Illyrian Provinces Provinces illyriennes (French) | |||||||||||||||||||
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| 1809–1814/1815 | |||||||||||||||||||
 Location of Illyrian Provinces (south-east dark blue) – in theFirst French Empire (dark blue) – inFrench client states (light blue) | |||||||||||||||||||
| Status | Autonomous Provinces of theFrench First Empire | ||||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Laibach (nowLjubljana,Slovenia) Administrative capital Segna (nowSenj,Croatia) Military capital | ||||||||||||||||||
| Official languages | French | ||||||||||||||||||
| Demonym(s) | Illyrian | ||||||||||||||||||
| Governor-General | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1809–1811 | Auguste de Marmont | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1811–1812 | Henri Bertrand | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1812–1813 | Jean-Andoche Junot | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1813–1814 | Joseph Fouché | ||||||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Napoleonic Wars | ||||||||||||||||||
| 14 October 1809 | |||||||||||||||||||
| 27 January 1814/1815 | |||||||||||||||||||
• Congress of Vienna and formal annexation by theAustrian Empire | 9 June 1815 | ||||||||||||||||||
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TheIllyrian Provinces[note 1] were anautonomous province of France during theFirst French Empire that existed underNapoleonic Rule from 1809 to 1814.[1] The province encompassed large parts of modernItaly andCroatia, extending their reach further east throughSlovenia,Montenegro, andAustria. Its capital wasLjubljana (German:Laybach, Laibach). It encompassed sixdépartements, making it a relatively large portion of territorial France at the time. Parts of Croatia were split up into Civil Croatia and Military Croatia, the former served as a residential space for French immigrants and Croatian inhabitants and the latter as a military base to check theOttoman Empire.
In 1809,Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the region with hisGrande Armée after key wins during theWar of the Fifth Coalition forced theAustrian Empire to cede parts of its territory. Integrating the land into France was Bonaparte's way of controlling Austria's access to theMediterranean andAdriatic Sea and expanding his empire east. Bonaparte installed four governors to disseminate French bureaucracy, culture, and language. The most famous and influential governor wasAuguste de Marmont, who undertook the bulk of Bonaparte's bidding in the area. Marmont was succeeded byHenri Gatien Bertrand (1811–12),Jean-Andoche Junot (1812–13), andJoseph Fouché (1813–14).
Marmont pushed theCode Napoléon throughout the area and led a vast infrastructural expansion. During 1810, the French authorities established theÉcoles centrales in Croatia and Slovenia. Although the respective states were allowed to speak and work in their native languages,French was designated as the official language and much of the federal administration was conducted as such. French rule contributed significantly to the provinces even after the Austrian Empire recovered the area in 1813-1814. Napoleon introduced a greater national self-confidence and awareness of freedoms, as well as numerous political reforms. He introduced equality before the law,compulsory military service for men, a uniform tax system, abolished certain tax privileges, introduced modern administration,separated church and state and nationalized the judiciary. French presence in this region saw to a diffusion ofFrench culture and the creation of theIllyrian Movement.[1]
The name "Illyrian" was probably suggested to Napoleon by Auguste de Marmont, who was influenced by the civic and revolutionary intelligentsia in Dalmatia, Dubrovnik and Carinthia, and wanted to use it to support the sense of commonality of the peoples living in the Provinces, which went beyond Napoleon's basic geostrategic rationale to form the provinces, though historians have discussed the extents of the influence of historical ideas of Illyrism both in France and locally, as well as aNeoclassicist allusion to the ancient names of theDalmatian coast, known asIllyria in antiquity andIllyricum during theRoman era.[2]
TheSlovene Lands, ruled by theHabsburg monarchy, were first occupied by theFrench Revolutionary Army after theBattle of Tarvis in March 1797, led by GeneralNapoleon Bonaparte. The occupation caused huge civil disturbances. The French troops under the command of GeneralJean-Baptiste Bernadotte tried to calm the worried population by issuing special public notices that were published also inSlovene. During the withdrawal of the French army, the commanding general Bonaparte and his escort made a stop inLjubljana on April 28, 1797. Upon the 1805Battle of Austerlitz and thePeace of Pressburg, French troops once again occupied parts of Slovene territory. Supply of the French troops and steep war dues were a huge burden for the population of the occupied territories. The foundation of the provincial brigades in June 1808 and extensive preparations for the new war did not stop Napoleon'sGrande Armée, which completely defeated theAustrian troops at theBattle of Wagram on July 6, 1809.[3][4]
After the Austrian defeat, the Illyrian Provinces were created by theTreaty of Schönbrunn on 14 October 1809, when the Austrian Empire ceded the territories of western ("Upper")Carinthia withLienz in theEast Tyrol,Carniola,Gorizia and Gradisca, theImperial Free City of Trieste, theMarch of Istria, and theCroatian lands southwest of the riverSava to theFrench Empire. These territories lying north and east of theAdriatic Sea were amalgamated with theformer Venetian territories ofDalmatia andIstria, annexed by Austria in the 1797Treaty of Campo Formio, and the formerRepublic of Ragusa, which all had just been adjudicated to the NapoleonicKingdom of Italy in 1805 and 1808, into the Illyrian Provinces, technically part of France.[3]
TheRoyal Navy imposed a blockade of the Adriatic Sea after the signing of theTreaty of Tilsit (July 1807), which brought merchant shipping to a standstill, a measure which seriously affected the economy of the Dalmatian port cities. An attempt by joint Franco-Italian force to seize the British-held Dalmatian island ofVis (Lissa) failed on 22 October 1810.[4][5]
In August 1813, the Austrian Empire again declared war on France. Austrian troops led by generalsChristoph von Lattermann andFranz Tomassich invaded the Illyrian Provinces. Lattermann operated in northern parts, while Tomassich invaded Dalmatia. The strategic port ofTrieste was taken on 29 October. Croat troops enrolled in the French army switched sides. Zara (now calledZadar) surrendered to Austrian and British forces aftera 34-day siege on 6 December 1813. In the regions of Dubrovnik and Kotor local insurrections forced the French to retreat into the cities. Insurrection in theBay of Kotor region was aided byMontenegrin forces. Arrival of British naval forces led to thesiege of Kotor, forcing French garrison to surrender on 3 January 1814. In the region of Dubrovnik, a provisional Ragusan administration was established, hoping for the restoration of the Republic. After theSiege of Dubrovnik, the French garrison surrendered on 27 January 1814, thus effectively ending French rule in the Illyrian Provinces, while theTreaty of Paris (30 May 1814) formally reduced French territory to the 1792 borders. The appearance of Austrian forces in the Bay of Kotor region caused the Prince-Bishop of Montenegro to turn over the territory to Austrian administration on 11 June. The British withdrew from the Dalmatian islands as the final part of the handover of these islands to their Austrian allies in July 1815, following the conclusion of theBattle of Waterloo.[4]
The capital was established atLaybach, i.e.Ljubljana in modernSlovenia. According to Napoleon's Decree on the Organization of Illyria (Decret sur l'organisation de l'Illyrie), issued on April 15, 1811, the Central Government of the Illyrian Provinces (Gouvernement general des provinces d'Illyrie) in Ljubljana consisted of the governor-general (gouverneur-général), the general intendant of finance (intendant général des finances) and the commissioner of the judiciary (commissaire de justice). With two judges of the Appellate Court in Ljubljana they formed the Minor Council (Petit conseil) as the supreme judicial and administrative authority of the Provinces.[6][7]
The area initially consisted of elevendepartments, though the subdivision was never completely enacted:
| Name | Capital |
|---|---|
| Adelsberg | Adelsberg (Postojna) |
| Bouches-du-Cattaro | Cattaro (Kotor) |
| Croatie | Karlstadt (Karlovac) |
| Dalmatie | Zara (Zadar) |
| Fiume | Fiume (Rijeka) |
| Gorice | Gorice (Gorizia) |
| Laybach | Laybach (Ljubljana) |
| Neustadt | Neustadt (Novo Mesto) |
| Raguse | Raguse (Dubrovnik) |
| Trieste | Trieste |
| Willach | Willach (Villach) |
In 1811, the Illyrian provinces saw an administrative reorganization, when the country was divided initially in four – Laybach (Ljubljana), Karlstadt (Karlovac), Trieste (Trst), Zara (Zadar) – on 15 April in sevenprovinces (intendances, similar to Frenchdépartements). Each province was further subdivided intodistricts, and these intocantons.[7] A province (intendancy) was governed by a provincial intendant, districts were administered by subdelegates (each district capital that was not a province capital had a subdelegation with a subdelegate, similar to Frenchsubprefect) and in cantonsjustices of the peace had their seats. Municipalities – with municipal council, mayor and deputy mayors in larger municipalities; or council, municipality president-syndic and deputy president-deputy syndic – were units of local government. All officials and councillors were appointed by the emperor or the governor-general, depending on their relevance and/or size of the subdivision unit in which they served.[6]
List of provinces (intendances) and districts:
| Province (Intendancy) | Capital | Districts | Former department |
|---|---|---|---|
| Carinthie (Carinthia) | Willach (Villach) | Willach Lienz | Willach |
| Carniole (Carniola) | Laybach (Ljubljana) | Adelsberg (Postojna) Laybach Krainburg (Kranj) Neustadt (Novo Mesto) | Adelsberg,Laybach,Neustadt |
| Croatie civile (Civil Croatia) | Karlstadt (Karlovac) | Karlstadt Fiume (Rijeka) Lussinpiccolo (Mali Lošinj) | Fiume, parts ofCroatie |
| Croatie militaire (Military Croatia) | Segna (Senj) | parts ofCroatie | |
| Istrie (Istria) | Trieste | Trieste Gorice (Gorizia) Capodistria (Koper) Rovigno (Rovinj) | Trieste andGorice |
| Dalmatie (Dalmatia) | Zara (Zadar) | Zara Spalato (Split) Lesina (Hvar) Sebenico (Šibenik) Macarsca (Makarska) | Dalmatie |
| Raguse | Raguse (Dubrovnik) | Raguse Cattaro (Kotor) Curzola (Korčula) | Bouches-du-Cattaro andRaguse |
TwoChambers of Commerce were established, at Trieste and at Ragusa. The ecclesiastical administration was reorganized in accordance with the new political borders; twoarchdioceses were established with seats atLjubljana andZara, withsuffragan dioceses atGorizia,Capodistria,Sebenico,Spalato andRagusa (1811).[6]
The French administration, headed by a governor-general, introducedcivil law (the NapoleonicCode civil) across the provinces. The seat of the governor-general was at Laybach. The governors-general were:
The population (1811) was given at 460,116 for the intendancy of Ljubljana, 381,000 for the intendancy of Karlovac, 357,857 for the intendancy of Trieste and 305,285 for the intendancy of Zara, in total 1,504,258 for all of Illyria. A French decree emancipated theJews; in effect the decree abolished aHabsburg regulation which had forbidden Jews to settle within Carniola.[4]
Despite the fact that not all French laws applied to the territory of the Illyrian Provinces, Illyrian offices were accountable to ministries in Paris and to the Higher Court of Paris. Inhabitants of the Illyrian Provinces had Illyrian nationality. Initially the official languages were French, Italian and German, but in 1811 Croatian and Slovenian were further added, the latter becoming official for the first time in history.[7] Among the main changes the French empire brought were the overhaul of administration, the changing of the schooling system – creating universities and making Slovene a learning language – and the usage of theNapoleonic Code and thePenal Code.[4][7] Although the French did not entirely abolish thefeudal system, their rule familiarized in more detail the inhabitants of the Illyrian Provinces with the achievements of theFrench Revolution and with contemporarybourgeois society. They introduced equality before the law,compulsory military service and a uniform tax system, and also abolished certain tax privileges, introduced modern administration, separated powers between the state and the church (the introduction of thecivil wedding, keeping civil registration of births etc.), and nationalized the judiciary. The occupants made all the citizens theoretically equal under the law for the first time.[7]
The French also founded a university (École centrale) in 1810 (which was disbanded in 1813, when Austria regained control, but whose Basic Decree of 4 July 1810, which ordered the reorganization of the former Austrian lycees in Ljubljana and Zara intoécoles centrales, is now considered the charter of the University of Ljubljana).[8] They established the firstbotanic garden at the city's edge, redesigned the streets and made vaccination of children obligatory. At Karlovac, the headquarters of the Croatian military, a special French-language military school was established in 1811.[7] The linguistJernej Kopitar and the poetValentin Vodnik succeeded in instructing the authorities at that time that the language of the inhabitants living in the present-day Slovenian part of the Illyrian Provinces was actuallySlovene.[7] Although at the time of the Illyrian Provinces theeducational reform did not come to life to its fullest ability, it was nevertheless of considerable social significance. The plan for reorganisation of the school system provided for education in elementary and secondary schools in Slovene in Slovenian areas. There were 25gymnasia in the Illyrian provinces.[7]
Proclamations were published in the provinces' official newspaper, theOfficial Telegraph of the Illyrian Provinces (Télégraphe officiel des Provinces Illyriennes). The newspaper was established by Marmont. In 1813, the French authorCharles Nodier worked in Ljubljana as the last editor of the journal, significantly renovated it, and published it in French, Italian, and German.[9] The "French gift" of letting Slovene be used at school was one of the most important reforms[7] and it won the sympathy of members of the so-called "Slovene National Awakening Movement". Marmont's school reform introduced, in the fall of 1810, a uniform four-year primary school and an extended network of lower and upper gymnasiums and crafts schools.Valentin Vodnik, author of the poem "Illyria Arise", wrote numerous school books for primary schools and lower gymnasiums; since textbooks (and teachers) were scarce, these books made the realization of the idea of Slovene as a teaching language possible.
Although French rule in the Illyrian Provinces was short-lived and did not enjoy great popular support, it significantly contributed to greater national self-confidence and awareness of freedoms, especially in the Slovene lands. The opinion ofNapoleon's rule and the Illyrian Provinces changed significantly at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, when liberal Croatian and Slovene intellectuals began to praise the French for liberation from Austrian rule.[4][7][5]
It could also be established today that the short period of the Illyrian Provinces marked the beginning of an enhanced awareness of the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity.[3][7] TheCongress of Vienna confirmed Austria in the possession of the former Illyrian Provinces. In 1816 they were reconstituted without Dalmatia and Croatia, yet now with all of Carinthia, as aKingdom of Illyria, which was formally abolished only in 1849, even though the civil administration of the Croatian districts had already been placed under Hungarian administration in 1822.[3][7]
The memory of the French and of theEmperor Napoleon is embedded in Croatian and Slovene traditions, in their folk art and folk songs. The presence of the French on Croatian and Slovene territories reflects also in the surnames and house names of French origin, in frescoes, and other paintings depicting French soldiers as well as in rich immovable cultural heritage (roads, bridges, fountains).[3][7] In 1929, a national ceremony was held inLjubljana during which a monument was erected to Napoleon and Illyria at French Revolution Square. It was filmed byJanko Ravnik.[7]
One of the central streets inSplit city centre is named after MarshalMarmont, in appreciation of his enlightened rule inDalmatia.[7]
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