relatedPosušje culture yielded the same Y-DNA haplogroup (J-L283 > J-Z38240). The same J-L283 population appears in the MBA-IA Velim Kosa tumuli of Liburni in Croatia (J-PH1602), and similar in LBA-IA Velika Gruda tumuli in Montenegro (J-Z2507 > J-Z1297 > J-Y21878). The oldest J-L283 (> J-Z597) sample in the study was found in MBAShkrel, northern Albania as early as the 19th century BCE. In northern Albania, IA Çinamak, half of them men carried J-L283 (> J-Z622, J-Y21878) and the other half R-M269 (R-CTS1450, R-PF7563). The oldest sample in Çinamak dates to the first era of post-Yamnaya movements (EBA) and carries R-M269.[52] Autosomally, Croatian Bronze Age samples from various sites, from Cetina valley and Bezdanjača Cave were "extremely similar in their ancestral makeup",[53] while from Montenegro's Velika Gruda mainly had an admixture of "Anatolian Neolithic (~50%), Eastern European hunter-gatherer (~12%), and Balkan hunter-gatherer ancestry (~18%)".[54] The oldest Balkan J-L283 samples have been found in final Early Bronze Age (ca. 1950 BCE) site ofMokrin in Serbia and about 100–150 years later in Shkrel, northern Albania.[55][56]
Aneli et al. 2022 based on samples from EIA Dalmatia argue that the Early Iron Age Illyrians made "part of the same Mediterranean continuum" with the "autochthonous [...]Roman Republicans" and had high affinity withDaunians, part ofIapygians inApulia, southeastern Italy. Iron Age male samples from Daunian sites have yielded J-M241>J-L283+, R-M269>Z2103+ and I-M223 lineages.[57] Three Bronze Age males which carry J-L283 have been found in the Late Bronze AgeNuragic civilization ofSardinia. This late find in Sardinia in comparison to western Balkan samples suggests a dispersal from the western Balkans towards this region, perhaps via an intermediary group in the Italian peninsula.[58]
Different versions of the genealogy of the Illyrians, their tribes and their eponymous ancestor,Illyrius, existed in the ancient world both in fictional and non-fictionalGreco-Roman literature. The fact that there were many versions of the genealogical story of Illyrius was ascertained byAncient Greek historianAppian (1st–2nd century AD). However, only two versions of all these genealogical stories are attested.[59][60] The first version—which reports the legend ofCadmus andHarmonia—was recorded byEuripides andStrabo in accounts that would be presented in detail inBibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus (1st to 2nd century AD).[61] The second version—which reports the legend ofPolyphemus andGalatea—was recorded byAppian (1st–2nd century AD) in hisIllyrike.[59]
According to the first versionIllyrius was the son ofCadmus andHarmonia, whom theEnchelei had chosen to be their leaders. He eventually ruled Illyria and became theeponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian people.[62] In one of these versions, Illyrius was named so after Cadmus left him by a river named theIllyrian, where a serpent found and raised him.[61]
Appian writes that many mythological stories were still circulating in his time,[63] and he chose a particular version because it seemed to be the most correct one. Appian's genealogy of tribes is not complete as he writes that other Illyrian tribes exist, which he has not included.[61] According toAppian's tradition,Polyphemus andGalatea gave birth toCeltus,Galas, andIllyrius,[64] three brothers, progenitors respectively of Celts, Galatians and Illyrians.Illyrius had multiple sons:Encheleus,Autarieus, Dardanus, Maedus,Taulas andPerrhaebus, and daughters: Partho, Daortho, Dassaro and others. From these, sprang theTaulantii,Parthini,Dardani,Encheleae,Autariates,Dassaretii and theDaorsi. Autareius had a son Pannonius or Paeon and these had sonsScordiscus andTriballus.[5] Appian's genealogy was evidently composed inRoman times encompassing barbarian peoples other than Illyrians likeCelts andGalatians.[65] and choosing a specific story for his audience that included most of the peoples who dwelled in the Illyricum of theAntonine era.[63] However, the inclusion in his genealogy of theEnchelei and theAutariatae, whose political strength has been highly weakened, reflects a pre-Roman historical situation.[66][note 3]
Basically, ancient Greeks included in their mythological accounts all the peoples with whom they had close contacts. In Roman times, ancient Romans created more mythical or genealogical relations to include various new peoples, regardless of their large ethnic and cultural differences. Appian's genealogy lists the earliest known peoples of Illyria in the group of the first generation, consisting mostly of southern Illyrian peoples firstly encountered by the Greeks, some of which were theEnchelei, theTaulantii, theDassaretii and theParthini.[67][68] Some peoples that came to the Balkans at a later date such as theScordisci are listed in the group that belongs to the third generation. The Scordisci were a Celtic people mixed with the indigenous Illyrian and Thracian population. ThePannonians have not been known to the Greeks, and it seems that before the 2nd century BC they did not come into contact with the Romans. Almost all the Greek writers referred to the Pannonians with the namePaeones until late Roman times. The Scordisci and Pannonians were considered Illyrian mainly because they belonged to Illyricum since the earlyRoman Imperial period.[69]
In southernIllyria organized realms were formed earlier than in other areas of this region. One of the oldest known Illyrian kingdoms is that of theEnchelei, which seems to have reached its height from the 8th–7th centuries BC, but the kingdom fell from dominant power around the 6th century BC.[70] It seems that the weakening of the kingdom of Enchelae resulted in their assimilation and inclusion into a newly established Illyrian realm at the latest in the 5th century BC, marking the arising of theDassaretii, who appear to have replaced the Enchelei in the lakeland area ofLychnidus.[71][72] According to a number of modern scholars the dynasty ofBardylis—the first attested Illyrian dynasty—was Dassaretan.[73][note 4]
The weakening of the Enchelean realm was also caused by the strengthening of another Illyrian kingdom established in its vicinity—that of theTaulantii—which existed for some time along with that of the Enchelei.[77] The Taulantii—another people among the more anciently known groups of Illyrian tribes—lived on theAdriatic coast of southernIllyria (modernAlbania), dominating at various times much of the plain between theDrin and theAous, comprising the area aroundEpidamnus/Dyrrhachium.[78][note 5] In the 7th century BC the Taulantii invoked the aid ofCorcyra andCorinth in a war against theLiburni. After the defeat and expulsion from the region of the Liburni, the Corcyreans founded in 627 BC on the Illyrian mainland a colony calledEpidamnus, thought to have been the name of a barbarian king of the region.[80]
The youngPyrrhus at the court of King Glaukias of Taulantii by Hyacinthe Collin de Vermont, early 19th century
A flourishing commercial centre emerged and the city grew rapidly. The Taulantii continued to play an important role in Illyrian history between the 5th and 4th–3rd centuries BC, and in particular, in the history of Epidamnus, both as its neighbors and as part of its population. Notably they influenced the affairs in the internal conflicts between aristocrats and democrats.[81][82] The Taulantian kingdom seems to have reached its climax duringGlaukias' rule, in the years between 335 BC and 302 BC.[83][84][85]
At theNeretva Delta, there was a strongHellenistic influence on the Illyrian tribe ofDaors. Their capital wasDaorson located inOšanići nearStolac inHerzegovina, which became the main center of classical Illyrian culture. Daorson, during the 4th century BC, was surrounded bymegalithic, 5 meter high stonewalls, composed out of large trapeze stones blocks. Daors also made unique bronzecoins and sculptures. The Illyrians even conqueredGreek colonies on the Dalmatian islands.
AfterPhilip II of Macedon defeatedBardylis (358 BC), theGrabaei underGrabos II became the strongest state in Illyria.[86] Philip II killed 7,000 Illyrians in a great victory and annexed the territory up toLake Ohrid. Next, Philip II reduced the Grabaei, and then went for theArdiaei, defeated theTriballi (339 BC), and fought withPleurias (337 BC).[87]
During the second part of the 3rd century BC, a number of Illyrian tribes seem to have united to form aproto-state stretching from the central part of present-day Albania up toNeretva river inHerzegovina. The political entity was financed on piracy and ruled from 250 BC by the kingAgron. The Illyrian attack under Agron, against Aerolians mounted in either 232 or 231 BC, is described by Polybius:
One hundred lembi with 5000 men on board sailed up to land at Medion. Dropping anchor at daybreak, they disembarked speedily and in secret. They then formed up in the order that was usual in their own country, and advanced in their several companies against theAetolian lines. The latter were overwhelmed with astonishment at the unexpected nature and boldness of the move; but they had long been inspired with overweening self-confidence, and having full reliance on their own forces were far from being dismayed. They drew up the greater part of theirhoplites and cavalry in front of their own lines on the level ground, and with a portion of their cavalry and their lightinfantry they hastened to occupy some rising ground in front of their camp, which nature had made easily defensible. A single charge, however, of the Illyrians, whose numbers and close order gave them irresistible weight, served to dislodge the light-armed troops, and forced the cavalry who were on the ground with them to retire to the hoplites. But the Illyrians, being on higher ground, and charging down on from it upon the Aetolian trrops formed up on the plain, routed them without difficulty. The Medionians joined the action by sallying out of the town and charging the Aetolians, thus, after killing a great number, and taking a still greater number prisoners, and becoming masters also of their arms and baggage, the Illyrians, having carried out the orders of Agron, conveyed their baggage and the rest of their booty to their boats and immediately set sail for their own country.[88]
He was succeeded by his wifeTeuta, who assumed theregency for her stepsonPinnes following Agron's death in 231 BC.[89]
In his workThe Histories,Polybius (2nd century BC) reported first diplomatic contacts between the Romans and Illyrians.[90] In theIllyrian Wars of 229 BC, 219 BC and 168 BC,Rome overran the Illyrian settlements and suppressed thepiracy that had made theAdriatic unsafe for Roman commerce.[91] There were threecampaigns: the first againstTeuta, the second againstDemetrius of Pharos and the third againstGentius.[92] The initial campaign in 229 BC marks the first time that theRoman Navy crossed the Adriatic Sea to launch an invasion.[93]The impetus behind the emergence of larger regional groups, such as "Iapodes", "Liburnians", "Pannonians" etc., is traced to increased contacts with the Mediterranean andLa Tène 'global worlds'.[94] This catalyzed "the development of more complex political institutions and the increase in differences between individual communities".[95] Emerging local elites selectively adopted either La Tène or Hellenistic and, later, Roman cultural templates "in order to legitimize and strengthen domination within their communities. They were competing fiercely through either alliance or conflict and resistance to Roman expansion. Thus, they established more complex political alliances, which convinced (Greco-Roman) sources to see them as 'ethnic' identities."[96]
TheRoman Republic subdued the Illyrians during the 2nd century BC. AnIllyrian revolt was crushed underAugustus, resulting in the division of Illyria in the provinces ofPannonia in the north andDalmatia in the south.[citation needed] Depictions of the Illyrians, usually described as "barbarians" or "savages", are universally negative in Greek and Roman sources.[97]
Prior to theRoman conquest ofIllyria, theRoman Republic had started expanding its power and territory across theAdriatic Sea. The Romans came nevertheless into a series of conflicts with the Illyrians, equally known as theIllyrian Wars, beginning in 229 BC until 168 BC as the Romans defeatedGentius atScodra.[98] TheGreat Illyrian Uprising took place in the Roman province of Illyricum in the 1st century AD, in which an alliance of native peoples revolted against the Romans. The main ancient source that describes this military conflict isVelleius Paterculus, which was incorporated into the second book ofRoman History. Another ancient source about it is the biography of OctaviusAugustus byPliny the Elder.[99] The two leaders of uprising wereBato the Breucian andBato the Daesitiate.[citation needed]
Geographically, the name 'Illyria' came to mean RomanIllyricum which from the 4th century to the 7th century signified theprefecture of Illyricum. It covered much of the western and central Balkans. After the defeat of the Great Illyrian Revolt and the consolidation of Roman power in the Balkans, the process of integration of Illyrians in the Roman world accelerated even further. Some Illyrian communities were organized in their pre-Roman locations under their owncivitates. Others migrated or were forcefully resettled in different regions. Some groups like theAzali were transferred from their homeland to frontier areas (northern Hungary) after the Great Illyrian Revolt. InDacia, Illyrian communities like thePirustae who were skilled miners were settled to the gold mines ofAlburnus Maior where they formed their own communities. InTrajan's period these population movements were likely part of a deliberate policy of resettling, while later they involved free migrations. In their new regions, they were free salaried workers. Inscriptions show that by that era many of Illyrians had acquired Roman citizenship.[100]
Silver coin of Roman emperorTrajan Decius (249–251 CE), with the inscriptionGenius Exerc[itus] Illuriciani
By the end of the 2nd century and beginning of the 3rd century CE, Illyrian populations had been highly integrated in the Roman Empire and formed a core population of its Balkan provinces. During thecrisis of the Third Century and the establishment of theDominate, a new elite faction of Illyrians who were part of the Roman army along thePannonian andDanubian Limes rose in Roman politics. This faction produced many emperors from the late 3rd to the 6th century CE who are collectively known as theIllyrian Emperors and include theConstantinian,Valentinianic andJustinianic dynasties.[101][102][103][104][105]Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius, a native ofSirmium, is usually recognized as the first Illyrian emperor in historiography.[106] The rise of the Illyrian Emperors represents the rise of the role of the army in imperial politics and the increasing shift of the center of imperial politics from the city of Rome itself to the eastern provinces of the empire.
The termIllyrians last appears in the historical record in the 7th century AD, in theMiracula Sancti Demetrii, referring to aByzantine garrison operating within the formerRoman province of Illyricum.[8][107] However, in the acts of theSecond Council of Nicaea from 787, Nikephoros of Durrës signed himself as "Episcopus of Durrës, province of the Illyrians".[108] Since the Middle Ages the term "Illyrian" has been used principally in connection with theAlbanians, although it was also used to describe the western wing of theSouthern Slavs up to the 19th century,[109] being revived in particular during theHabsburg monarchy.[110][111] In Byzantine literature, references to Illyria as a defined region in administrative terms end after 1204 and the term specifically began to refer only to the more confined Albanian territory.[112]
The structure ofIllyrian society duringclassical antiquity was characterised by a conglomeration of numerous tribes and small realms ruled by warrior elites, a situation similar to that in most other societies at that time. Thucidides in theHistory of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC) addresses the social organisation of the Illyrian tribes via a speech he attributes toBrasidas, in which he recounts that the mode of rulership among the Illyrian tribes is that ofdynasteia—which Thucidides used in reference to foreign customs—neither democratic, nor oligarchic. Brasidas then goes on to explain that in thedynasteia the ruler rose to power "by no other means than by superiority in fighting".[113]Pseudo-Scymnus (2nd century BC) in reference to the social organisation of Illyrian tribes in earlier times than the era he lived in makes a distinction between three modes of social organisation. A part of the Illyrians were organized under hereditary kingdoms, a second part was organized under chieftains who were elected but held no hereditary power and some Illyrians were organised in autonomous communities governed by their own internal tribal laws. In these communities social stratification had not yet emerged.[114]
Inscription found in Kljos (Albania) reading the name ofCratillus, son of Machatas in genitive:Κρατίλλου του Mαχά(τα)
Illyrian Education is a term in the field of thehistory of education andpedagogical thought that denotes the totality of forms, organizations and educational institutions inIllyria and amongIllyrians. In the early periods, the education in Illyria and among the Illyrians was under the influence ofGreek education, while later it was under the influence ofRoman culture. Based on the latest scientific research and discoveries in various aspects ofIllyrology – historical, archeological, epigraphic, linguistic, paleographic, etc. – it has become possible to better summarize the Illyrian educational system. Illyrian education stretches over a period of time between the 8th century BC, when the Illyrian culture began to flourish,[115] and the 7th century AD, when the Illyrians are last mentioned in historical sources.[116] To the Illyrians as well as to other ancient peoples, the main centers of organized activity became organized cities in the form of provincial communities known askoinons. Archaeological research proves the existence of the gymnasium in the Greek colony ofApollonia since the end of the 6th century BC.[117] The existence of libraries and stadiums has been proven in some Illyrian cities. In different historical periods, Greek and Roman educational institutions functioned in Illyria in which the children of the rich Illyrian strata attended classes.[118] In general, the political, cultural and religious life in the Illyrian civic communities took place in gymnasiums, promenades, theaters, stadiums, temples, etc. In general, prominent scholars and personalities, distinguished military commanders and statesmen (kings), emerged from the Illyrian schools and educational system.[119]
The Illyrians were a notoriousseafaring people with a strong reputation for piracy especially common during the regency of kingAgron and later queenTeuta.[120][121] They used fast and maneuverable ships of types known aslembus andliburna which were subsequently used by theAncient Macedonians and Romans.[122]Livy described the Illyrians along with the Liburnians and Istrians as nations of savages in general noted for their piracy.[123]
Illyria appears inGreco-Roman historiography from the 4th century BC. Illyrians were regarded as bloodthirsty, unpredictable, turbulent, and warlike by Ancient Greeks and Romans.[124] They were seen as savages on the edge of their world.[97]Polybius (3rd century BC) wrote: "the Romans had freed the Greeks from the enemies of all mankind".[125] According to the Romans, the Illyrians were tall and well-built.[126]Herodianus writes that "Pannonians are tall and strong always ready for a fight and to face danger but slow witted".[127] Illyrian rulers wore bronzetorques around their necks.[128]
Apart from conflicts between Illyrians and neighbouring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Illyrian tribes too.[129]
Thelanguages spoken by theIllyrian tribes are an extinct and poorly attestedIndo-European language group, and it is not clear whether the languages belonged to thecentum or thesatem group. The Illyrians were subject to varying degrees ofCelticization,Hellenization,Romanization and laterSlavicization which possibly led to the extinction of their languages.[130][131][132] In modern research, use of concepts like "Hellenization" and "Romanization" has declined as they have been criticized as simplistic notions which cannot describe the actual processes through which material development moved from the centres of the ancient Mediterranean to its periphery.[97]
TheMessapic language is often considered either a dialect or sister language of Illyrian.[133] However, the testimonies of Illyrian are too fragmentary to allow any conclusions. Anextinct Indo-European language, Messapic was once spoken inApulia in the southeasternItalian Peninsula by the threeIapygian tribes of the region: theMessapians, theDaunii and thePeucetii. Based on historical and archaeological data, it has been widely thought that Messapic reached Apulia through the Illyrian migrations across the Adriatic Sea.[6][7]
On both sides of the border region between southern Illyria and northern Epirus, the contact between the Illyrian and Greek languages produced an area of bilingualism between the two, although it is unclear how the impact of the one language to the other developed because of the scarcity of available archaeological material. However, this did not occur at the same level on both sides, with the Illyrians being more willing to adopt the more prestigious Greek language.[134][135] Ongoing research may provide further knowledge about these contacts beyond present limited sources.[135] Illyrians were exposed not only to Doric andEpirote Greek but also to Attic-Ionic.[135]
The Illyrian languages were once thought to be connected to theVenetic language in the Italian Peninsula but this view was abandoned.[136] Other scholars have linked them with the adjacentThracian language supposing an intermediateconvergence area ordialect continuum, but this view is also not generally supported. All these languages were likely extinct by the 5th century AD although traditionally, theAlbanian language is identified as the descendant of Illyrian dialects that survived in remote areas of the Balkans during theMiddle Ages but evidence "is too meager and contradictory for us to know whether the term Illyrian even referred to a single language".[137][138]
The ancestor dialects of the Albanian language would have survived somewhere along the boundary ofLatin andAncient Greek linguistic influence, theJireček Line. There are various modern historians and linguists who believe that the modern Albanian language might have descended from a southern Illyrian dialect whereas an alternative hypothesis holds that Albanian was descended from the Thracian language.[139][137] Not enough is known of the ancient language to completely prove or disprove either hypothesis, seeOrigin of the Albanians.[140]
Modern studies about Illyrian onomastics, the main field via which the Illyrians have been linguistically investigated as no written records have been found, began in the 1920s and sought to more accurately define Illyrian tribes, the commonalities, relations and differences between each other as they were conditioned by specific local cultural, ecological and economic factors, which further subdivided them into different groupings.[141][142] This approach has led in contemporary research in the definition of three main onomastic provinces in which Illyrian personal names appear near exclusively in the archaeological material of each province. The southern Illyrian or south-eastern Dalmatian province was the area of the proper Illyrians (the core of which was the territory ofIllyrii proprie dicti of the classical authors, located in modern Albania) and includes most ofAlbania,Montenegro and their hinterlands. This area extended along the Adriatic coast from theAous valley[41] in the south, up to and beyond theNeretva valley in the north.[41][143] The second onomastic province, the central Illyrian or middle Dalmatian-Pannonian province began to its north and covered a larger area than the southern province. It extended along the Adriatic coast between theKrka andCetina rivers, covered much ofBosnia (except for its northern regions), central Dalmatia (Lika) and its hinterland in the central Balkans included westernSerbia andSandžak. The third onomastic province further to the north defined as North Adriatic area includesLiburnia and the region of modernLjubljana inSlovenia. It is part of a larger linguistic area different from Illyrian that also comprisesVenetic and itsIstrian variety. These areas are not strictly defined geographically as there was some overlap between them.[144][145][143] The region of theDardani (modern Kosovo, parts of northernNorth Macedonia, parts of eastern Serbia) saw the overlap of the southern Illyrian and Dalmatian onomastic provinces. Local Illyrian anthroponymy is also found in the area.[146]
In its onomastics, southern Illyrian (or south-east Dalmatian) has close relations withMessapic. Most of these relations are shared with the central Dalmatian area.[147] In older scholarship (Crossland (1982)), sometoponyms in central and northern Greece show phonetic characteristics that were thought to[according to whom?] indicate that Illyrians or closely related peoples were settled in those regions before the introduction of theGreek language.[dubious –discuss][148] However, such views largely relied on subjective ancient testimonies and are not supported by the earliest evidence (epigraphic etc.).[149]
The Illyrians, as most ancient civilizations, werepolytheistic and worshipped many gods and deities developed of the powers of nature. The most numerous traces—still insufficiently studied—ofreligious practices of the pre-Roman era are those relating toreligious symbolism. Symbols are depicted in every variety of ornament and reveal that the chief object of the prehistoric cult of the Illyrians was theSun,[150][151] worshipped in a widespread and complex religious system.[150] The solar deity was depicted as ageometrical figure such as thespiral, the concentriccircle and theswastika, or as ananimal figure the likes of thebirds,serpents andhorses.[152][151] The symbols of water-fowl and horses were more common in the north, while the serpent was more common in the south.[151] Illyrian deities were mentioned in inscriptions onstatues,monuments, andcoins of theRoman period, and someinterpreted by Ancient writers throughcomparative religion.[153][154] There appears to be no single most prominent god for all theIllyrian tribes, and a number of deities evidently appear only in specific regions.[153]
InIllyris,Dei-pátrous was a god worshiped as theSky Father,Prende was the love-goddess and the consort of the thunder-godPerendi,En or Enji was the fire-god, Jupiter Parthinus was a chief deity of theParthini, Redon was a tutelary deity of sailors appearing on many inscriptions in the coastal towns ofLissus,Daorson,Scodra andDyrrhachium, whileMedaurus was the protector deity ofRisinium, with a monumental equestrian statue dominating the city from the acropolis. InDalmatia andPannonia one of the most popular ritual traditions during the Roman period was the cult of the Romantutelary deity of the wild, woods and fieldsSilvanus, depicted with iconography ofPan. The Roman deity of wine, fertility and freedomLiber was worshipped with the attributes of Silvanus, and those ofTerminus, the god protector of boundaries. Tadenus was a Dalmatian deity bearing the identity or epithet ofApollo in inscriptions found near the source of the Bosna river. The Delmatae also had Armatus as a war god inDelminium. The Silvanae, a feminine plural of Silvanus, were featured on many dedications across Pannonia. In the hot springs of Topusko (Pannonia Superior), sacrificial altars were dedicated to Vidasus and Thana (identified withSilvanus andDiana), whose names invariably stand side by side as companions. Aecorna or Arquornia was a lake or river tutelary goddess worshipped exclusively in the cities ofNauportus andEmona, where she was the most important deity next toJupiter. Laburus was also a local deity worshipped in Emona, perhaps a deity protecting the boatmen sailing.[citation needed]
It seems that the Illyrians did not develop a uniform cosmology on which to center their religious practices.[151] A number of Illyrian toponyms and anthroponyms derived from animal names and reflected the beliefs in animals asmythological ancestors and protectors.[155] Theserpent was one of the most important animaltotems.[156] Illyrians believed in the force ofspells and theevil eye, in the magic power of protective and beneficialamulets which could avert the evil eye or the bad intentions of enemies.[150][153] Human sacrifice also played a role in the lives of the Illyrians.[157]Arrian records the chieftainCleitus the Illyrian as sacrificing three boys, three girls and three rams just before his battle withAlexander the Great.[158] The most common type of burial among theIron Age Illyrians wastumulus or mound burial. The kin of the first tumuli was buried around that, and the higher the status of those in these burials the higher the mound.Archaeology has found many artifacts placed within these tumuli such as weapons, ornaments, garments and clay vessels. The rich spectrum in religious beliefs and burial rituals that emerged in Illyria, especially during the Roman period, may reflect the variation in cultural identities in this region.[159]
In total, at least six material cultures have been described to have emerged in Illyrian territories. Based on existing archaeological finds, comparative archaeological and geographical definition about them has been difficult.[160] Archaeogenetic studies have shown that a major Y-DNA haplogroup among Illyrians, J2b-L283 spread viaCetina culture across the eastern Adriatic from theCetina valley in Croatia to Montenegro and northern Albania. The earliest archaeogenetic find related to Cetina in Albania is theShkrel tumulus (19th century BCE). It is the oldest J2b-L283 find in the region historically known asIllyria. Freilich et al. (2021) determined that Cetina related samples from Veliki Vanik carry similar ancestry to a Copper Age sample from the site ofBeli Manastir-Popova Zemlja (lateVučedol culture), eastern Croatia. The same autosomal profile persists in the Iron Age sample from Jazinka cave.[161] Cetina finds have been found in the western Adriatic since the second half of the third millennium in southern Italy. In Albania, new excavations show spread of Cetina culture in sites of central Albania (Blazi, Nezir, Keputa). Inland Cetina spread in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in particular Kotorac, a site near Sarajevo and contacts have been demonstrated with theBelotić Bela Crkva culture.[162] During the developed Middle Bronze Age, Belotić Bela Crkva which has been recognized as another Proto-Illyrian culture developed in northeastern Bosnia and western Serbia (Čačak area). Both inhumation and cremation have been observed in sites of this culture. Similar burial customs have been observed in theGlasinac plateau of eastern Bosnia, where theGlasinac-Mati culture first developed.[163]
During the 7th century BC, the beginning of the Iron Age, the Illyrians emerge as an ethnic group with a distinct culture and art form. Various Illyrian tribes appeared, under the influence of the Halstatt cultures from the north, and they organized their regional centers.[164] The cult of the dead played an important role in the lives of the Illyrians, which is seen in their carefully made burials and burial ceremonies, as well as the richness of the burial sites. In the northern parts of the Balkans, there existed a long tradition ofcremation and burial in shallow graves, while in the southern parts, the dead were buried in large stone, or earthtumuli (natively calledgromile) that inHerzegovina were reaching monumental sizes, more than 50 meters wide and 5 meters high. TheJapodian tribe (found fromIstria inCroatia toBihać inBosnia) have had an affinity for decoration with heavy, oversized necklaces out of yellow, blue or white glass paste, and large bronze fibulas, as well as spiral bracelets, diadems and helmets out of bronze.[citation needed] Small sculptures out of jade in form of archaic Ionian plastic are also characteristically Japodian. Numerous monumental sculptures are preserved, as well as walls ofcitadelNezakcij nearPula, one of numerous Istrian cities fromIron Age. Illyrian chiefs wore bronze torques around their necks much like theCelts did.[165] The Illyrians were influenced by the Celts in many cultural and material aspects and some of them wereCelticized, especially the tribes inDalmatia[166] and thePannonians.[167] In Slovenia, theVače situla was discovered in 1882 and attributed to Illyrians. Prehistoric remains indicate no more than average height, male 165 cm (5 ft 5 in), female 153 cm (5 ft 0 in).[127]
It is also evident that in a region which stretches from the southern Dalmatian coast, its hinterland, Montenegro, northern Albania up to Kosovo andDardania, apart from a uniformity in onomastics there were also some archaeological similarities. However, it cannot be determined whether these tribes living there also formed a linguistic unity.[168]
TheKomani-Kruja culture is an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts ofNorth Macedonia. It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along theLezhë (Praevalitana)-Dardania andVia Egnatia road networks which connected the Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Itstype site is Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley.Kruja and Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani-Kruja represents a local, non-Slavic western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani-Kruja is significant for the study of the transition between theclassical antiquity population of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical records in the 11th century. Within Albanian archaeology, based on the continuity of pre-Roman Illyrian forms in the production of several types of local objects found in graves, the population of Komani-Kruja is framed as a group which descended from the local Illyrians who "re-asserted their independence" from the Roman Empire after many centuries and formed the core of the later historical region ofArbanon.[169] Illyrian-Albanian links were the main focus of Albanian nationalism during the Communist period.[170] What was established in this early phase of research was that Komani-Kruja settlements represented a local, non-Slavic population which has been described as Romanized Illyrian, Latin-speaking or Latin-literate.[171][172] This is corroborated by the absence of Slavic toponyms and survival of Latin ones in the Komani-Kruja area. In terms of historiography, the thesis of older Albanian archaeology is an untestable hypothesis as no historical sources exist which can link Komani-Kruja to the first definite attestation of medieval Albanians in the 11th century.[171][172] The nationalist interpretation of the Komani-Kruja cemeteries has been roundly rejected by non-Albanian scholars.John Wilkes has described it as "a highly improbable reconstruction of Albanian history". Some Albanian scholars even today have continued to espouse this model of continuity.[173]
Limited excavations campaigns occurred until the 1990s. Objects from a vast area covering nearby regions the entire Byzantine Empire, the northern Balkans and Hungary and sea routes from Sicily to Crimea were found in Dalmace and other sites coming from many different production centres: local, Byzantine, Sicilian, Avar-Slavic, Hungarian, Crimean and even possibly Merovingian and Carolingian. Within Albanian archaeology, based on the continuity of pre-Roman Illyrian forms in the production of several types of local objects found in graves, the population of Komani-Kruja was framed as a group which descended from the local Illyrians who "re-asserted their independence" from the Roman Empire after many centuries and formed the core of the later historical region ofArbanon.[169] As research focused almost entirely on grave contexts and burial sites, settlements and living spaces were often ignored.[174] Other views stressed that as an archaeological culture it should not be connected to a single social or ethnic group but be contextualized in a broader Roman-Byzantine or Christian framework, nor should material finds be separated in ethnic categories as they cannot be correlated to a specific culture. In this view, cemeteries from nearby regions which were classified as belonging to Slavic groups should not be viewed as necessarily representing another people but as representations of class and other social factors as "ethnic identity was only one factor of varying importance".[175] Yugoslav archaeology proposed an opposite narrative and tried to frame the population as Slavic, especially in the region of western Macedonia.[176] Archaeological research has shown that these sites were not related to regions then inhabited by Slavs and even in regions like Macedonia, no Slavic settlements had been founded in the 7th century.[177]
Archaeologically, while it was considered possible and even likely that Komani-Kruja sites were used continuously from the 7th century onwards, it remained an untested hypothesis as research was still limited.[178] Whether this population represented local continuity or arrived at an earlier period from a more northern location as the Slavs entered the Balkans remained unclear at the time but regardless of their ultimate geographical origins, these groups maintained Justinianic era cultural traditions of the 6th century possibly as a statement of their collective identity and derived their material cultural references from the Justinianic military system.[179] In this context, they may have used burial customs as a means of reference to an "idealized image of the past Roman power".[179]
Research greatly expanded after 2009, and the first survey of Komani's topography was produced in 2014. Until then, except for the area of the cemetery, the size of the settlement and its extension remained unknown. In 2014, it was revealed that Komani occupied an area of more than 40 ha, a much larger territory than originally thought. Its oldest settlement phase dates to the Hellenistic era.[180] Proper development began in late antiquity and continued well into the Middle Ages (13th-14th centuries). It indicates that Komani was a late Roman fort and an important trading node in the networks of Praevalitana and Dardania. Participation in trade networks of the eastern Mediterranean via sea routes seems to have been very limited even in nearby coastal territory in this era.[181] The collapse of the Roman administration in the Balkans was followed by a broad demographic collapse with the exception of Komani-Kruja and neighbouring mountainous regions.[182] In the Avar-Slavic raids, communities from present-day northern Albania and nearby areas clustered around hill sites for better protection as is the case of other areas like Lezha and Sarda. During the 7th century, as Byzantine authority was reestablished after the Avar-Slavic raids and the prosperity of the settlements increased, Komani saw an increase in population and a new elite began to take shape. Increase in population and wealth was marked by the establishment of new settlements and new churches in their vicinity. Komani formed a local network with Lezha and Kruja and in turn this network was integrated in the wider Byzantine Mediterranean world, maintained contacts with the northern Balkans and engaged in long-distance trade.[183] Winnifrith (2020) recently described this population as the survival of a "Latin-Illyrian" culture which emerged later in historical records as Albanians andVlachs. In Winnifrith's view, the geographical conditions of northern Albania favored the continuation of the Albanian language in hilly and mountainous areas as opposed to lowland valleys.[184] He adds that the language and religion of this culture remain uncertain. With bishops absent abroad, "the mountain flocks cannot have been too versed in theological or linguistic niceties".[184]
The possible continuity between the Illyrian populations of the Western Balkans in antiquity and theAlbanians has played a significant role inAlbanian nationalism from the 19th century until the present day.[185][186] The idea of Illyrian-Albanian continuity is thefounding myth of the Albanian nation.[187] A decree on the Albanization of all place-names and personal names was also issued at the 7th congress of the Communist Party held on 26–29 May 1975. The decree referred to all names which are not aligned with ideological and political guideline of the Albanian Communist Party.[188] This decree ordered citizens to give "modern revolutionary (Illyrian) names" to their children.[189][190] Moreover, the names of Greek and Roman archaeological sites were changed to "Illyrian".[191]
At the beginning of the 19th century, many educated Europeans, regarded the South Slavs as the descendants of ancient Illyrians. WhenNapoleon conquered part of the South Slavic lands, these areas were named after ancientIllyrian provinces (1809–1814). The French imperial administration regarded the South Slavs as Illyrians speaking the Illyrian language, however this was based on a poor knowledge of history and ethnology.[192] After the demise of theFirst French Empire in 1815, the Habsburg monarchy became increasingly centralized and authoritarian, and fear ofMagyarization arouse patriotic resistance among Croatians.[193] Under the influence ofRomantic nationalism, a self-identified "Illyrian movement", in the form of a Croatian national revival, opened a literary and journalistic campaign initiated by a group of young Croatian intellectuals during the years of 1835–49.[194][195]
^Hecataeus' works can only be analyzed indirectly since the fragments have been preserved in the works of other ancient authors. The majority of the fragments are transmitted in the geographical lexicon (Ἐθνικά,Ethnica) ofStephanus of Byzantium (6th century AD), of which we possess only a later abridgment (epitome by Hermolaos). On the other hand, Stephanus is regarded by modern scholars a reliable source in general.[23][24]
^According to Borza due to the fact that the Illyrian tribes moved constantly there are no precise borders of 'Illyris' by Ancient Greek authors. Illyris approximately consisted an area located north of Epirus and western Macedonia,[27] and covered northern and central Albanian down to the mouth of the Aous.[28] According to Crossland (1982), Greeks of the 5th century B.C. recognized theIllyrii (Ἰλλυριοί) as an important non-Greek people living to the north of theAetolians and theAcarnanians and further north in the territory of modern-day central and northernAlbania, whereEpidamnus/Dyrrhachium andApollonia were founded byGreek colonists.[29]The Aous river, traditionally seen as a border region between Illyria and Epirus has been challenged as having such a status in contemporary research. Rather a transboundary area existed between Illyrians and tribes of Epirus which included the land of theAtintanians in the north andTymphaea to the south. More recent scholarship places theCeraunian Mountains as the barrier between Illyrians and the tribes of Epirus. But this mountainous barrier did not act as a border but rather as an area of cultural meeting.[30][31]
^According to some modern scholars Appian's Illyrian genealogy ultimately originated withTimaeus. Appian's immediate source probably wasTimagenes, who was also used byPompeius Trogus for the early history of the Illyrians.[66]
^There is also another historical reconstruction that considers Bardylis aDardanian ruler, who during the expansion of his dominion included the region of Dassaretis in his realm, but this interpretation has been challenged by historians who consider Dardania too far north for the events involving the Illyrian kingBardylis and his dynasty.[74][75][76]
^Coretta et al. 2022, p. 1122: "Though the origin of the language has been debated, the prevailing opinion in the literature is that it is a descendant of Illyrian (Hetzer 1995)."
^Matasović 2019, p. 5: "Much has been written about the origin of the Albanian language. The most probable predecessor of Albanian was Illyrian, since much of the present-day Albania was inhabited by the Illyrians during the Antiquity, but the comparison of the two languages is impossible because almost nothing is known about Illyrian, despite the fact that two handbooks of that language have been published (by Hans Krahe and Anton Mayer)... examination of personal names and toponyms from Illyricum shows that several onomastic areas can be distinguished, and these onomastic areas just might correspond to different languages spoken in ancient Illyricum. If Illyrians actually spoke several different languages, the question arises -from which 'Illyrian' language did Albanian develop, and that question cannot be answered until new data are discovered. The single "Illyrian" gloss preserved in Greek (rhínon 'fog') may have the reflex in Alb. (Gheg) re͂ 'cloud' (Tosk re)< PAlb. *ren-."
^Parpola 2012, p. 131: "The poorly attested Illyrian was in antiquity an important Indo-European language in the Balkans, and it is widely believed to survive in the Albanian language (cf. Mallory 1989: 73–76; Fortson 2004: 405–406 and 390)."
^Beekes 2011, p. 25: "It is often thought (for obvious geographic reasons) that Albanian descends from ancient Illyrian (see above), but this cannot be ascertained as we know next to nothing about Illyrian itself."
^Fortson 2010, p. 446: "Albanian forms its own separate branch of Indo-European; it is the last branch to appear in written records. This is one of the reasons why its origins are shrouded in mystery and controversy. The widespread assertion that it is the modern–day descendant of Illyrian, spoken in much the same region during classical times ([...]), makes geographic and historical sense but is linguistically untestable since we know so little about Illyrian."
^Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 11: "Although there are some lexical items that appear to be shared between Romanian (and by extension Dacian) and Albanian, by far the strongest connections can be argued between Albanian and Illyrian. The latter was at least attested in what is historically regarded as Albanian territory and there is no evidence of any major migration into Albanian territory since our records of Illyrian occupation. The loan words from Greek and Latin date back to before the Christian era and suggest that the ancestors of the Albanians must have occupied Albania by then to have absorbed such loans from their histori-cal neighbors. As the Illyrians Albanian territory at this time, they are the most likely recipients of such loans."
^Borza 1990, p. 181: "Illyrian tribes moved about constantly, and there are no fixed land borders to the area known by the Greeks as 'Illyris'. Rouphly speaking, Illyris consisted of the large region north of Epirus and western Macedonia..."
^Hammond 1994, p. 438: Illyris', a geographical term which the Greeks applied to a territory neighbouring their own, covers more or less the area of northern and central Albania down to the mouth of the Aous.
^Crossland 1982, p. 839: "Greeks of the fifth century B.C. knew the Illyrii as an important non-Greek people living to the north of the Aetolians and the Acarnanians and further north in the territory which now forms central and northern Albania, where Greek colonists had founded Epidamnus (Dyrrhachium) and Apollonia."
^Dausse 2015, p. 28:"La cartographie récente de Lauriane Martinez-Sève41 fait apparaître une vaste zone entre Illyrie, Épire et Macédoine, constituée du nord au sud de l'Atintanie, de la Paravée et de la Tymphée. (..) De celle-ci dépend la frontière entre Illyriens et Épirotes. Elle s'applique en revanche moins bien au fleuve Aoos pour définir une frontière entre Épire et Illyrie. Pour les zones de montagnes, nous pouvons citer les monts Acrocérauniens qui pourraient marquer le passage entre la partie chaone de l'Épire et l'Illyrie. Mais la plupart du temps, la montagne est le lieu de vie de nombreuses populations de la Grèce du Nord. À ce titre, elle constitue plus un lieu de rencontre qu'une barrière."
^Battles of the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Chronological Compendium of 667 Battles to 31Bc, from the Historians of the Ancient World (Greenhill Historic Series) by John Drogo Montagu,ISBN1-85367-389-7, 2000, page 47
^Lenski, Noel (2014-06-26).Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D. Univ of California Press, 2014. pp. 45–67.ISBN978-0-520-28389-3.
^Juka 1984, p. 60: "Since the Illyrians are referred to for the last time as an ethnic group in Miracula Sancti Demetri (7th century AD), some scholars maintain that after the arrival of the Slavs the Illyrians were extinct."
^Ćirković 2004, p. 2: "The name Illyrian was used to identify the western wing of the Southern Slavs up to the nineteenth century, although since the Middle Ages it has been used primarily in connection with the Albanians."
^Dedja, Bedri, ed. (2003).Historia e arsimit dhe e mendimit pedagogjik shqiptar [The History of Albanian Education and Pedagogical Thought] (in Albanian). Tirana: Instituti i Studimeve Pedagogjike (Institute of Pedagogical Studies) p. 22
^Rexhepi, F.; Demaj, F. (2009).Historia 6.Pristina: Shtëpia Botuese Libri Shkollor pp. 16–17
^Ceka, Neritan (1987), "Mbishkrime byline"[Inscriptions bylliones],Iliria,17 (2), Tirana: 53,doi:10.3406/iliri.1987.1456, archived from the original on 2022-04-10, retrieved 2022-07-12
^The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe) by John Wilkes, 1996, page 158, "...Illyrian success continued when command passed to Agron's widow Teuta, who granted individual ships a licence to universal plunder. In 231 ac the fleet and army attacked Ells and Messenia..."
^Møller, Bjørn. "Piracy, Maritime Terrorism and Naval Strategy." Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies, November 16, 2008. 10.
^Dell, Harry J. 1967. The Origin and Nature of Illyrian Piracy. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 16, (3) (Jul.): 344-58. 345.
^Livy.The History of Rome, Band 2 - The History of Rome, Livy. T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1814. p. 324.
^Ammon et al. 2006, p. 1874: "Traditionally, Albanian is identified as the descendant of Illyrian, but Hamp (1994a) argues that the evidence is too meager and contradictory for us to know whether the term Illyrian even referred to a single language."
Thunmann, Johannes E. "Untersuchungen uber die Geschichte der Oslichen Europaischen Volger". Teil, Leipzig, 1774.
see Malcolm, Noel.Origins: Serbs, Vlachs, and Albanians. Malcolm is of the opinion that the Albanian language was an Illyrian dialect preserved in Dardania and then it (re-?)conquered the Albanian lowlands
Indo-European language and culture: an introduction By Benjamin W. Fortson Edition: 5, illustrated Published by Wiley-Blackwell, 2004ISBN1-4051-0316-7,ISBN978-1-4051-0316-9
Stipčević, Alexander. Iliri (2nd edition). Zagreb, 1989 (also published in Italian as "Gli Illiri")
NGL Hammond The Relations of Illyrian Albania with the Greeks and the Romans. In Perspectives on Albania, edited by Tom Winnifrith, St. Martin's Press, New York 1992
Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture By J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams Edition: illustrated Published by Taylor & Francis, 1997ISBN1-884964-98-2,ISBN978-1-884964-98-5
^Giannakis, Georgios; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (2017).Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 222.ISBN978-3-11-053213-5.Crossland posited a posited (partial) Hellenization of pre-classical Epirus, with Greek elites ruling over non-Greek populations; cf. Nilsson (1909). A very brief synopsis of older works and views is available in Kokoszko&Witczak (2009,112) who in turn also favor a 'Hellenization' scenario Nonetheless, such views, which rely largely on some subjective ancient testimonies, are no supported by the earliest (and not only) epigraphic evidence.
^Matzinger, Joachim (2016)."Die albanische Autochthoniehypotheseaus der Sicht der Sprachwissenschaft"(PDF).Südosteuropa-Institut. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 6 February 2023. Retrieved9 August 2020.Das Albanische sei die Nachfolgesprache des Illyrischen: An der sprachlichen Realität des Illyrischen kann prinzipiell nicht gezweifelt werden. Auf welcher Basis beruht aber die heutige Kenntnis des Illyrischen? Nach moderner Erkenntnis ist das, was Illyrisch zu nennen ist, auf den geographischen Bereich der süddalmatischen Küste und ihrem Hinterland zu begrenzen (modernes Crna Gora, Nordalbanien und Kosovo/Kosova [antikes Dardanien]), wo nach älteren griechi-schen Autoren Stämme beheimatet waren, die gemeinhin illyrisch benannt wurden (Hei-ner EICHNER). Das Gebiet deckt sich mit einem auch relativ einheitlichen Namensgebiet (Radoslav KATIČIĆ) und es gibt es zum Teil archäologische Übereinstimmungen (Hermann PARZINGER). Ob diese Stämme auch eine sprachlicheEinheitgebildet haben, lässt sich nicht feststellen. Aus diesem Grund darf der Begriff 'Illyrer' und 'illyrisch' primär nur als Sammelbegriffverstanden werden
^Curta, Florin (2013). "Seventh-Century Fibulae with Bent Stem in the Balkans".Archaeologia Bulgarica.17 (1): 49.In Albania, for a long time, the fibulae with bent stem have been regarded as the foremost element linking the Koman(i) culture to the Iron-Age civilization of the Illyrians, the main focus of Albanian nationalism during the Communist period (...).
^Bowden, William (2019)."Conflicting ideologies and the archaeology of Early Medieval Albania".Archeologia Medievale. All'Insegna del Giglio: 47.ISSN0390-0592.The nationalist interpretation of the cemeteries has, on the other hand, been roundly rejected by foreign scholars. Wilkes influential volume on the Illyrians described it as "a highly improbable reconstruction of Albanian history", and as noted above, I have published a number of trenchant critiques of it... of the earlier model.
^Vroom, Joanita (9 October 2017)."Saranda in the waves of time". In Moreland, John; Mitchell, John; Leal, Bea (eds.).Encounters, Excavations and Argosies: Essays for Richard Hodges. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. p. 249.ISBN978-1-78491-682-4.All the cemeteries in south-eastern Albania have exactly the same shapes and incised decoration styles as Lako's ones in Saranda (especially his Nos. 23-27 in Table 3) but are dated later, that is to say between the 8th and 11th/12th centuries. Albanian archaeologists often connect these early medieval cemeteries to the so-called 'Komani-Kruja culture', and associate them with one particurlar ethnic group (regularly described as 'Slavic'). Recently, however, this view has been criticized by other scholars, who prefer to situate the 'Komani-Kruja culture' in a regionalized Romano-Byzantine or Christian context of various ethnic and social groups, adopting additional foreign elements(Popovic 1975:455-457; Popovic 1984: 214-243; Bowden 2003; 210-21; Curta 2006: 103-105). Consequently, we can conclude that the identification of the pottery finds from the Basilica excavation in Saranda with one period (the 6th and 7th centuries) and with one ethnic group (in this case the Slavs) is without doubt erroneous.
Benać, Alojz (1964)."Vorillyrier, Protoillyrier und Urillyrier".Symposium Sur la Délimitation Territoriale et Chronologique des Illyriens à l'Epoque Préhistorique. Sarajevo: Naučno društvo SR Bosne i Hercegovine:59–94.
Bowden, William (2004). "Balkan Ghosts? Nationalism and the Question of Rural Continuity in Albania". In Christie, Neil (ed.).Landscapes of Change: Rural Evolutions in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Ashgate Publishing.ISBN978-1-84014-617-2.
Cabanes, Pierre (1988).Les illyriens de Bardulis à Genthios (IVe–IIe siècles avant J.-C.) [The Illyrians from Bardylis to Gentius (4th – 2nd century BC)] (in French). Paris: SEDES.ISBN2-7181-3841-6.
Cabanes, Pierre (2002) [1988]. Čutura, Dinko; Kuntić-Makvić, Bruna (eds.).Iliri od Bardileja do Gencia (IV. – II. stoljeće prije Krista) [The Illyrians from Bardylis to Gentius (4th – 2nd century BC)] (in Croatian). Translated by Vesna Lisičić. Svitava.ISBN953-98832-0-2.
Galaty, Michael L. (2002). "Modeling the Formation and Evolution of an Illyrian Tribal System: Ethnographic and Archaeological Analogs". In Parkinson, William A. (ed.).The Archaeology of Tribal Societies. Berghahn Books.ISBN1-78920-171-3.
Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1966). "The Kingdoms in Illyria circa 400-167 B.C.".The Annual of the British School at Athens.61. British School at Athens:239–253.doi:10.1017/S0068245400019043.JSTOR30103175.S2CID164155370.
Hammond, N. G. L. (1994). "Illyrians and North-west Greeks".The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 6: The Fourth Century BC. Cambridge University Press:422–443.doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521233484.017.ISBN978-1-139-05433-1.
Hammond, N. G. L.; Wilkes, J. J. (2012)."Illyrii". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.).The Oxford Classical Dictionary. OUP Oxford. p. 726.ISBN978-0-19-954556-8.
Matijasić, Ivan (2015). "Geografia del mondo illirico tra V e IV secolo a.C.".AdriAtlas et l'histoire de l'espace adriatique du VIe s. a.C. au VIIIe s. p.C. Actes du colloque international de Rome (4-6 novembre 2013). Scripta Antiqua. Vol. 79. Ausonius.ISBN978-2-35613-145-4.
Mazaris, Maximus (1975),Mazaris' Journey to Hades or Interviews with Dead Men about Certain Officials of the Imperial Court (Seminar Classics 609), Buffalo, New York: Department of Classics, State University of New York at Buffalo
Mesihović, Salmedin; Šačić, Amra (2015).Historija Ilira [History of Illyrians] (in Bosnian). Sarajevo: Univerzitet u Sarajevu [University of Sarajevo].ISBN978-9958-600-65-4.
Parpola, Asko (2012). "Formation of the Indo-European and Uralic (Finno-Ugric) language families in the light of archaeology: Revised and integrated 'total' correlations". In Riho Grünthal, Petri Kallio (ed.).A Linguistic Map of Prehistoric Northern Europe. Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia / Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne. Vol. 266. Helsinki: Société Finno-Ougrienne. pp. 119–184.ISBN978-952-5667-42-4.ISSN0355-0230.
Šašel Kos, Marjeta (2004). "Mythological stories concerning Illyria and its name". In P. Cabanes; J.-L. Lamboley (eds.).L'Illyrie méridionale et l'Epire dans l'Antiquité. Vol. 4. pp. 493–504.
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